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In the first class we had to write a personal biography and respond to 2 other personal biography's of other students in class.

PERSONAL BIOGRAPHY:

Hello class, my name is Jasley Gonzalez and I'm a student at Coral Gables Senior High School. I'm 15 years old and my birthday is April 20th. I was born and raised in Miami and grew up in a Cuban household. I love traveling, especially to tropical places like Mexico, and the Dominican Republic and enjoy visiting my family in Cuba from time to time. My days mostly consist of focusing on my schoolwork and other activities like playing games, watching funny shows, or talking to my best friends. I get along well with many people but mostly hang around my 2 best friends and my older sister. My 2 best friends Isabella and Lyz who I've known since elementary school have always stuck by my side. My older sister is 21 and I tend to hang out with her often and go explore places with groups of friends from time to time. I enjoy spending time with my friends and family often and also enjoy listening to music and going to my favorite artist's concerts. I've volunteered to help after-school programs at school and worked summer jobs in retail. I've enjoyed these experiences and learned much from them over time. I enjoy getting this opportunity to take this class and look forward to getting to know you all. 😊

INITIAL RESPONSES:

1. Hello Samantha, I'm Jasley. I can relate to you on the fact that I can also act a bit shy but enjoy getting to meet new people. I enjoy listening to new music and would love to listen to your playlist sometime. Spanish was also my first language since my parents are Cuban and I would enjoy getting to know you better this semester. 😊

2. Hey Maritere! I can relate to you on the fact that I enjoy listening to music too. I think I probably listen to music almost all day whenever I can. It helps me do my schoolwork and get through the day too. Me and I seem to have similar routines since I pretty much prioritize my school all the time. I look forward to starting this new semester with you and thank you for sharing! 😁

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Understanding the fundamental differences between cells and viruses is crucial in the field of biology. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of living organisms, while viruses are non-living entities that require a host cell to replicate. This group work aims to explore and present the distinctions between cells and viruses.

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By actively participating, communicating effectively, and collaborating with peers we can give feedback efficiently which can help us improve for future situations. Feedback is like a compass that guides your team towards improvement. It's the information and insights you share with your teammates about their performance, ideas, and contributions. Think of it as a two-way street – not only do you receive feedback, but you also have the opportunity to provide it to your teammates. In conclusion, the importance of providing feedback to teammates in class groupwork cannot be overstated. It's a catalyst for growth, a tool for effective communication, and a cornerstone of successful collaboration. As you navigate through various group projects, remember that feedback is a gift – a gift that accelerates your personal and collective development.

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FeedbackFruits Group Member Evaluation for students

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The significance of feedback loops in biology is profound. These mechanisms regulate systems, maintaining equilibrium and ensuring survival. Negative feedback loops stabilize conditions, while positive loops amplify stimuli. Examples include temperature regulation and blood sugar control, crucial for homeostasis. Feedback loops also aid in adaptation and evolution, such as in the immune response and cellular processes.

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Feedback loops: How nature gets its rhythms - Anje-Margriet Neutel

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First . . .

1 will present to 5
2 will present to 6
3 will present to 7
4 will present to 8 + 9

Then . . .

5 will present to 8 and 2
6 will present to 7
7 will present to 6 and 3
8 will present to 5
9 will present to 1

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The tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), first discovered through transmission electron microscopy, represents a key milestone in virology. Viruses, though lacking historical fossils, are believed to have evolved from various nucleic acid sources. As acellular entities, viruses rely on host cells for replication, lacking metabolic processes or cell division. Their diversity in structure, replication methods, and host targets defies easy classification, complicating our understanding of their origins and evolution.

Viral replication mechanisms vary depending on the virus's genome, whether DNA or RNA. While DNA viruses utilize host cell proteins for replication, RNA viruses often encode their own enzymes due to the instability of RNA polymerases. This results in more frequent mutations, leading to rapid evolution and challenges in vaccine development, as seen with influenza.

The viral replication cycle typically involves attachment, penetration, uncoating, replication, assembly, and release. Viruses cause a range of diseases in animals, including humans, from mild ailments to life-threatening illnesses like meningitis. Vaccination is the primary method of controlling viral diseases, offering immunity through weakened live viruses, killed viruses, or molecular subunits. Antiviral drugs offer another approach to treating viral infections by inhibiting viral proteins or replication processes. Despite challenges such as viral mutation and drug resistance, antivirals have been successful in managing diseases like HIV.

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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe how viruses were first discovered and how they are detected

Explain the detailed steps of viral replication

Describe how vaccines are used in prevention and treatment of viral diseases

No one knows exactly when viruses emerged or from where they came, since viruses do not leave historical footprints such as fossils. Modern viruses are thought to be a mosaic of bits and pieces of nucleic acids picked up from various sources along their respective evolutionary paths. Viruses are acellular, parasitic entities that are not classified within any domain because they are not considered alive. They have no plasma membrane, internal organelles, or metabolic processes, and they do not divide. Instead, they infect a host cell and use the host's replication processes to produce progeny virus particles. Viruses infect all forms of organisms including bacteria, archaea, fungi, plants, and animals. Living things grow, metabolize, and reproduce. Viruses replicate, but to do so, they are entirely dependent on their host cells. They do not metabolize or grow, but are assembled in their mature form.

Viruses are diverse. They vary in their structure, their replication methods, and in their target hosts or even host cells. While most biological diversity can be understood through evolutionary history, such as how species have adapted to conditions and environments, much about virus origins and evolution remains unknown.

How Viruses Replicate

Viruses were first discovered after the development of a porcelain filter, called the Chamberland-Pasteur filter, which could remove all bacteria visible under the microscope from any liquid sample. In 1886, Adolph Meyer demonstrated that a disease of tobacco plants, tobacco mosaic disease, could be transferred from a diseased plant to a healthy one through liquid plant extracts. In 1892, Dmitri Ivanowski showed that this disease could be transmitted in this way even after the Chamberland-Pasteur filter had removed all viable bacteria from the extract. Still, it was many years before it was proven that these "filterable" infectious agents were not simply very small bacteria but were a new type of tiny, disease-causing particle.

Virions, single virus particles, are very small, about 20-250 nanometers (1 nanometer = 1/1,000,000 mm). These individual virus particles are the infectious form of a virus outside the host cell. Unlike bacteria (which are about 100 times larger), we cannot see viruses with a light microscope, with the exception of some large virions of the poxvirus family ( Figure 17.3).

