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Before taking on the test you should perform a standardised warm-up . This usually consists of dynamic stretches and an aerobic activity.

Sprint test

The test involves running a single maximum sprint over 20 metres and 30 metres, with the time recorded. A thorough warm up should be given, including some practice starts and accelerations. Start from a stationary position, with one foot in front of the other. The front foot must be on or behind the starting line (subjects will be given 10m flying start for the 20m sprint test). This starting position should be held for 2 seconds prior to starting, and no rocking movements are allowed. The tester should provide hints to maximising speed (such as keeping low, driving hard with the arms and legs) and encouraged to continue running hard past the finish line.

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10:41

10:79

10:81

mean=10:61

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How specific strength training methods can enhance performance in these sports.  

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How specific strength training methods can enhance performance in these sports.  

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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) this theory is crucial for boxers as it explains how their bodies respond to training stress. Bompa, T.O. and Haff, G.G., 2009. states that “during the alarm phase, a boxer may experience fatigue or soreness after intense sparring or conditioning”. In the resistance phase, their body adapts, leading to improved strength and endurance. It's vital for boxers to avoid the exhaustion phase by incorporating proper recovery strategies to prevent injuries.

Super compensation Cycle is where the cycle emphasises the importance of recovery in boxing. After a rigorous training session, boxers need a recovery period to allow their bodies to adapt and come back stronger. For example, after a tough sparring session, they should have rest days or lighter training to maximise performance gains and reduce fatigue.

Periodisation: This involves structuring training into phases to optimise performance:

- Linear Periodisation: This method gradually increases training intensity over time. For boxers, this could mean focusing on building endurance and technique in the early stages of training, then shifting to strength and power as they approach a fight.

- Block Periodisation: This focuses on training specific qualities in blocks. A boxer might dedicate a block to improving speed and agility, followed by one focused on strength and conditioning. This method allows for targeted improvements in different physical attributes that are essential for boxing.

Bompa, T.O. and Haff, G.G, 2009.States that “by applying these theories, boxers can enhance their training effectiveness, ensuring they build the necessary skills and physical attributes while minimising the risk of injury”.

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Baechle, T.R. and Earle, R.W., 2008 "explains pyramid training as a resistance training technique where the load increases and repetitions decrease with each set (ascending pyramid), or it can involve increasing then decreasing load (full pyramid). Pyramid training allows for progressive overload, promoting muscular strength and hypertrophy. It’s especially effective for intermediate to advanced athletes aiming to build strength systematically".

1. Ascending Pyramid: In this method, you start with lighter weights and higher repetitions, then progressively increase the weight while decreasing the repetitions. For example, you might start with 12 reps at a lighter weight, then move to 10 reps at a heavier weight, and finally do 8 reps at an even heavier weight.

2. Descending Pyramid: This is the opposite of the ascending pyramid. You begin with heavier weights and lower repetitions, then decrease the weight while increasing the repetitions. For instance, you might start with 8 reps at a heavy weight, then do 10 reps at a lighter weight, and finish with 12 reps at an even lighter weight.

Pyramid training is effective for building strength and muscle endurance, as it allows for a comprehensive workout that targets different muscle fibers and energy systems. It can also help you push your limits and improve overall performance.

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Hoffman, J.R. (2014) states that “the Illinois test is a widely used fitness assessment designed to measure an individual's agility and speed”. It involves a series of sprints and directional changes, typically set up in a course that requires participants to navigate through a series of cones or markers. The test begins with the athlete lying face down at the start line, and on a signal, they sprint to the first cone, weave through the cones, and return to the start line. The time taken to complete the course is recorded, with lower times indicating better agility and fitness levels.

The Illinois test is particularly relevant in sports where quick changes in direction are essential, such as basketball, football, and rugby. It not only evaluates physical fitness but also the athlete's ability to react and maneuver effectively under pressure.

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Explain the principles of training for sport and

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Fitness requirements of 4 different sports

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Fitness requirements of 4 different sports

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Fitness requirements of 4 different sports

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·         Limited equipment needed.

·         Simple to conduct.

