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EVALUACIÓN DE UN CEBO FEROMONAL PARA LACAPTURA DEL PICUDO DEL AGAVE (COLEOPTERA:CURCULIONIDAE)

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EVALUACIÓN DE UN CEBO FEROMONAL PARA LACAPTURA DEL PICUDO DEL AGAVE (COLEOPTERA:CURCULIONIDAE)

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Evaluación de la diversidad genética de Sitophilus zeamais, Motschulsky, 1855 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) utilizando isoenzimas en muestras de diferentes regiones de Brasil y Paraguay

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Evaluación de la diversidad genética de Sitophilus zeamais, Motschulsky, 1855 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) utilizando isoenzimas en muestras de diferentes regiones de Brasil y Paraguay

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Avaliação da diversidade genética de Sitophilus zeamais, Motschulsky, 1855 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) utilizando isoenzimas em amostras de diversas regiões do Brasil e do Paraguai

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Alfenas, A. C. 2006a. Eletroforese e marca­dores bioquímicos em plantas e micror­ganismos. Viçosa: UFV, 627 p. Alfenas, A. C. 2006b. Eletroforese de isoenzi­mas e proteínas afins ­fundamentos e aplicações em plantas e microorganis­mos. Viçosa: UFV, 574 p. Allcock, A. L., M. Chauvet, K. A. Crandall, D. R. Given, S. J.

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Dendroctonus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) y su relación con la temperatura en San Cristóbal de Las Casas, Chiapas

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Dendroctonus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) y su relación con la temperatura en San Cristóbal de Las Casas, Chiapas

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Aplicación de la Morfometría en la identificación de especies de la Tribu Xyleborini (ColeopteraCurculionidae: Scolytinae)

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Aplicación de la Morfometría en la identificación de especies de la Tribu Xyleborini (ColeopteraCurculionidae: Scolytinae)

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1. [1] Instituto de Investigación Agropecuaria de Panamá (IDIAP)

Localización: Aporte Santiaguino, ISSN 2070-836X, ISSN-e 2616-9541, Vol. 14, Nº. 1, 2021 (Ejemplar dedicado a: Enero-Junio), págs. 92-103

Idioma: español

Enlaces

Texto completo (pdf)

Resumen

español
El presente trabajo tuvo por objetivo determinar si la morfometría, que es el estudio de la variación y cambio de las estructuras de un organismo tanto en forma como en tamaño, permite una adecuada identificación de especies de la tribu Xyleborini, con énfasis en el género Xyleborus. Las especies escogidas para este análisis fueron Xyleborus ferrugineus, X. volvulus, X. affinis, X. scheldi, Xylosandrus morigerus (= Xyleborus morigerus) y Sampsonius dampfi. Las variables de estudio fueron la longitud del cuerpo, pronotum y los elytra; el ancho del pronotum y la base de los elytra; y las proporciones longitud del cuerpo por ancho de la base de los elytra, longitud por ancho del pronotum y longitud por ancho de los elytra. Los valores promedio de 10 especímenes por especie para cada variable fueron incluidos en un análisis multivariado para la construcción de un fenograma. Tras comparar los resultados obtenidos con lo expuesto previamente por Wood (1982) y Rabaglia (2006), se concluyó que la morfometría es una herramienta muy útil para separar especies de la tribu Xyleborini, pero en complemento con otros caracteres no contemplados en el presente trabajo.

English
The aim of this study was to determine whether the morphometrics, which is the study of variation and change in structure of an organism both in shape and size, allows an adequate species identification of the tribe Xyleborini, mainly the genus Xyleborus. The species chosen for this analysis were Xyleborus ferrubineus, X. volvulus, X. affinis, X. scheldi, Xylosandrus morigerus (= Xyleborus morigerus) and Sampsonius dampfi. The dependent variables were the length of body, pronotum and elytra, width of pronotum and base of elytra, and the proportions of the body length per width of the base of elytra, length per width of pronotum and length per width of elytra. The average values of 10 specimens per species for each variable were included in a multivariate analysis for the construction of a phenogram. After comparing the results obtained with the works of Wood (1982) and Rabaglia (2006), the conclusion was that morphometrics is a very useful tool for separating species of the tribe Xyleborini, but in addition to other characters not covered in this work.