It was not until the development of the electron microscope in the 1940s that scientists got their first good view of the structure of the tobacco mosaic virus ( Figure 17.2) and others. The surface structure of virions can be observed by both scanning and transmission electron microscopy, whereas the internal structures of the virus can only be observed in images from a transmission electron microscope ( Figure 17.4).

The use of this technology has allowed for the discovery of many viruses of all types of living organisms. They were initially grouped by shared morphology, meaning their size, shape, and distinguishing structures. Later, groups of viruses were classified by the type of nucleic acid they contained, DNA or RNA, and whether their nucleic acid was single- or double-stranded. More recently, molecular analysis of viral replication cycles has further refined their classification.

A virion consists of a nucleic-acid core, an outer protein coating, and sometimes an outer envelope made of protein and phospholipid membranes derived from the host cell. The most visible difference between members of viral families is their morphology, which is quite diverse. An interesting feature of viral complexity is that the complexity of the host does not correlate to the complexity of the virion. Some of the most complex virion structures are observed in bacteriophages, viruses that infect the simplest living organisms, bacteria.

Viruses come in many shapes and sizes, but these are consistent and distinct for each viral family ( Figure 17.5). All virions have a nucleic-acid genome covered by a protective layer of protein, called a capsid. The capsid is made of protein subunits called capsomeres. Some viral capsids are simple polyhedral "spheres," whereas others are quite complex in structure. The outer structure surrounding the capsid of some viruses is called the viral envelope. All viruses use some sort of glycoprotein to attach to their host cells at molecules on the cell called viral receptors. The virus exploits these cell-surface molecules, which the cell uses for some other purpose, as a way to recognize and infect specific cell types. For example, the measles virus uses a cell-surface glycoprotein in humans that normally functions in immune reactions and possibly in the sperm-egg interaction at fertilization. Attachment is a requirement for viruses to later penetrate the cell membrane, inject the viral genome, and complete their replication inside the cell.

The T4 bacteriophage, which infects the E. coli bacterium, is among the most complex virion known; T4 has a protein tail structure that the virus uses to attach to the host cell and a head structure that houses its DNA.

Adenovirus, a nonenveloped animal virus that causes respiratory illnesses in humans, uses protein spikes protruding from its capsomeres to attach to the host cell. Nonenveloped viruses also include those that cause polio (poliovirus), plantar warts (papillomavirus), and hepatitis A (hepatitis A virus). Nonenveloped viruses tend to be more robust and more likely to survive under harsh conditions, such as the gut.

Enveloped virions like HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), the causative agent in AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), consist of nucleic acid (RNA in the case of HIV) and capsid proteins surrounded by a phospholipid bilayer envelope and its associated proteins ( Figure 17.5). Chicken pox, influenza, and mumps are examples of diseases caused by viruses with envelopes. Because of the fragility of the envelope, nonenveloped viruses are more resistant to changes in temperature, pH, and some disinfectants than enveloped viruses.

Overall, the shape of the virion and the presence or absence of an envelope tells us little about what diseases the viruses may cause or what species they might infect, but is still a useful means to begin viral classification.

Unlike all living organisms that use DNA as their genetic material, viruses may use either DNA or RNA as theirs. The virus core contains the genome or total genetic content of the virus. Viral genomes tend to be small compared to bacteria or eukaryotes, containing only those genes that code for proteins the virus cannot get from the host cell. This genetic material may be single-stranded or double-stranded. It may also be linear or circular. While most viruses contain a single segment of nucleic acid, others have genomes that consist of several segments.

DNA viruses have a DNA core. The viral DNA directs the host cell's replication proteins to synthesize new copies of the viral genome and to transcribe and translate that genome into viral proteins. DNA viruses cause human diseases such as chickenpox, hepatitis B, and some venereal diseases like herpes and genital warts.

RNA viruses contain only RNA in their cores. To replicate their genomes in the host cell, the genomes of RNA viruses encode enzymes not found in host cells. RNA polymerase enzymes are not as stable as DNA polymerases and often make mistakes during transcription. For this reason, mutations, changes in the nucleotide sequence, in RNA viruses occur more frequently than in DNA viruses. This leads to more rapid evolution and change in RNA viruses. For example, the fact that influenza is an RNA virus is one reason a new flu vaccine is needed every year. Human diseases caused by RNA viruses include hepatitis C, measles, and rabies.

Viruses can be seen as obligate intracellular parasites. The virus must attach to a living cell, be taken inside, manufacture its proteins and copy its genome, and find a way to escape the cell so the virus can infect other cells and ultimately other individuals. Viruses can infect only certain species of hosts and only certain cells within that host. The molecular basis for this specificity is that a particular surface molecule, known as the viral receptor, must be found on the host cell surface for the virus to attach. Also, metabolic differences seen in different cell types based on differential gene expression are a likely factor in which cells a virus may use to replicate. The cell must be making the substances the virus needs, such as enzymes the virus genome itself does not have genes for, or the virus will not be able to replicate using that cell.

Steps of Virus Infections

A virus must "take over" a cell to replicate. The viral replication cycle can produce dramatic biochemical and structural changes in the host cell, which may cause cell damage. These changes, called cytopathic effects, can change cell functions or even destroy the cell. Some infected cells, such as those infected by the common cold virus (rhinovirus), die through lysis (bursting) or apoptosis (programmed cell death or "cell suicide"), releasing all the progeny virions at once. The symptoms of viral diseases result from the immune response to the virus, which attempts to control and eliminate the virus from the body, and from cell damage caused by the virus. Many animal viruses, such as HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), leave the infected cells of the immune system by a process known as budding, where virions leave the cell individually. During the budding process, the cell does not undergo lysis and is not immediately killed. However, the damage to the cells that HIV infects may make it impossible for the cells to function as mediators of immunity, even though the cells remain alive for a period of time. Most productive viral infections follow similar steps in the virus replication cycle: attachment, penetration, uncoating, replication, assembly, and release.

A virus attaches to a specific receptor site on the host-cell membrane through attachment proteins in the capsid or proteins embedded in its envelope. The attachment is specific, and typically a virus will only attach to cells of one or a few species and only certain cell types within those species with the appropriate receptors.