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an example of specificity Boxing training should focus on skills specific to the sport, such as punching techniques, footwork, and defensive manoeuvres. sparring sessions and heavy bag work will help develop the necessary skills and endurance required in the ring.  Progressive Overload is aimed To improve strength and conditioning, boxers can gradually increase the intensity of their workouts. This might involve adding more rounds to their sparring sessions, increasing the weight of their resistance training, or extending their running distances.

training routines will get boring so we will need to change the routine to keep training interesting for the participant. in boxing this could mean alternating between different types of workouts like speed drills, shadow boxing, strength training, and conditioning circuits this is called variation to prevent boredom for the athlete.

Recovery is essential in boxing to allow the body to heal a. to heal we will need to include rest days, active recovery sessions. Stretching and foam rolling can also help with soreness and improve flexibility.

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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): This theory explains how players adapt to training stress. In football, the stages are crucial: during the alarm phase, players might feel sore or fatigued after intense sessions. In the resistance phase, they adapt and improve their performance. Coaches need to ensure that players don’t reach the exhaustion stage, which can lead to injuries, by incorporating adequate rest and recovery. Super compensation Cycle: This cycle highlights the importance of recovery. After a training session, players should have a recovery period to allow their bodies to adapt and come back stronger. For football, this means planning rest days after tough training sessions or matches to maximize performance gains and prevent fatigue.

According to Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome “ training stimuli below the optimum are insufficient to produce adaptations”. Conversely, “stimuli above the optimum may lead to overtraining, which is largely associated with a higher incidence of injury” (Bowen et al., 2016).

Periodisation: This involves structuring training into phases:

- Linear Periodization: This method gradually increases intensity over time, starting with a focus on building endurance and skill, then moving to strength and tactical drills as the season approaches. For football, this could mean starting with fitness and technical skills in pre-season and transitioning to match-specific strategies as the season progresses.

- Block periodisation : This focuses on training specific qualities in blocks, such as a block dedicated to speed and agility followed by one for strength. This is particularly useful in football, where different physical attributes are needed at various times during the season.

Evaluating these theories shows that they can significantly enhance football training by providing structured approaches to physical and tactical development. Coaches should be adaptable, ensuring they respond to players' needs and adjust training based on performance and recovery.

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Basketball training should focus on skills specific to the game, such as shooting, dribbling, passing, and defensive techniques. Practicing these skills in game-like scenarios is essential.

Progressive Overload is aiming To improve strength and endurance, players can gradually increase their workout intensity, such as adding more weight to strength training or increasing the duration of conditioning drills.

Variation is Incorporating different training methods can keep practices engaging and help develop various skills. This could include scrimmages, skill drills, and conditioning workouts.

Recovery is crucial for players to allow their bodies to heal. This includes rest days, proper nutrition, hydration, and stretching routines to prevent injuries.

Individualisation is Each player has their strengths and weaknesses. Tailoring training programs to focus on individual needs, such as shooting technique for guards or post moves for centers, enhances overall performance.

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The t-test is a statistical method used to determine if there is a significant difference between the means of two groups. In sports fitness, it can be particularly useful for comparing the performance of athletes under different conditions, such as before and after a training program or between two different training methods.

Field, A. (2018).

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The sit-up test is a common fitness assessment used to measure abdominal strength and endurance. In this test, an individual lies on their back with their knees bent and feet flat on the ground. The arms are typically crossed over the chest or placed behind the head. The objective is to perform as many sit-ups as possible within a specified time frame, usually one minute. Each sit-up is counted when the individual raises their torso to a 90-degree angle and then returns to the starting position.
This test is often used in various fitness programs and assessments, including school physical education programs and military fitness tests, as strong abdominal muscles are crucial for overall core stability, which is important for athletic performance and injury prevention.

Heyward, V.H. (2018)

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The bench press test is a fitness assessment that measures upper body strength, specifically targeting the pectoral muscles, triceps, and shoulders. In this test, an individual lies on a bench and lifts a barbell loaded with weights. The goal is to perform as many repetitions as possible at a specific weight or to lift the maximum weight for a single repetition (one-rep max).