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aplicación de la morfometría en la identificación de especies de la tribu xyleborini (coleoptera: curculionidae: scolytinae)

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Aplicación de la Morfometría en la identificación de especies de la Tribu Xyleborini (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae)

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Información del artículo Aplicación de la Morfometría en la identificación de especies de la Tribu Xyleborini (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae)

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Especies de Conotrachelus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Molytinae) asociadas a guayaba y descripción de una nueva especie

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Especies de Conotrachelus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Molytinae) asociadas a guayaba y descripción de una nueva especie

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Species of Conotrachelus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Molytinae) associated to the guava and new species description

MANUEL DARÍO SALAS-ARAIZA¹ y JESÚS ROMERO-NÁPOLES²

¹ Doctor. Profesor, Universidad de Guanajuato, Ex Hacienda El Copal km 5 Carretera Irapuato-Silao. Apartado Postal # 311. Irapuato 36500. Guanajuato. México. dariosalasaraiza@hotmail.com. Autor para correspondencia.
² Ph. D. Profesor Investigador, Colegio de Postgraduados, km 36.5 carr. México-Texcoco, Montecillo, Estado de México. jnapoles@colpos.mx.

Recibido: 20-mar-2010 - Aceptado: 2-mar-2012

Resumen: Se describe e ilustra una nueva especie de Conotrachelus que se alimenta de Psidium guajava y se ofrece una clave para las especies asociadas a este frutal.

Abstract: A new species of Conotrachelus is described. It was collected feeding in fruits of Psidium guajava. A key to identify species related to this fruit is included.

Key words: Mexico. New species. Taxonomy.

Palabras clave: México. Nueva especie. Taxonomía.

El género Conotrachelus Dejean, 1821 es uno de los más grandes dentro de los Curculionidae (Coleoptera), al agrupar alrededor de 1.100 especies. En el Nuevo Mundo las especies de Conotrachelus se encuentran en la región Neotropical; las especies con sus sinonimias han sido listadas por O'Brien y Wibmer (1982) y Wibmer y O'Brien (1986). Aproximadamente 900 especies fueron descritas por Fiedler (1940). Para México, se reportan 86 especies de este género (O'Brien y Wibmer 1982). Algunas de estas especies se consideran de importancia económica, debido al daño que ocasionan a los frutos. Por ejemplo, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst, 1797) es una plaga importante en manzano y durazno en Estados Unidos (Myers et al. 2007); en tanto que Conotrachelus psidii Marshall, 1922 se alimenta de guayaba en Sudamérica (Marshall 1922). De acuerdo con Muñiz y González (1982) la especie Conotrachelus dimidiatus Champion, 1904, se encuentra asociada a árboles silvestres de Psidium guajava (L., 1753) (Myrtaceae) en el estado de Morelos, México; Tafoya et al. (2007) indican que en el estado de Aguascalientes, México, se registró a C. dimidiatus en huertas de guayaba, provocando daño a los frutos. Estos autores también reportan otra especie de Conotrachelus que no pudieron determinar.

Aunque el género es de los más grandes de la clase Insecta y la revisión de éste tardaría varios años, la especie es de importancia económica debido al impacto que pueda tener en la exportación del fruto, por lo que es importante tener un nombre válido para que la comunidad científica pueda intercambiar información al respecto; por lo anterior el objetivo de este trabajo fue hacer disponible el nombre de una nueva especie de Conotrachelus cuyas larvas de alimentan de guayaba, se incluyen comentarios de C. dimidiatus y C. psidii, y se proporciona una clave para identificar las especies de Conotrachelus asociadas a guayaba.

Los individuos se coleccionaron en una huerta de guayaba en el campus de la División Ciencias de la Vida de la Universidad de Guanajuato en Irapuato, estado de Guanajuato 20°44'39''N 101°19'14''W; 1.750 msnm y se revisó material del municipio de Calvillo, estado de Aguascalientes 21°50'54"N 102°4431"W; 1.618 msnm. En la colecta se utilizó la técnica de manteo. Los individuos coleccionados se mataron y conservaron en alcohol al 70%, posteriormente se montaron según técnicas estándar. Las medidas se obtuvieron con micrómetro ocular montado en un estereomicroscopio Carl Zeiss Stemi 2000. Los genitales se prepararon usando la técnica propuesta por Romero-Nápoles y Johnson (1999) y se guardaron en viales con glicerina.

Los ejemplares estudiados están depositados en las colecciones Leopoldo Tinoco Corona/División Ciencias de la Vida de la Universidad de Guanajuato (CLTC); Colección Entomológica del Instituto de Fitosanidad/Colegio de Post-graduados (CEAM); Colección Nacional de Insectos, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Autónoma de México (CNIN) y Florida State Collection of Arthropods, Division of Plant Industry, Gainesville, Florida (FSCA).