Unlike animal viruses, the nucleic acid of bacteriophages is injected into the host cell naked, leaving the capsid outside the cell. Plant and animal viruses can enter their cells through endocytosis, in which the cell membrane surrounds and engulfs the entire virus. Some enveloped viruses enter the cell when the viral envelope fuses directly with the cell membrane. Once inside the cell, the viral capsid is degraded and the viral nucleic acid is released, which then becomes available for replication and transcription.

The replication mechanism depends on the viral genome. DNA viruses usually use host cell proteins and enzymes to make additional DNA that is used to copy the genome or be transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA), which is then used in protein synthesis. RNA viruses, such as the influenza virus, usually use the RNA core as a template for synthesis of viral genomic RNA and mRNA. The viral mRNA is translated into viral enzymes and capsid proteins to assemble new virions ( Figure 17.6). Of course, there are exceptions to this pattern. If a host cell does not provide the enzymes necessary for viral replication, viral genes supply the information to direct synthesis of the missing proteins. Retroviruses, such as HIV, have an RNA genome that must be reverse transcribed to make DNA, which then is inserted into the host's DNA. To convert RNA into DNA, retroviruses contain genes that encode the virus-specific enzyme reverse transcriptase that transcribes an RNA template to DNA. The fact that HIV produces some of its own enzymes, which are not found in the host, has allowed researchers to develop drugs that inhibit these enzymes. These drugs, including the reverse transcriptase inhibitor AZT, inhibit HIV replication by reducing the activity of the enzyme without affecting the host's metabolism.

The last stage of viral replication is the release of the new virions into the host organism, where they are able to infect adjacent cells and repeat the replication cycle. Some viruses are released when the host cell dies and other viruses can leave infected cells by budding through the membrane without directly killing the cell.

Viruses and Disease

Viruses cause a variety of diseases in animals, including humans, ranging from the common cold to potentially fatal illnesses like meningitis ( Figure 17.7). These diseases can be treated by antiviral drugs or by vaccines, but some viruses, such as HIV, are capable of avoiding the immune response and mutating so as to become resistant to antiviral drugs.

Vaccines for Prevention

While we do have limited numbers of effective antiviral drugs, such as those used to treat HIV and influenza, the primary method of controlling viral disease is by vaccination, which is intended to prevent outbreaks by building immunity to a virus or virus family. A vaccine may be prepared using weakened live viruses, killed viruses, or molecular subunits of the virus. In general, live viruses lead to better immunity, but have the possibility of causing disease at some low frequency. Killed viral vaccine and the subunit viruses are both incapable of causing disease, but in general lead to less effective or long-lasting immunity.

Weakened live viral vaccines are designed in the laboratory to cause few symptoms in recipients while giving them immunity against future infections. Polio was one disease that represented a milestone in the use of vaccines. Polio epidemics occurred with increasing frequency and impact as the twentieth century progressed, becoming a terrifying and tragic event each summer. Tens of thousands of people died and many more were paralyzed; children made up a large portion of the victims. Using killed virus tested on the HeLa cell line (originally obtained from Henrietta Lacks and then mass produced to meet the need), Jonas Salk developed a successful vaccine. Mass immunization campaigns in the U.S. in the 1950s (killed vaccine) and 1960s (live vaccine) essentially eradicated the disease. The success of the polio vaccine paved the way for the routine dispensation of childhood vaccines against measles, mumps, rubella, chickenpox, and other diseases.

Live vaccines are usually made by attenuation (weakening) of the "wild-type" (disease-causing) virus by growing it in the laboratory in tissues or at temperatures different from what the virus is accustomed to in the host. For example, the virus may be grown in cells in a test tube, in bird embryos, or in live animals. The adaptation to these new cells or temperature induces mutations in the virus' genomes, allowing them to grow better in the laboratory while inhibiting their ability to cause disease when reintroduced into the conditions found in the host. These attenuated viruses thus still cause an infection, but they do not grow very well, allowing the immune response to develop in time to prevent major disease. The danger of using live vaccines, which are usually more effective than killed vaccines, is the low but significant risk that these viruses will revert back to their disease-causing form by back mutations. Back mutations occur when the vaccine undergoes mutations in the host such that it readapts to the host and can again cause disease, which can then be spread to other humans in an epidemic. This happened as recently as 2007 in Nigeria where mutations in a polio vaccine led to an epidemic of polio in that country.

Some vaccines are in continuous development because certain viruses, such as influenza and HIV, have a high mutation rate compared to other viruses or host cells. With influenza, mutation in genes for the surface molecules helps the virus evade the protective immunity that may have been obtained in a previous influenza season, making it necessary for individuals to get vaccinated every year. Other viruses, such as those that cause the childhood diseases measles, mumps, and rubella, mutate so little that the same vaccine is used year after year.

Other vaccines are developed because of a new mutation of a well known type of virus. Coronaviruses are very common in nature and various diseases, but a specific mutation of a particular coronavirus led to the COVID-19 pandemic. The rapid development of successful vaccines was due in part to scientists who had been working with other coronaviruses prior to the pandemic. Kizzmekia S. Corbett, a research fellow and scientific lead, had deep experience and knowledge of coronaviruses, which was instrumental in developing one of the first vaccines (Moderna). She is now applying that experience to other respiratory diseases and vaccine development processes.

Vaccines and Antiviral Drugs for Treatment

In some cases, vaccines can be used to treat an active viral infection. In the case of rabies, a fatal neurological disease transmitted in the saliva of rabies virus-infected animals, the progression of the disease from the time of the animal bite to the time it enters the central nervous system may be two weeks or longer. This is enough time to vaccinate an individual who suspects being bitten by a rabid animal, and the boosted immune response from the vaccination is enough to prevent the virus from entering nervous tissue. Thus, the fatal neurological consequences of the disease are averted and the individual only has to recover from the infected bite. This approach is also being used for the treatment of Ebola, one of the fastest and most deadly viruses affecting humans, though usually infecting limited populations. Ebola is also a leading cause of death in gorillas. Transmitted by bats and great apes, this virus can cause death in 70-90 percent of the infected within two weeks. Using newly developed vaccines that boost the immune response, there is hope that immune systems of affected individuals will be better able to control the virus, potentially reducing mortality rates.