Baechle, T.R. and Earle, R.W. (2008).

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19:48

19:53

19:55

mean= 19:52

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36

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30 kg

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Pyramid training is a popular strength training method that can significantly enhance performance in football by improving strength, power, and endurance.

Structure of Pyramid Training: Pyramid training typically involves performing a series of sets with increasing or decreasing weights. For example, you might start with lighter weights for higher repetitions and progressively increase the weight while decreasing the reps in subsequent sets (ascending pyramid) or vice versa (descending pyramid).

Strength Development: By incorporating heavier weights in the later sets, pyramid training helps build muscle strength, which is crucial for football players to tackle opponents, sprint, and maintain stability during play.

Power Improvement: The explosive nature of pyramid training can enhance power output. This is vital in football for actions like jumping, sprinting, and kicking, allowing players to perform better during matches.

Muscular Endurance: The initial higher-rep sets help improve muscular endurance, which is essential for sustaining performance throughout a match. Players need to maintain their strength and energy levels, especially during the second half of games.

Variety and Adaptation: Pyramid training adds variety to workout routines, preventing plateaus in strength gains. The changing intensity keeps the muscles challenged, promoting continuous improvement.

Incorporating pyramid training into a football training regimen can lead to enhanced overall performance on the pitch, allowing players to be stronger, faster, and more resilient during games

Haff, G.G. and Triplett, N.T., 2015 states that "Pyramid training can enhance performance in football through several mechanisms".

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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): This theory is crucial for basketball players as it outlines how they respond to training stress. After intense practices, players may experience fatigue (alarm phase). As they adapt (resistance phase), their skills like shooting, dribbling, and endurance improve. To avoid reaching exhaustion, it's essential for players to incorporate recovery strategies, such as rest days or lighter practice sessions.

Super compensation Cycle: This cycle emphasises the importance of recovery in basketball. Following a rigorous training session, players need adequate recovery time to allow their bodies to adapt and come back stronger. For instance, after a high-intensity scrimmage, they should have lighter training days focusing on skill work to maximise performance gains.

Periodisation: This involves structuring training into phases to optimise performance:

- Linear Periodisation: This method gradually increases training intensity over time. For basketball players, this could mean starting with foundational skills and conditioning in the off-season, then transitioning to more intense drills and game situations as the season approaches.

- Block Periodisation: This focuses on training specific skills in blocks. A player might dedicate a block to improving their shooting technique, followed by one focused on defensive skills. This method allows for targeted improvements in different areas crucial for basketball performance.

Bompa, T.O. and Haff, G.G., 2009 States that By “applying these theories, basketball players can enhance their training efficiency, ensuring they develop the necessary skills and physical attributes while minimising the risk of injury”.

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Schoenfeld, B.J., 2010 explains that" advanced resistance training methods like giant sets can enhance hypertrophic adaptations through increased metabolic stress and muscle fiber recruitment. Giant sets allow for greater overall volume in a short period, promoting muscle growth and endurance—making them suitable for athletes who need high-intensity sessions within limited time frames".

Giant sets are a type of strength training technique that involves performing a series of exercises back-to-back with little to no rest in between. Typically, a giant set consists of four or more exercises that target the same muscle group or different muscle groups.

choose four or more exercises. For example, if you’re focusing on the upper body, you might select bench press, bent-over rows, shoulder presses, and bicep curls.

perform each exercise for a set number of repetitions (usually 8-15) without resting between exercises. Once you complete all exercises in the giant set, you take a short rest (around 1-3 minutes) before repeating the entire set.

Benefits:
By minimising rest, giant sets elevate the heart rate and can lead to greater calorie burn this is increasing intensity  - : This method helps improve muscular endurance as it challenges the muscles to perform under fatigue.
Since multiple exercises are done in a short period, it can be a time-efficient way to get a full workout.

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Football requires a mix of endurance, speed, agility, and strength. Training should include activities like interval running to build stamina, agility drills for quick direction changes, and strength training focusing on the legs and core to enhance power during sprints and tackles. This will be called Specificity.