Conotrachelus copalensis Salas y Romero sp. nov. ( Figs. 1A-C)

Macho
Medidas. Longitud de pronoto y élitros = 4,77 mm (4-5,3) n = 10; ancho (parte más amplia de los élitros) = 2,54 mm (2,2-2,8) n = 10.

Integumento. Cabeza, tórax y parte ventral del abdomen de color marrón oscuro; élitros, antenas y patas marrón claro.

Vestidura. Cabeza. Con escamas recumbentes, marrón claro y blancas en la frente; con 2/3 del rostro con escamas blancas, gruesas, recumbentes; lóbulo postocular con escamas blancas. Protórax. Con escamas recumbentes, abundantes, marrón oscuro y blanco, anchas en el ápice y agudas en su punto de inserción; en menor cantidad escamas delgadas, semierectas, truncadas apicalmente, marrón oscuro y blanco, dispersas, blanquecinas y oscuras en el disco; área pleural y anterior del protórax con escamas anchas abundantes, parte inferior del área pleural. Con una mancha de escamas blancas a cada lado de la parte posterior del protórax. Mesotórax y metatórax. Escutelo con setas claras, finas y dispersas mezcladas con pubescencia fina, clara y densa. Élitros con escamas anchas, recumbentes, café pálido y blanquecinas, crestas con hileras de escamas delgadas similares a las del protórax. Abdomen con escamas finas blanquecinas y marrón claro. Patas. Fémures revestidos con escamas delgadas e inclinadas hacia el ápice; con un anillo de escamas anchas, claras, a 1/3 del ápice; tibias con vestidura poco densa con setas rectas, truncadas y dispersas ( Figs. 1A, B).
Estructura
Cabeza. 0,5 veces tan ancha como el pronoto. Frente 0,4 veces tan amplia como la anchura de la cabeza a través de la zona de los ojos en su parte media. Rostro (1,19 mm) 0,4 veces la longitud del cuerpo, con poca curvatura; en vista dorsal 1/3 distal más ancho que el 2/3 basal. Rostro de la hembra (1,25 mm) más largo que el protórax, con mayor curvatura que la del macho, extremo apical casi del mismo ancho que la parte media. Rostro del macho con puntos poco profundos en la parte dorsal del escrobo con escamas finas café claro en cada punto, extendiéndose hasta la base de ésta. Rostro con tres crestas evidentes, que se extienden desde la base de las antenas hasta la frente. Antenas insertadas a 0,28 mm de la base de la mandíbula.

Tórax. Constreñido subapicalmente, 0,92 veces más largo que ancho; disco poco convexo, con una cresta en la parte media que no toca los extremos; superficie con puntos poligonales profundos en la parte media del disco, cada punto con una escama delgada recumbente, dirigida hacia la parte anterior. Escutelo glabro, alargado y cóncavo. Élitros. Ligeramente alargados, más anchos que el protórax, húmeros subcuadrados, redondeados, puntos de los élitros marcados en 1/3 y suaves en el resto. Intervalos con dos hileras de puntos, separadas por crestas evidentes, que se prolongan casi hasta el ápice. Patas. Fémures robustos; anteriores sin espina, medios y posteriores con una espina de base ancha en el margen interno del último tercio. Tibias de macho y hembra con un mucro simple, más o menos agudo, esclerosado. Uñas buidas.

Abdomen. Con puntos irregulares, poco profundos en todos los esternitos.

Genitales. Lóbulo medio del edeago ligeramente constreñido subapicalmente, marcadamente adelgazado y agudo en el ápice en vista dorsal, curvo a través del ápice en vista lateral, 1,6 veces mayor que los apodemas, éstos convergentes ( Fig.1C).
Hembra
Medidas. Hembras. Longitud x = 4,58 (4,2-5,1); ancho = 2,88 (2,4-2,8).

Las hembras son similares a los machos, excepto en la vestidura de la frente la cual presenta escamas marrón oscuro; la base del rostro tiene escamas amarillentas finas, escasas y el flagelo está cubierto de setas finas, claras y dispersas. Las escamas de la parte inferior del área pleural y lóbulo postocular son marrón claro. El rostro de la hembra (1,25 mm) es más largo que el protórax y con mayor curvatura que la del macho, extremo apical casi del mismo ancho que la parte media. El escrobo con puntos anchos, sin escamas. Las crestas del rostro en las hembras son menos evidentes y la inserción de las antenas es mayor (0,37 mm) respecto a la base de las mandíbulas. El tórax presenta la parte media del disco con puntuaciones menos evidentes que en el macho. Las uñas bífidas son menos evidentes en las hembras.