Another way of treating viral infections is the use of antiviral drugs. These drugs often have limited ability to cure viral disease but have been used to control and reduce symptoms for a wide variety of viral diseases. For most viruses, these drugs inhibit the virus by blocking the actions of one or more of its proteins. It is important that the targeted proteins be encoded for by viral genes and that these molecules are not present in a healthy host cell. In fact, for many years, scientists thought that drugs capable of impacting viruses would be too toxic for the body to endure. To meet this challenge, researcher Gertrude Elion sought to develop drugs that would target only the virus through processes such as inhibiting only viral DNA replication. For example, some of her medicines focused on purines, while others affected DNA polymerase. There are large numbers of antiviral drugs available to treat infections, some specific for a particular virus and others that can affect multiple viruses.

Antivirals have been developed to treat genital herpes (herpes simplex II) and influenza. For genital herpes, drugs such as acyclovir, developed by Elion, can reduce the number and duration of the episodes of active viral disease during which patients develop viral lesions in their skins cells. As the virus remains latent in nervous tissue of the body for life, this drug is not a cure but can make the symptoms of the disease more manageable. For influenza, drugs like Tamiflu can reduce the duration of "flu" symptoms by one or two days, but the drug does not prevent symptoms entirely. Other antiviral drugs, such as Ribavirin, have been used to treat a variety of viral infections.

By far the most successful use of antivirals has been in the treatment of the retrovirus HIV, which causes a disease that, if untreated, is usually fatal within 10-12 years after being infected. Anti-HIV drugs have been able to control viral replication to the point that individuals receiving these drugs survive for a significantly longer time than the untreated.

A particular challenge with HIV is its tendency to mutate quickly within the body of an individual patient. This leads to individual drug resistance, and requires a different treatment strategy than many other diseases. David Ho was among the first to propose and develop a method to treat multiple mutations of HIV at the same time. Ho's efforts were a turning point in fighting AIDS. Anti-HIV drugs inhibit viral replication at many different phases of the HIV replicative cycle. Drugs have been developed that inhibit the fusion of the HIV viral envelope with the plasma membrane of the host cell (fusion inhibitors), the conversion of its RNA genome to double-stranded DNA (reverse transcriptase inhibitors), the integration of the viral DNA into the host genome (integrase inhibitors), and the processing of viral proteins (protease inhibitors).

When any of these drugs are used individually, the virus' high mutation rate allows the virus to rapidly evolve resistance to the drug. The breakthrough in the treatment of HIV was the development of highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART), which involves a mixture of different drugs, sometimes called a drug "cocktail." By attacking the virus at different stages of its replication cycle, it is difficult for the virus to develop resistance to multiple drugs at the same time. Still, even with the use of combination HAART therapy, there is concern that, over time, the virus will evolve resistance to this therapy. Thus, new anti-HIV drugs are constantly being developed with the hope of continuing the battle against this highly fatal virus.

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17.1 Viruses - Concepts of Biology | OpenStax

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Viruses were first discovered after the development of a porcelain filter, called the Chamberland-Pasteur filter, which could remove all bacteria visibl...

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we started creating a padlet to keep up with our modules in class. You are currently viewing the assignment

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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
Describe the properties of water that are critical to maintaining life

Do you ever wonder why scientists spend time looking for water on other planets? It is because water is essential to life; even minute traces of it on another planet can indicate that life could or did exist on that planet. Water is one of the more abundant molecules in living cells and the one most critical to life as we know it. Approximately 60-70 percent of your body is made up of water. Without it, life simply would not exist.

Water Is Polar

The hydrogen and oxygen atoms within water molecules form polar covalent bonds. The shared electrons spend more time associated with the oxygen atom than they do with hydrogen atoms. There is no overall charge to a water molecule, but there is a slight positive charge on each hydrogen atom and a slight negative charge on the oxygen atom. Because of these charges, the slightly positive hydrogen atoms repel each other and form the unique shape seen in Figure 2.7. Each water molecule attracts other water molecules because of the positive and negative charges in the different parts of the molecule. Water also attracts other polar molecules (such as sugars), forming hydrogen bonds. When a substance readily forms hydrogen bonds with water, it can dissolve in water and is referred to as hydrophilic ("water-loving"). Hydrogen bonds are not readily formed with nonpolar substances like oils and fats ( Figure 2.8). These nonpolar compounds are hydrophobic ("water-fearing") and will not dissolve in water.

Water Stabilizes Temperature

The hydrogen bonds in water allow it to absorb and release heat energy more slowly than many other substances. Temperature is a measure of the motion (kinetic energy) of molecules. As the motion increases, energy is higher and thus temperature is higher. Water absorbs a great deal of energy before its temperature rises. Increased energy disrupts the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. Because these bonds can be created and disrupted rapidly, water absorbs an increase in energy and temperature changes only minimally. This means that water moderates temperature changes within organisms and in their environments. As energy input continues, the balance between hydrogen-bond formation and destruction swings toward the destruction side. More bonds are broken than are formed. This process results in the release of individual water molecules at the surface of the liquid (such as a body of water, the leaves of a plant, or the skin of an organism) in a process called evaporation. Evaporation of sweat, which is 90 percent water, allows for cooling of an organism, because breaking hydrogen bonds requires an input of energy and takes heat away from the body.

Conversely, as molecular motion decreases and temperatures drop, less energy is present to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. These bonds remain intact and begin to form a rigid, lattice-like structure (e.g., ice) ( Figure 2.9 a). When frozen, ice is less dense than liquid water (the molecules are farther apart). This means that ice floats on the surface of a body of water ( Figure 2.9 b). In lakes, ponds, and oceans, ice will form on the surface of the water, creating an insulating barrier to protect the animal and plant life beneath from freezing in the water. If this did not happen, plants and animals living in water would freeze in a block of ice and could not move freely, making life in cold temperatures difficult or impossible.

Water Is an Excellent Solvent

Because water is polar, with slight positive and negative charges, ionic compounds and polar molecules can readily dissolve in it. Water is, therefore, what is referred to as a solvent-a substance capable of dissolving another substance. The charged particles will form hydrogen bonds with a surrounding layer of water molecules. This is referred to as a sphere of hydration and serves to keep the particles separated or dispersed in the water. In the case of table salt (NaCl) mixed in water ( Figure 2.10), the sodium and chloride ions separate, or dissociate, in the water, and spheres of hydration are formed around the ions. A positively charged sodium ion is surrounded by the partially negative charges of oxygen atoms in water molecules. A negatively charged chloride ion is surrounded by the partially positive charges of hydrogen atoms in water molecules. These spheres of hydration are also referred to as hydration shells. The polarity of the water molecule makes it an effective solvent and is important in its many roles in living systems.