Progressive Overload this is where the aim is to improve fitness, players can gradually increase the intensity of their training. For instance, they might start with shorter sprints and progressively increase the distance or intensity, or add more challenging drills that require higher levels of skill and fitness.

Incorporating different types of training can help prevent boredom and overuse injuries. For football, this could mean mixing technical skills training (like dribbling and passing) with conditioning (like running drills) and tactical sessions (like game simulations).

Football is physically demanding, so recovery is crucial. Players should have rest days and incorporate light training or stretching sessions to help their muscles recover and prevent injuries. This can include activities like swimming.

Individualisation: Every player has different needs. A striker might focus more on speed and finishing drills, while a defender might work on strength and aerial ability. Tailoring training to each player's role and strengths ensures they can perform at their best.

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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): This theory is essential for swimmers as it describes how their bodies react to training stress. Initially, during the alarm phase, a swimmer may feel fatigue or soreness after intense swim practices. In the resistance phase, their body adapts, leading to improved technique and endurance. To avoid the exhaustion phase, swimmers should incorporate proper recovery strategies, like rest days or active recovery swims.

Super compensation Cycle: This cycle highlights the importance of recovery in swimming. After a demanding training session, swimmers need time to recover to allow their bodies to adapt and come back stronger. For instance, after a long-distance swim, they should have lighter training days or focus on technique to maximise performance gains and reduce fatigue.

Periodisation: This involves structuring training into phases to optimise performance:

- Linear Periodisation: This method gradually increases training intensity over time. For swimmers, this could mean starting with endurance-focused sessions in the early stages of training, then shifting to speed and power as competitions approach.

- Block Periodisation: This focuses on training specific qualities in blocks. A swimmer might dedicate a block to improving their sprinting speed, followed by one focused on endurance. This method allows for targeted improvements in different aspects of swimming that are crucial for performance.

Bompa, T.O. and Haff, G.G., 2009 States that By applying these theories, swimmers can enhance their training effectiveness, ensuring they develop the necessary skills and physical attributes while minimising the risk of injury.

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Tri-sets in football training boost muscular endurance and strength by combining three exercises targeting related muscle groups with minimal rest. This method improves conditioning, power, and reduces injury risk by enhancing muscle stability. Tri-sets increase workout efficiency by maximising muscle engagement in a short time, which is great for maintaining performance throughout a match. They also help improve recovery and prevent overtraining by varying the stress on muscles.

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Giant sets, involving four or more exercises targeting the same muscle group with little rest, significantly enhance muscle hypertrophy and endurance, crucial for football players needing sustained power and strength. They also improve metabolic conditioning and calorie burn, aiding in maintaining optimal body composition. Giant sets intensify muscle fatigue, which promotes greater muscle fiber recruitment and growth. This approach also challenges mental toughness, an essential attribute for football players facing demanding game situations.

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Olympic lifts, like the snatch and clean and jerk, significantly enhance a football player's explosive power, strength, and coordination. These lifts engage multiple muscle groups simultaneously, promoting overall athleticism and performance on the field. Olympic lifts improve a player's rate of force development, crucial for quick bursts of speed and powerful tackles. They also enhance proprioception and body awareness, reducing the risk of injuries by improving movement efficiency.

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Specificity Swimming training should focus on the specific strokes like freestyle, backstroke, breaststroke, and butterfly. Practicing these strokes with targeted drills is essential.

Progressive Overload is aiming To improve endurance and speed, swimmers can gradually increase the distance or intensity of their workouts. For example, adding more laps or incorporating faster intervals can help build stamina.

Variation is Mixing up training sessions can prevent boredom and help develop different skills. This could involve varying the types of workouts, such as drills, distance swims, and sprint sets.

Recovery is vital for allowing the body to heal and adapt. This includes rest days, proper hydration, and nutrition to prevent injuries and promote flexibility.

Individualisation Each swimmer has unique strengths and weaknesses. Tailoring training programs to address individual needs ensures optimal performance.

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GAS

Bompa, T.O. and Haff, G.G., 2009.

Kraemer, W.J. and Ratamess, N.A., 2004.

Periodisation

Bompa, T.O. and Haff, G.G., 2009.