Genitales. Espermateca bulbosa, sin protuberancias tubulares; columna en forma de "C", adelgazada y esclerosada en el extremo; en éste, el ducto espermatecal papilado apicalmente.
Serie típica
Holotipo macho y alotipo, MÉXICO. Guanajuato, Irapuato, El Copal. Guayaba. 29-jun-2007. M. D. Salas A., col.[CLTC]. Paratipos. 24 ejemplares, mismos datos que el holotipo; 41 ejemplares, mismos datos, excepto fecha 24-jul-2007; 11 ejemplares, mismos datos excepto fecha 24-jul-2007; 8 ejemplares: El Imperio, Calvillo, Aguascalientes. Guayaba. 23/VII/08. Manteo. E. González G. [CEAM, 3♀. 3♂; FSCA, 3♀,3♂; CNIN 3♀,3♂; CLTC 50♀,40♂.

Diagnosis. Esta nueva especie se caracteriza por la forma y coloración de las escamas que cubren el cuerpo, el escaso desarrollo de las crestas elitrales, las espinas de los fémures están poco desarrolladas y las características de la genitalia del macho son muy particulares.

Etimología. El nombre del epíteto específico refiere a El Copal, la localidad donde fueron coleccionados.

Biología. Las larvas de C. copalensis se alimentan del interior del fruto de guayaba, se reporta un promedio de 2,33/ fruto y prefieren las variedades de pulpa rosa. Los adultos emergen del suelo cuando se han acumulado aproximadamente 280 mm de lluvia en la zona de Irapuato, Guanajuato, México; puede dañar hasta el 70% de los frutos (Salas-Araiza et al. 2008).

Distribución. México (Guanajuato y Aguascalientes).

Conotrachelus dimidiatus Champion, 1904 De acuerdo con O'Brien y Wibmer (1982) esta especie se puede encontrar en México y Centroamérica. Se caracteriza por presentar crestas elitrales discontinuas y por el mesosterno que es cóncavo entre las coxas medias y presenta puntos poco profundos y escasos; el metasterno presenta puntos más o menos profundos y distribuidos regularmente y la cresta en el intervalo cinco es continua; además presenta húmeros angulosos ( Figs. 1D, E). El genital del macho presenta el lóbulo

medio del edeago 1,2 veces mayor que los apodemas, éstos convergentes; lados paralelos y esclerosados, ápice truncado con bordes suaves en vista dorsal; en vista lateral curvo ( Fig.1F).

Conotrachelus psidii Marshall, 1922 Según Wibmer y O'Brien (1986) esta especie está presente en Bolivia, Brasil, Paraguay y Venezuela. Sánchez-Soto (2000) citó a esta especie para México; sin embargo, una verificación posterior del material mostró que se trataba de C. dimidiatus, por lo que ahora se confirma que C. psidii no está presente en México.

Esta especie se caracteriza por presentar el mesosterno plano entre las coxas medias, el metasterno presenta puntos profundos y densos, la cresta en el intervalo cinco desaparece en el tercio basal y los húmeros están redondeados ( Figs. 1G, H). El genital del macho presenta el lóbulo medio del edeago con el ápice truncado y ligeramente más ancho en la parte media en vista dorsal; el lóbulo medio 2,04 veces mayor que los apodemas, éstos de lados paralelos y esclerosados ( Fig.1I).

C. copalensis difiere de C. dimidiatus y C. psidii en el tamaño, C. copalensis es menor; la forma de las escamas en C. copalensis es ancha y la disposición es densa; en C. psidii y C. dimidiatus las escamas son delgadas y forman una mancha blanquecina bifurcada en el dorso torácico y en el último tercio al comienzo del declive elitral. Las crestas elitrales de C. copalensis están poco desarrolladas a diferencia de las otras dos especies que presentan crestas elitrales sobresalientes y discontinuas. Las espinas de los fémures en C. copalensis no están tan desarrolladas como en las otras especies. C. psidii es muy parecida a C. dimidiatus pero difiere en las crestas elitrales que son más desarrolladas en el primero. C. psidii tiene las uñas simples mientras que en C. dimidiatus son bífidas. El genital también presenta caracteres que permiten separar fácilmente a las tres especies de Conotrachelus que se encuentran en frutos de guayaba.
Clave para especies de Conotrachelus asociadas a guayaba
1. Crestas elitrales continuas .....................................Conotrachelus copalensis Salas y Romero sp. nov.