Water Is Cohesive

Have you ever filled up a glass of water to the very top and then slowly added a few more drops? Before it overflows, the water actually forms a dome-like shape above the rim of the glass. This water can stay above the glass because of the property of cohesion. In cohesion, water molecules are attracted to each other (because of hydrogen bonding), keeping the molecules together at the liquid-air (gas) interface, although there is no more room in the glass. Cohesion gives rise to surface tension, the capacity of a substance to withstand rupture when placed under tension or stress. When you drop a small scrap of paper onto a droplet of water, the paper floats on top of the water droplet, although the object is denser (heavier) than the water. This occurs because of the surface tension that is created by the water molecules. Cohesion and surface tension keep the water molecules intact and the item floating on the top. It is even possible to "float" a steel needle on top of a glass of water if you place it gently, without breaking the surface tension ( Figure 2.11).

These cohesive forces are also related to the water's property of adhesion, or the attraction between water molecules and other molecules. This is observed when water "climbs" up a straw placed in a glass of water. You will notice that the water appears to be higher on the sides of the straw than in the middle. This is because the water molecules are attracted to the straw and therefore adhere to it.

Cohesive and adhesive forces are important for sustaining life. For example, because of these forces, water can flow up from the roots to the tops of plants to feed the plant.

Buffers, pH, Acids, and Bases

The pH of a solution is a measure of its acidity or bascicity. You have probably used litmus paper, paper that has been treated with a natural water-soluble dye so it can be used as a pH indicator, to test how much acid or base (basicity) exists in a solution. You might have even used some to make sure the water in an outdoor swimming pool is properly treated. In both cases, this pH test measures the amount of hydrogen ions that exists in a given solution. High concentrations of hydrogen ions yield a low pH, whereas low levels of hydrogen ions result in a high pH. The overall concentration of hydrogen ions is inversely related to its pH and can be measured on the pH scale ( Figure 2.12). Therefore, the more hydrogen ions present, the lower the pH; conversely, the fewer hydrogen ions, the higher the pH.

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A change of one unit on the pH scale represents a change in the concentration of hydrogen ions by a factor of 10, a change in two units represents a change in the concentration of hydrogen ions by a factor of 100. Thus, small changes in pH represent large changes in the concentrations of hydrogen ions. Pure water is neutral. It is neither acidic nor basic, and has a pH of 7.0. Anything below 7.0 (ranging from 0.0 to 6.9) is acidic, and anything above 7.0 (from 7.1 to 14.0) is alkaline. The blood in your veins is slightly alkaline (pH = 7.4). The environment in your stomach is highly acidic (pH = 1 to 2). Orange juice is mildly acidic (pH = approximately 3.5), whereas baking soda is basic (pH = 9.0).

Acids are substances that provide hydrogen ions (H⁺) and lower pH, whereas bases provide hydroxide ions (OH ⁻) and raise pH. The stronger the acid, the more readily it donates H⁺. For example, hydrochloric acid and lemon juice are very acidic and readily give up H⁺ when added to water. Conversely, bases are those substances that readily donate OH ⁻. The OH ⁻ ions combine with H⁺ to produce water, which raises a substance's pH. Sodium hydroxide and many household cleaners are very alkaline and give up OH ⁻ rapidly when placed in water, thereby raising the pH.

Most cells in our bodies operate within a very narrow window of the pH scale, typically ranging only from 7.2 to 7.6. If the pH of the body is outside of this range, the respiratory system malfunctions, as do other organs in the body. Cells no longer function properly, and proteins will break down. Deviation outside of the pH range can induce coma or even cause death.

So how is it that we can ingest or inhale acidic or basic substances and not die? Buffers are the key. Buffers readily absorb excess H⁺ or OH ⁻, keeping the pH of the body carefully maintained in the aforementioned narrow range. Carbon dioxide is part of a prominent buffer system in the human body; it keeps the pH within the proper range. This buffer system involves carbonic acid (H ₂CO ₃) and bicarbonate (HCO ₃⁻) anion. If too much H⁺ enters the body, bicarbonate will combine with the H⁺ to create carbonic acid and limit the decrease in pH. Likewise, if too much OH ⁻ is introduced into the system, carbonic acid will rapidly dissociate into bicarbonate and H⁺ ions. The H⁺ ions can combine with the OH ⁻ ions, limiting the increase in pH. While carbonic acid is an important product in this reaction, its presence is fleeting because the carbonic acid is released from the body as carbon dioxide gas each time we breathe. Without this buffer system, the pH in our bodies would fluctuate too much and we would fail to survive.

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2.2 Water - Concepts of Biology | OpenStax

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The hydrogen and oxygen atoms within water molecules form polar covalent bonds. The shared electrons spend more time associated with the oxygen atom tha...

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What would happen if you didn’t drink water? - Mia Nacamulli

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We reviewed Team 3 presentation and gave feedback. - Feedback: I really enjoyed this presentation. You all did a great job working together as a team and managing your time effectively. The presentation was very clear, organized, and easy to follow, which made it engaging. This creative approach made the information more memorable, and the clear references provided added credibility to your presentation. Overall, I was thoroughly impressed with your team's ability to collaborate, provide clear references, and deliver a well-organized and engaging presentation. Great job and i hope to see more! :) - Recommendations: I really enjoyed your presentation on the Properties of Water. You all did a great job of explaining complex ideas in a way that was easy to understand. However, I think that adding more visuals to your presentation would make it even better. Your creative approach was engaging, but more graphics and images would help to reinforce your message and keep the audience's attention. Overall, you did a great job, and I look forward to seeing more of your work in the future.

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For Module 8, we switched groups and were given an assignment to make an engaging poster of a list of people. We chose María Teresa Ruiz. She is an astronomer and astrophysicist who has made significant contributions to the study of variable stars and the Milky Way and is mainly known for discovering Kelu-1.

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We read a section of a book on the Cell membrane and we watched a video on the inside of the Cell membrane. Then did Quiz 9.