Issurin, V.B., 2010.

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Fartlek Training is a mix of continuous and interval training involving varying speeds and intensities. The benefits are that it Enhances aerobic and anaerobic capacity and mimics game-like intensity changes. An example is a 5 km run with random bursts of sprinting or hill running.

Howley, E.T. and Thompson, D.L., 2020 explain that "fartlek training is designed to improve cardiorespiratory endurance by varying speed, intensity, and terrain during a continuous workout. It is particularly useful for developing race pace awareness, mental resilience, and overall conditioning in runners and field athletes".

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Circuit Training is a series of aerobic and/or strength exercises performed in sequence with minimal rest. The Benefits are that it Improves both cardiovascular fitness and muscular endurance. An example is Jump rope → burpees → mountain climbers → rest → repeat.

Getchell and McArdle 2014 describe "circuit training as a method involving a sequence of exercises targeting different muscle groups, performed one after the other with minimal rest. This format improves both cardiovascular fitness and muscular endurance, making it highly efficient for overall conditioning. It is commonly used in sports training to simulate game-like fatigue and maintain elevated heart rates".

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Interval Training is alternating periods of high-intensity effort with low-intensity recovery or rest. The benefits are that it improves both aerobic and anaerobic systems, increases VO₂ max, and boosts performance. An example is 1-minute sprint followed by 2-minute walk, repeated 6 times.

Kenney et al. explain that interval training involves alternating periods of high-intensity work and low-intensity recovery. This method trains both the aerobic and anaerobic systems, improving VO₂ max, lactate threshold, and cardiovascular efficiency. It is particularly effective for athletes who require bursts of speed or power, such as in football, hockey, and track events.

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Continuous Training is a sustained activity at a steady intensity (e.g., jogging, cycling) for a prolonged period (usually 20+ minutes). The benefits are that it will improve aerobic endurance, fat metabolism, and cardiovascular efficiency. An example is 30-minute run at 70% max heart rate.

Kenney et al. define continuous training as sustained, steady-state exercise performed at a consistent intensity for an extended period, typically targeting the aerobic energy system. It enhances cardiorespiratory endurance, improves oxygen transport and utilisation, and is especially effective for endurance athletes such as runners, cyclists, and swimmers

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Delavier, F. and Gundill, M., 2010. describes tri-sets as an "advanced training technique suitable for targeting a specific muscle group intensely in a short period. They are particularly effective for breaking plateaus, enhancing muscle fatigue, and promoting hypertrophy by keeping the muscles under tension for a longer duration. This technique is commonly used by bodybuilders and athletes seeking muscular definition and endurance".

Tri sets are a type of strength training technique that involves performing three exercises back-to-back without any rest in between. Each exercise typically targets the same muscle group, allowing for intense muscle fatigue and a higher overall workload in a shorter period.

For example, if you're focusing on your arms, you might do a bicep curl, followed immediately by a tricep dip, and then a hammer curl. After completing all three exercises, you would then take a rest before repeating the tri set for additional rounds.

Tri sets are effective for increasing muscle endurance, promoting hypertrophy (muscle growth), and adding variety to your workout routine. They can also save time since you’re working multiple exercises in one go, making them a great option for those with a busy schedule.

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Baechle, T.R. and Earle, R.W., 2008 describes "Olympic lifts—primarily the snatch and clean and jerk—as explosive, compound movements that train power, coordination, speed, and strength. These lifts are commonly used in athletic training programs because they replicate the explosive movement patterns required in many sports, improving performance in sprinting, jumping, and rapid changes in direction".

1. Clean and Jerk: This lift consists of two

parts. First, the lifter performs the "clean," where the barbell is lifted from the ground to the shoulders in one smooth motion. The second part is the "jerk," where the lifter explosively pushes the barbell overhead.

2. Snatch: In this lift, the lifter lifts the barbell from the ground to overhead in one continuous motion. The snatch requires a high level of technique, speed, and flexibility.

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Dynamic stretching is often included in warm-ups and it will involve controlled movements through a full range of motion to activate muscles and improve mobility.