1' Crestas elitrales discontinuas ..................................2

2. Mesosterno cóncavo entre las coxas medias con puntos poco profundos y escasos; metasterno con puntos más o menos profundos y distribuidos regularmente, cresta en el intervalo cinco continua; húmeros angulados............................Conotrachelus dimidiatus Champion.

2' Mesosterno plano entre las coxas medias, metasterno con puntos profundos y densos, la cresta en el intervalo cinco desaparece en el tercio basal, húmeros redondeados......................................Conotrachelus psidii Marshall.

A la Universidad de la Salle Bajío Campus Campestre (León, Guanajuato, México) por el apoyo económico (Proyecto 10015) para el desarrollo de la presente investigación. A Ernesto González-Gaona (INIFAP) por el préstamo del material de Calvillo, Aguascalientes.

FIEDLER, C. 1940. Monograph of the South American weevils of the genus Conotrachelus. British Museum (Natural History), London. 365 p. [ Links ]

MARSHALL, G. A. K. 1922. Some injurious Neotropical weevils (Curculionidae). Bulletin of Entomological Research 13: 59-71. [ Links ]

MUÑIZ, V.R; GONZÁLEZ, R.E. 1982. Conotrachelus dimidiatus Champ., "el picudo de la guayaba" en Morelos, México. Anales de la Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas 26: 9-35. [ Links ]

MYERS, C. T.; LESKEY, T. C.; FORSLINE, P. L. 2007. Susceptibility of fruit from diverse apple and crabapple germplasm to attack by plum curculio (Col.: Curculionidae). Journal Economic Entomology 100 (5): 1663-1671. [ Links ]

O'BRIEN, C. W.; WIBMER, G. J.. 1982. Annotated checklist of the weevils (Curculionidae sensu lato) of North America, Central America, and the West Indies (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 34: 1-382. [ Links ]

ROMERO-NÁPOLES, J.; JOHNSON, C. D. 1999. Zabrotes sylvestris, a new species from the United States and Mexico related to Z. subfasciatus (Boheman) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae: Amblycerinae). The Coleopterists Bulletin 53 (1): 87-98. [ Links ]

SALAS-ARAIZA, M. D.; PEÑA-VELASCO, A.; MARTÍNEZ-JAIME, O.; RAMÍREZ-MALAGÓN, R. 2008. Dinámica poblacional y preferencia de frutos de guayaba por Conotrachelus spp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Entomología Mexicana 7: 296-300. [ Links ]

SÁNCHEZ-SOTO, S. 2000. Nuevos registros de insectos fitófagos para el estado de Tabasco, México. Folia Entomológica Mexicana 109: 113-116. [ Links ]

TAFOYA, F; GONZÁLEZ-GAONA, E.; PERALES-SEGOVIA, C. 2007. Picudos del género Conotrachelus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) asociados a guayaba Psidium guajava L. en Calvillo, Aguascalientes. Entomologia Mexicana 6 (1): 648-650. [ Links ]

WIBMER, G. J.; O'BRIEN, C. W. 1986. Annotated checklist of the weevils (Curculionidae sensu lato) of South America (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea). Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 39: 1-563. [ Links ]

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Especies de Conotrachelus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Molytinae) asociadas a guayaba y descripción de una nueva especie

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Species of Conotrachelus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Molytinae) associated to the guava and new species description MANUEL DARÍO SALAS-ARAIZA1 y JESÚS ROMERO-NÁPOLES2 1 Doctor. Profesor, Universidad de Guanajuato, Ex Hacienda El Copal km 5 Carretera Irapuato-Silao. Apartado Postal # 311. Irapuato 36500. Guanajuato. México. dariosalasaraiza@hotmail.com . Autor para correspondencia. 2 Ph. D.

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Ácaros (Acari) asociados con Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) en Malasia, con una lista revisada de los ácaros encontrados en este gorgojo

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Ácaros (Acari) asociados con Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) en Malasia, con una lista revisada de los ácaros encontrados en este gorgojo

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Highlights

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Five phoretic mite species are reported as associates of red palm weevil in Malaysia.

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Phoretic load ranged from 11-1345 individuals per host on the weevil body.

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The presence of phoretic mites in large number could impose a cost for the host.