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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Understand the fluid mosaic model of membranes

Describe the functions of phospholipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in membranes

A cell's plasma membrane defines the boundary of the cell and determines the nature of its contact with the environment. Cells exclude some substances, take in others, and excrete still others, all in controlled quantities. Plasma membranes enclose the borders of cells, but rather than being a static bag, they are dynamic and constantly in flux. The plasma membrane must be sufficiently flexible to allow certain cells, such as red blood cells and white blood cells, to change shape as they pass through narrow capillaries. These are the more obvious functions of a plasma membrane. In addition, the surface of the plasma membrane carries markers that allow cells to recognize one another, which is vital as tissues and organs form during early development, and which later plays a role in the "self" versus "non-self" distinction of the immune response.

The plasma membrane also carries receptors, which are attachment sites for specific substances that interact with the cell. Each receptor is structured to bind with a specific substance. For example, surface receptors of the membrane create changes in the interior, such as changes in enzymes of metabolic pathways. These metabolic pathways might be vital for providing the cell with energy, making specific substances for the cell, or breaking down cellular waste or toxins for disposal. Receptors on the plasma membrane's exterior surface interact with hormones or neurotransmitters, and allow their messages to be transmitted into the cell. Some recognition sites are used by viruses as attachment points. Although they are highly specific, pathogens like viruses may evolve to exploit receptors to gain entry to a cell by mimicking the specific substance that the receptor is meant to bind. This specificity helps to explain why human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or any of the five types of hepatitis viruses invade only specific cells.

Fluid Mosaic Model

In 1972, S. J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson proposed a new model of the plasma membrane that, compared to earlier understanding, better explained both microscopic observations and the function of the plasma membrane. This was called the fluid mosaic model. The model has evolved somewhat over time, but still best accounts for the structure and functions of the plasma membrane as we now understand them. The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components-including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates-in which the components are able to flow and change position, while maintaining the basic integrity of the membrane. Both phospholipid molecules and embedded proteins are able to diffuse rapidly and laterally in the membrane. The fluidity of the plasma membrane is necessary for the activities of certain enzymes and transport molecules within the membrane. Plasma membranes range from 5-10 nm thick. As a comparison, human red blood cells, visible via light microscopy, are approximately 8 µm thick, or approximately 1,000 times thicker than a plasma membrane. ( Figure 3.18)

The plasma membrane is made up primarily of a bilayer of phospholipids with embedded proteins, carbohydrates, glycolipids, and glycoproteins, and, in animal cells, cholesterol. The amount of cholesterol in animal plasma membranes regulates the fluidity of the membrane and changes based on the temperature of the cell's environment. In other words, cholesterol acts as antifreeze in the cell membrane and is more abundant in animals that live in cold climates.

The main fabric of the membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules, and the polar ends of these molecules (which look like a collection of balls in an artist's rendition of the model) ( Figure 3.18) are in contact with aqueous fluid both inside and outside the cell. Thus, both surfaces of the plasma membrane are hydrophilic. In contrast, the interior of the membrane, between its two surfaces, is a hydrophobic or nonpolar region because of the fatty acid tails. This region has no attraction for water or other polar molecules.

Proteins make up the second major chemical component of plasma membranes. Integral proteins are embedded in the plasma membrane and may span all or part of the membrane. Integral proteins may serve as channels or pumps to move materials into or out of the cell. Peripheral proteins are found on the exterior or interior surfaces of membranes, attached either to integral proteins or to phospholipid molecules. Both integral and peripheral proteins may serve as enzymes, as structural attachments for the fibers of the cytoskeleton, or as part of the cell's recognition sites.

Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma membranes. They are always found on the exterior surface of cells and are bound either to proteins (forming glycoproteins) or to lipids (forming glycolipids). These carbohydrate chains may consist of 2-60 monosaccharide units and may be either straight or branched. Along with peripheral proteins, carbohydrates form specialized sites on the cell surface that allow cells to recognize each other.

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3.4 The Cell Membrane - Concepts of Biology | OpenStax

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In 1972, S. J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson proposed a new model of the plasma membrane that, compared to earlier understanding, better explained both m...

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We played jeopardy in class but since not all of us could play we got a separate assignment. We had to make our own game.

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We dedicated time to choose ONE topic with a focus on either Florida, Miami, or your local neighborhood and then we dedicated time to search and find at least 20 quality sources for the topic you selected.  Plan to use APA or MLA style.

TOPIC: Sea Level Rise and Ecosystems

By Team 3: Mariandree Bran Morales, Jasley Gonzalez, Meylin Ham, Cesia Martinez, Karina Nunez

1. Fobar, Rachel. “Is This Paradise a Parking Lot? This Florida Ecosystem Is a Battleground.” Animals, 7 Dec. 2023, www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/pine-rockland-ecosystem-restoration-miami-wilds.

The National Geographic piece explores efforts to restore Miami's Pine Rockland ecosystem. Facing threats from urbanization and invasive species, conservationists are working to revive this unique habitat. Through partnerships and community engagement, initiatives aim to preserve biodiversity and protect endemic species. The restoration offers hope for maintaining this vital ecosystem amidst urban growth and environmental challenges in our own backyards.

2. Katel, Jake. “Seven Ecosystems in Watery Miami.” Medium, Medium, 13 Oct. 2020, waterymiami.medium.com/seven-ecosystems-in-watery-miami-38bb4a5fcb42.

The Medium article by Katel and Jake explores the diverse ecosystems found in Miami, which thrive in its watery environment. Highlighting seven distinct ecosystems, including mangroves, coral reefs, and freshwater marshes, the piece delves into their significance and challenges. From providing habitat for unique wildlife to offering protection against storms and erosion, these ecosystems play crucial roles. However, they face threats like pollution and climate change, necessitating conservation efforts for their survival.

3. Irfan, Umair. “The Ocean Is Rising - and So Is Miami’s Skyline.” Vox, 18 Sept. 2023, www.vox.com/climate/23872640/coastal-climate-ocean-rising-miami-florida-building.

The Vox article by Umair Irfan discusses the impact of rising sea levels on Miami's skyline due to coastal climate changes. Exploring how the city's infrastructure and buildings are affected, it highlights the risks faced by coastal communities. From increased flooding to the necessity for resilient urban planning, the article emphasizes the urgent need for adaptation strategies. With rising waters threatening Miami's future, it calls for proactive measures to address the challenges posed by climate change.