Howley and Thompson describe dynamic stretching as active movements that stretch the muscles without holding the end position. These movements mimic the activity to come, helping improve mobility, balance, and muscular coordination. It is widely recommended as a pre-exercise routine, especially in sports requiring speed, agility, and power.

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Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) is an advanced technique that combines passive stretching and isometric contractions, often with a partner, and is highly effective for quickly improving flexibility.

Sharman et al. describe PNF stretching as an advanced flexibility training method that combines passive stretching and isometric muscle contractions. It is shown to be more effective than static stretching for increasing range of motion. The technique works by engaging neuromuscular mechanisms that relax the muscle after contraction, making it useful in both sports and rehabilitation contexts

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GAS in Sports Training:

Bompa, T.O. and Haff, G.G., 2009. Periodisation: Theory and methodology of training. 5th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Periodisation

Bompa, T.O. and Haff, G.G., 2009. Periodisation: Theory and methodology of training. 5th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Pyramid Training

Baechle, T.R. and Earle, R.W., 2008. Essentials of strength training and conditioning. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Tri-Sets

Delavier, F. and Gundill, M., 2010. Strength training anatomy: workout guide. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Giant Sets

Schoenfeld, B.J., 2010. The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(10), pp.2857–2872.

Olympic Lifts

Baechle, T.R. and Earle, R.W., 2008. Essentials of strength training and conditioning. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Fartlek Training

Howley, E.T. and Thompson, D.L., 2020. Fitness professional’s handbook. 7th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Continuous Training

Kenney, W.L., Wilmore, J.H. and Costill, D.L., 2015. Physiology of sport and exercise. 6th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Interval Training

Kenney, W.L., Wilmore, J.H. and Costill, D.L., 2015. Physiology of sport and exercise. 6th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Circuit Training

Getchell, B. and McArdle, W.D., 2014. Exercise physiology: nutrition, energy, and human performance. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Static Stretching

Kenney, W.L., Wilmore, J.H. and Costill, D.L., 2015. Physiology of sport and exercise. 6th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

.

Dynamic Stretching

.

Howley, E.T. and Thompson, D.L., 2020. Fitness professional’s handbook. 7th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

PNF Stretching

Sharman, M.J., Cresswell, A.G. and Riek, S., 2006. Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching: mechanisms and clinical implications. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40(6), pp.439–441.

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Baechle and Earle state that Olympic lifts—the snatch and clean and jerk—as "advanced, full-body exercises that develop explosive power, coordination, and athletic performance. These lifts are commonly used in sport-specific training to enhance rate of force development and improve performance in explosive movements".

Olympic lifting is a training method that focuses on two main lifts: the snatch and the clean and jerk. These lifts help build explosive power, full-body strength, and coordination—making them ideal for athletes in sports that require jumping, sprinting, or quick movements.

Key Benefits:

Improves power and speed

Builds strength across the whole body

Boosts mobility and balance

Transfers well to most sports

Training Style:

Low reps (1–5), high effort

Focus on technique first, then weight

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Delavier and Gundill describe tri-sets as an "efficient method for maximising time under tension, which helps in stimulating muscle growth. They also emphasise their role in training intensity and variety, especially in advanced bodybuilding and hypertrophy-focused programs".

Tri-sets are a resistance training method where you perform three exercises back-to-back with little to no rest in between. These exercises usually target the same muscle group or opposing muscle groups.

Key Benefits:

Increases training intensity and muscle fatigue

Saves time with efficient workouts

Helps build muscle endurance and hypertrophy (muscle growth)

Training Style:

3 exercises in a row, then rest (e.g., 30–90 sec)

Can be repeated for multiple rounds (e.g., 3

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Static stretching is a common methods, where a stretch is held in a fixed position for 15–60 seconds and is typically used during cool-downs to increase passive flexibility.

Kenney et al. define static stretching as a technique where a muscle is slowly stretched and held in a fixed position for a period (typically 15–60 seconds). It is most effective for increasing passive flexibility and reducing muscle tension, especially when performed after exercise. It helps to relax muscles, improve joint range of motion, and is commonly used in cool-down routines.