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Reported misidentifications of mite species associated with red palm weevil

Abstract

There is a great deal of diversity among phoretic association particularly in mesostigmatic mites that exploited insect host to complete their dispersal strategy. Similarly, the red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, also has been used as a carrier by the phoretic mites. In this study, we found Centrouropoda almerodai (Uropodidae), Macrocheles mammifer, Macrocheles cf. oigru (Macrochelidae), Uroobovella assamomarginata and Uroobovella javae (Dinychidae) as the phoretic mites associated with the Malaysian red palm weevils. Male weevils had significantly greater number of mites per host as compared to the female weevils. Present study revealed that the red palm weevils were infested with very large numbers of phoretic mites which occur mainly under the elytra. Our results combined with those in the literatures suggest the potential role of phoresy in the evolution of parasitism.

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Mites (Acari) associated with Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Malaysia, with a revised list of the mites found on this weevil

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Five phoretic mite species are reported as associates of red palm weevil in Malaysia. * Phoretic load ranged from 11-1345 individuals per host on the weevil body. * The presence of phoretic mites in large number could impose a cost for the host.

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Análisis molecular de las poblaciones de la especie invasoraRhynchophorus ferrugineus  Olivier,   1790   (Coleoptera:Curculionidae) en la Región de Murcia (España)

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Análisis molecular de las poblaciones de la especie invasoraRhynchophorus ferrugineus  Olivier,   1790   (Coleoptera:Curculionidae) en la Región de Murcia (España)

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pdf

Autores/as

Miguel Lozano-Terol Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia, Campus Mare Nostrum 30100 Murcia

María Juliana Rodríguez-García Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia, Campus Mare Nostrum 30100 Murcia.

José Galián Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia, Campus Mare Nostrum 30100 Murcia

Palabras clave: Rhynchophorus vulneratus, Citocromo c oxidasa sub. I, ADN mitocondrial, Haplotipo, Especie invasora

Resumen

En este estudio se analizan dos fragmentos del gen de la citocromo c oxidasa subunidad I (COX1) del ADN mitocondrial de 61 individuos del género Rhynchophorus colectados en la Región de Murcia a fin de determinar su procedencia. El análisis filogenético del fragmento 1 de las muestras de la Región de Murcia conjuntamente con las secuencias disponibles en GenBank indica que los individuos corresponden a la especie Rhynchophorus ferrugineus. Las secuencias de Murcia se colapsan en un único haplotipo (H8 mediterráneo) que aparece dentro del clado de R. ferrugineus. De los análisis filogeográficos se infiere que el origen de los individuos de Murcia es Egipto. Adicionalmente, se examinó una región contigua del COX1 (fragmento 2) en la que las secuencias se colapsaron en dos haplotipos.

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Cómo citar

Lozano-Terol, M., Rodríguez-García, . M. J., & Galián, J. (2017). Análisis molecular de las poblaciones de la especie invasora Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier, 1790 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) en la Región de Murcia (España). Anales de Biología, (39), 155–176. Recuperado a partir de https://revistas.um.es/analesbio/article/view/421481

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Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia

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Análisis molecular de las poblaciones de la especie invasora Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier, 1790 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) en la Región de Murcia (España) | Anales de Biología

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En este estudio se analizan dos fragmentos del gen de la citocromo c oxidasa subunidad I (COX1) del ADN mitocondrial de 61 individuos del género Rhynchophorus colectados en la Región de Murcia a fin de determinar su procedencia. El análisis filogenético del fragmento 1 de las muestras de la Región d…

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Biología, ecología y manejo de escarabajos ambrosia no nativos (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) en viveros de plantas ornamentales

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Biología, ecología y manejo de escarabajos ambrosia no nativos (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) en viveros de plantas ornamentales

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Abstract

Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford) and Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Motschulsky) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) are two of the most damaging nonnative ambrosia beetle pests in ornamental plant nurseries. Adult females tunnel into the stems and branches of host plants to create galleries with brood chambers. Hosts are infected with symbiotic Ambrosiella spp. fungi that serve as food for the larvae and adults. Plants can also become infected with secondary opportunistic pathogens, including Fusarium spp. Both X. germanus and X. crassiusculus have broad host ranges, and infestations can result in "toothpicks" of extruded chewed wood and sap flow associated with gallery entrances, canopy dieback, stem and trunk cankers, and plant death. Beetles efficiently locate and preferentially attack living, weakened plants, especially those physiologically stressed by flooding, inadequate drainage, frost injury, or winter injury and low temperature. Maintaining plant health is the foundation of a management plan. Vulnerable hosts can be partially protected with preventive pyrethroid applications in the spring before peak flight and attack, which are monitored using ethanol-based trapping tactics.