4. “Ecosystem and Habitats.” Florida’s Coral Reef, 20 Apr. 2022, floridascoralreef.org/the-reef/ecosystem-and-habitats.

The Florida's Coral Reef website section "Ecosystem and Habitats" provides insight into the diverse ecosystems and habitats found within the state's coral reef system. Detailing the various habitats such as coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangrove forests, the content highlights their importance for marine biodiversity and coastal protection. By exploring these ecosystems, the website aims to raise awareness about their significance and the need for conservation efforts to ensure their long-term health and resilience.

5. Services, Miami-Dade County Online. “Ecosystem Protection - Miami-Dade County.” Miami, www.miamidade.gov/environment/ecosystem-protection.asp. Accessed 20 Mar. 2024.

The Miami-Dade County website section on "Ecosystem Protection" outlines the county's initiatives and services aimed at preserving local ecosystems. It covers various programs focusing on habitat restoration, water quality improvement, and wildlife conservation. Through partnerships with community organizations and government agencies, Miami-Dade County works to safeguard natural resources and promote sustainable development. The webpage serves as a resource hub for residents and stakeholders interested in participating in or learning about ecosystem protection efforts in the area

6. Protecting Florida habitats from sea level rise. Ocean Conservancy. (n.d.). https://oceanconservancy.org/protecting-florida/sea-level-rise-in-florida/

The document highlights Ocean Conservancy's efforts to protect Florida from sea level rise risks, including higher tides, saltwater intrusion, and frequent flooding. Over 7 million Florida residents, or 30% of the state's population, live within 6 feet of current sea levels. The organization has commissioned a web tool to help communities and policymakers understand threats and identify evidence-based solutions using coastal habitats to build resilience.

7. Coastal resilience: Nature-based solutions can help protect Florida’s coastline. The Nature Conservancy. (2018, November 10). https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/united-states/florida/stories-in-florida/florida-coastal-resilience/

The Nature Conservancy (TNC) is promoting natural and nature-based infrastructure solutions to enhance coastal resilience and combat climate change in Florida. TNC is restoring mangroves, oyster reefs, coral reefs, and creating hybrid green-gray infrastructure, such as Morningside Park in Miami and Lake Worth Lagoon island. Natural ecosystems reduce storm surge better than conventional gray infrastructure and offer ecological benefits. TNC is leading in initiatives like the Southeast Florida Regional Climate Change Compact.

8. Climate impacts on ecosystems and habitats. Climate Impacts on Ecosystems and Habitats. (n.d.). https://climateadaptationexplorer.org/impacts/habitats

The context discusses Florida's ecosystems and habitats at risk from climate change impacts, including terrestrial, coastal, freshwater, and marine/estuarine ecosystems. Key impacts include sea level rise, temperature increases, precipitation changes, drought stress, invasive species spread, and habitat degradation. Florida's diverse diversity of habitats is also highly sensitive to climate changes, highlighting the importance of addressing these issues to protect ecosystems and habitats in the state.

9. Bridges, C. A. (2023, August 23). When will Florida be completely underwater? A look at the future of sea level rise. The Palm Beach Post. https://www.palmbeachpost.com/story/news/environment/2023/08/23/flooding-sea-level-oceans-rise-climate-change-emissions-noaa-predictions/70640635007/

We're in a rising stage, aided by human-induced climate change. Sea levels have been nearly stable 'over the last few thousand years,' according to the Florida Climate Center at Florida State University, but the global average sea level has risen about 7 to 8 inches since 1900 and nearly half of that has happened since 1993. NOAA also measures relative sea level (RSL) trends, which are local sea level measurements made with respect to a local fixed reference on land.

10. Strauss, B. (n.d.). Surging seas sea level rise analysis by Climate Central. Florida and the Rising Sea | Surging Seas: Sea level rise analysis by Climate Central. https://sealevel.climatecentral.org/news/floria-and-the-rising-sea

Florida is in the crosshairs of climate change. Rising seas, a population crowded along the coast, porous bedrock, and the relatively common occurrence of tropical storms put more real estate and people at risk from storm surges aggravated by sea level rise in Florida than any other state by far. Sea level rise is more than doubling the risk of a storm surge at this level in South Florida by 2030.

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11. Lisa Beal, Ph.D. “Miami’s Ocean Scientists Have Been Documenting Sea Level Rise for Decades. Now They Urge Action to Save Our City.” University of Miami News and Events. Accessed March 23, 2024. https://news.miami.edu/rosenstiel/stories/2021/10/miamis-ocean-scientists-have-been-documenting-sea-level-rise-for-decades-now-they-urge-action-to-save-our-city.html.

The article talks about how ocean scientists in Miami have been tracking sea level rise for years and are calling for action to save the city. Their study emphasizes how urgent it is to take action to lessen Miami's exposure to the effects of sea level rise. Their goal is to increase consciousness and initiate practical measures to protect the city's future.

12. Sklar, F. H., Carlson, C., Coronado‐Molina, C., & Maran, A. C. (2021). Coastal Ecosystem Vulnerability and Sea Level rise (SLR) in South Florida: A mangrove transition projection. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.646083

This study looks at the effects of sea level rise on South Florida's coastal ecosystems, with a particular emphasis on mangroves. Significant habitat loss and alterations in mangrove distribution are revealed by the findings. I n order to mitigate the effects of increasing sea levels, adaptive management practices are crucial, and immediate action is required to safeguard these ecosystems.

13. Gramling, C. (2024, February 2). A freshwater, saltwater tug-of-war is eating away at the Everglades. Science News. https://www.sciencenews.org/article/florida-everglades-freshwater-saltwater-sea-level-rise

An article from Science News illustrates how the Everglades are being affected by sea level rise and shows the conflict between freshwater and saltwater ecosystems. The delicate equilibrium of the Everglades is upset as a result of rising sea levels pushing saltwater farther inland, which causes ecological damage. The essay emphasizes how urgently this issue needs to be resolved in order to protect the Everglades ecosystem's distinctive biodiversity.

14. Smithson, A. (2021, July 6). Miami unveils its 40-year mitigation plan to combat sea level rise. The Architect’s Newspaper. https://www.archpaper.com/2021/07/miami-unveils-its-40-year-mitigation-plan-to-combat-sea-level-rise/

Miami unveils a 40-year plan to combat sea level rise, aiming to protect the city's future. The strategy involves community engagement, green projects, and infrastructure upgrades. It stresses the importance of proactive measures to reduce the impact of rising sea levels, highlighting resilience and adaptability. The plan reflects Miami's commitment to addressing climate change and preserving its coastline.

15. Channel, W., & Channel, W. (2017, August 14). Seas rising faster in the southeastern U.S. The Weather Channel. https://weather.com/science/environment/news/sea-level-rise-miami-study

According to The Weather Channel, Miami is primarily affected by the Southeast's more rapid sea level rise. According to research, it's exceeding global averages because of things like ocean currents and sinking terrain. To safeguard coastal populations from the growing threats posed by the region's rising sea levels, urgent adaptation measures are required.

16. Science Direct, Volume 126 (June 2016) Increasing flooding hazard in coastal communities due to rising sea level. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0964569116300278

Sea level rise (SLR) imposes an increasing flooding hazard on low-lying coastal communities due to higher exposure to high tide conditions and storm surges. Additional coastal flooding hazard arises due to the reduced effectiveness of gravity-based drainage systems to drain rainwater during heavy rain events. Over the past decade, several coastal communities along the US Atlantic coast have experienced an increasing rate of flooding events. In this study, we focus on the increasing flooding hazard in Miami Beach, Florida, which has caused severe property damage and significant disruptions to daily life.

17. The professional geographer, volume 77 (  2019, august 17) sea level rise miami, Zell ANN. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00330124.2018.1531037

Sea level rise threatens coastal communities throughout the United States, and South Florida is on the front line. The iconic and built-up city of Miami Beach, Florida, has a well-developed, high-value property market, and the municipality has been lauded for proactively taking action to adapt to anticipated sea level rise. Moving beyond hyperbole and piecemeal evidence, we compile a comprehensive inventory of adaptation and mitigation measures implemented by various municipal agencies

18. USGS ( 2014, September 29) Hydrologic conditions in urban Miami-Dade County, Florida, and the effect of groundwater pumpage and increased sea level on canal leakage and regional groundwater flow https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/sir20145162

The extensive and highly managed surface-water system in southeastern Florida constructed during the 20th Century has allowed for the westward expansion of urban and agricultural activities in Miami-Dade County. In urban areas of the county, the surface-water system is used to control urban flooding,  supply recharge to production well fields, and control seawater intrusion.

19. IOPSCIENCE ( 26, May 2021) More than a nuisance: measuring how sea level rise delays commuters in Miami, FL https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/abfd5c/meta

Sea level rise increases coastal cities' exposure to tidal flooding and elevates the risk of transportation routes being compromised at high tide. Using Miami, Florida as a case study, we combine tide gauge, elevation, road network, and worker location data with a route optimization algorithm to model how tidal flooding affected commute times between 2002–2004 and 2015–2017.

20. MarineGeodesy ( 20 Nov 2014) Merged Miami Sea Level https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01490419.2015.1014584

Sea level in the vicinity of Miami, Florida, is from three separate time series: Miami Beach (1932–1980), Haulover Pier (1982–1992), and Virginia Key (1994-present). To calculate the ensemble trend in Miami's mean sea level (MSL), the three records must be merged concerning the North American Vertical Datum of 1988.

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Instructions:

Introduction

From now until the last class meeting we will be going over more course content material but you will also have time to work on your Final Project which consists of an at least four minute PowerPoint class presentation on your chosen problem. No reading from the PowerPoint allowed but you can use outline notes.

In order to get the best grades you need to present your chosen problem and then present a solution you are proposing to address the problem. Your PowerPoint must have a title slide and a slide showing your sources. In between, it should have at least 8 content slides. You must begin the presentation by introducing yourself Present your Portfolio (Padlet) in about 25 seconds. Then proceed showing your work, including your proposed solution. When you finish, say thank you for listening and ask the audience what questions or comments do they have.

Directions

Final Project: Dive Deep with a Presentation!

The Challenge →

As mentioned above, throughout the remaining classes, we will be delving deeper into general course content while you also embark on a project that showcases your learning.  This project culminates in a deliverable that is an at least 4-minute, in-class PowerPoint presentation.

Lights, Camera, Action!

Get ready to present to your classmates!  This presentation is your chance to shine.

What is on the Agenda?

Problem Powerhouse → Start by clearly presenting the problem you have chosen to tackle.

Solution Spotlight → Next, unveil your proposed solution and explain how it addresses the problem.

Slide Savvy

Title Slide → Introduce yourself and your project with a catchy title.

Content Slides (8 slides minimum) → These slides should be visually appealing and informative, guiding your audience through your problem and solution.

Source Slide → Credit your sources, showing academic integrity.

Presentation Polish

Introduction (about 25 seconds) → Start strong by introducing yourself confidently:  Present your Portfolio (Padlet)

Delivery (at least 3 and a half minutes) → Avoid reading directly from the slides. Use clear and concise language with engaging visuals to guide your presentation.

Conclusion (wrap it up!) → Thank your audience for their attention and invite questions or comments. (Time depends on questions from the audience)

Remember

Outline notes are allowed to keep you on track, but memorization is key!

Strong visuals and a clear structure will make your presentation impactful.

Practice makes perfect! Rehearse your presentation beforehand.

Grading Gold Stars

To earn top marks, demonstrate a deep understanding of your topic, a well-developed solution, and clear communication skills.

Let's get presenting!  I am here to guide you on this project journey.  Feel free to ask questions throughout the process.

Your Final Project needs to address at least ONE of these competencies. MDC students will be able to:

→ Communicate effectively using listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills.

→ Solve problems using critical and creative thinking and scientific reasoning.

→ Create strategies that can be used to fulfill personal, civic, and social responsibilities.

→ Demonstrate knowledge of ethical thinking and its application to issues in society.

→ Describe how natural systems function and recognize the impact of humans on the environment.

The Final Project is focused on people's impact and alteration of the local environment, resulting in disruption of natural or urban systems.

You will be using a problem-based approach to better understand your chosen topic!

The problem you chose is complex!  You can explore your chosen problem in many ways!  For example, by sharing perspectives of the people involved or affected.  By sharing perspectives of the species involved or affected, etc.  You decide.

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We filled out two surveys about the course. I completed all questions.

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Qualtrics Survey | Qualtrics Experience Management

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The most powerful, simple and trusted way to gather experience data. Start your journey to experience management and try a free account today.