Several species of nonnative ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) in the tribe Xyleborini are established in North America including some destructive pests ( Rabaglia et al. 2006 , Hulcr and Dunn 2011 , Ploetz et al. 2013 ). Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford) and the granulate ambrosia beetle, Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Motschulsky), are two of the most damaging species in ornamental plant nurseries ( Fig. 1 A-B; Oliver and Mannion 2001 , Reding et al. 2010 , LeBude et al. 2011 , Fulcher et al. 2012 , Frank et al. 2013 , Ranger et al. 2015a ). The black twig borer, Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff), is also an emerging pest in ornamental plant nurseries ( Chong et al. 2009 , Greco and Wright 2015 ), but the current review focuses on X. germanus and X. crassiusculus .

Xylosandrus germanus and X. crassiusculus are subtropical species native to southeastern Asia. Xylosandrus germanus was first reported in 1932 from greenhouse-grown grape vines in Long Island, NY ( Felt 1932 ); X. crassiusculus was first reported in 1974 from peach trees in Summerville, SC ( Anderson 1974 ). As of 2010, X. germanus and X. crassiusculus were found in 32 and 29 of 50 U.S. states, respectively ( Haack et al. 2013 ). Xylosandrus germanus has become established in numerous states in the northeastern, mid-Atlantic, southeastern, southern, midwestern, and northwestern United States, along with the Canadian provinces British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Quebec ( Rabaglia et al. 2006 ) and throughout much of Europe (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International Invasive Species Compendium [ CABI] 2008 ). Xylosandrus crassiusculus is established in many states in the northeastern, mid-Atlantic, southeastern, southern, and midwestern United States, along with Hawaii ( Rabaglia et al. 2006 ). Xylosandrus crassiusculus currently has a narrower distribution in Europe but is established in Central America and the Caribbean, East and West Africa, and Oceania ( CABI 2009 ). In the United States, X. germanus tends to be more abundant and problematic in the nurseries of the Midwest and the Northeast; X . crassiusculus dominates the mid-Atlantic and the South ( Hudson and Mizell 1999 ; Oliver and Mannion 2001 ; Lightle et al. 2007 ; Gandhi et al. 2010 ; Thompson 2011 ; Reding et al. 2010 , 2011 ; Ranger et al. 2013a ; Werle et al. 2012 , 2015 ).

A variety of factors make X. germanus and X. crassiusculus challenging to manage, including a broad host range, wood-boring habit, fungal symbionts that serve as their food source, and haplodiploid reproduction ( Kirkendall et al. 1993 , Normark et al. 1999 , Dole et al. 2010 , Ranger et al. 2015b ). In many cases it is also difficult to detect or assess when plants are susceptible or attractive to attack. Studies conducted over the past decade have improved our understanding of these wood-boring pests and helped to identify biological weaknesses that can be exploited for management purposes. This article reviews important aspects related to the biology, ecology, and management of X. germanus and X. crassiusculus in relation to ornamental plant nurseries.

Description of Life Stages

Adult

Adult female X. germanus are dark brown to black, shiny, stout, almost cylindrical, rounded in front and rear, and with the head hidden under a prominent pronotum ( Fig. 1 A; Wood and Bright 1992 , Solomon 1995 , Rabaglia et al. 2006 , CABI 2008 ). Adult females range 2.0-2.4 mm in length and are about 1.0 mm wide. The pronotum is about as long as wide with 8 to 10 low, blunt spines (=serrations). The elytra are shiny, 1.3 times longer than wide, and 1.4 times as long as the pronotum. A steep downward slope (i.e., elytral declivity) forms just beyond the middle of the elytra. The widely separated procoxae distinguish the genus Xylosandrus from other Xyleborini ( Rabaglia et al. 2006 ).

Egg

The egg of X. germanus is white, translucent, shiny, ellipsoidal, about 0.67 mm long, and 0.38 mm wide ( Fig. 3 A; Hoffman 1941 , CABI 2008 ). The egg of X. crassiusculus is similar in appearance to that of X. germanus but has not been formally described.

Larva

Pupa

The pupa of X. germanus is white and has legs and wings that are free from the body and a moveable abdomen, averaging 2.53 mm long and 1.09 mm wide for females and 1.78 mm long and 0.95 mm wide for males ( Fig. 3 B, D; Hoffman 1941 , Weber and McPherson 1983a , Solomon 1995 ). The pupa of X. crassiusculus has not been formally described but is generally similar in appearance to that of X. germanus .

Gallery Formation

Symbiotic and Auxiliary Fungi

Adult females carry spores within an invaginated, membranous, and pouch-like structure called a mycangium, located between the pro- and mesothorax ( Fig. 6 A; Francke-Grosmann 1956 , Batra 1963 , Hulcr and Cognato 2010 ). Spores of the symbiotic fungi are transferred from the beetles into their host tunnels during excavation ( Fig. 6 B; Batra 1985 ), but the mechanism of discharge is not known. Notably, adult female X. germanus and X. crassiusculus initiate oviposition only after their symbiotic fungus is established within the gallery ( French and Roeper 1972 , Weber and McPherson 1983a ), which thereby represents a biological weak point that potentially could be exploited to disrupt their colonization success for management purposes.

Ambrosiella grosmanniae C. Mayers, McNew & T.C. Harr. was identified as the mycangial symbiont of X. germanus based on specimens collected in the United States and three European countries ( Mayers et al. 2015 ), and Ambrosiella roeperi T.C. Harr. & McNew was identified as the mycangial symbiont of X. crassiusculus from specimens collected in the United States and Taiwan ( Harrington et al. 2014 , Mayers et al. 2015 ). The thoracic mycangia of X. germanus and X. crassiusculus are dominated by their Ambrosiella symbionts ( Kostovcik et al. 2015 , Mayers et al. 2015 ). Spores of nonspecific fungi also may be present, but their growth and proliferation appear to be restricted, presumably by glandular secretions within the mycangium ( Kostovcik et al. 2015 ).

The majority of Ambrosiella spp. biomass is in the xylem, but two growth forms can be observed within the galleries: a dark mycelial form that can grow in the beetles' absence ( Fig. 5 B-D) and can be consumed and a white ambrosial form consisting of conidia and sprout cells that is only produced in association with the beetles ( Fig. 6 B) and is required for proper development of the larvae and pupae ( French and Roeper 1972 , Kinuura 1995 , Dute et al. 2002 ). Old galleries contain the mycelial form of the fungus and not the white ambrosial form ( Hoffman 1941 ).

A diverse set of auxiliary microorganisms, including bacteria, yeasts, and filamentous fungi, have been isolated from the galleries of X. germanus and X. crassiusculus ( Dute et al. 2002 , Hulcr et al. 2012 ). Ophiostoma novo-ulmi Brasier, Fusarium lateritium Nees, Fusarium solani (Mart.), and Fusarium oxysporum Schlechter ex Fries have been isolated from galleries of X. germanus ( Kessler 1974 ; Anderson and Hoffard 1978 ; Weber and McPherson 1984a , 1985 ; Kovach 1986 ; Ploetz et al. 2013 ). Aspergillus niger Tiegh., Candida spp., F. lateritium , F. oxysporum , F. solani , Nectria cinnabarina Tode ex Fr., Penicillium spp., Pestalotia spp, Phomopsis spp., Pichia spp., and Saccharomycopsis spp. have been isolated from galleries of X. crassiusculus ( Kinuura 1995 , Dute et al. 2002 ). Some species, particularly those in the genera Ophiostoma , Fusarium , and Phomopsis , can be plant pathogenic ( Kessler 1974 , Anderson and Hoffard 1978 , Weber and McPherson 1984a , Kovach 1986 , Kinuura 1995 , Dute et al. 2002 , Ploetz et al. 2013 ). Carrillo et al. (2014) also detected the pathogen responsible for laurel wilt disease, Raffaelea lauricola sp. nov. (T.C. Harr., Fraedrich & Aghayeva), from specimens of X. crassiusculus reared on laurel wilt-infected bolts of swampbay, Persea palustris (Raf.) Sarg. Furthermore, X. crassiusculus transmitted R. lauricola to redbay, Persea borbonia [L.] Spreng., and avocado, Persea americana Mill., under controlled infestations ( Carrillo et al. 2014 ).

Life History

Adult X. germanus and X. crassiusculus disperse from their overwintering galleries as mated females. Eggs are deposited loosely in the distal parts of the brood chamber, where substantial fungal growth is present ( Hoffman 1941 ). Xylosandrus germanus laid an average of 1 egg per day and a total of 18 eggs per female when reared on an artificial diet ( Weber and McPherson 1983a ); X. crassiusculus laid 1 to 6 eggs per day over a prolonged period ( Wu et al. 1978 ). Incubation period for X. germanus eggs ranged from 2 to 6 d depending on substrate (i.e., artificial diet vs. natural host) and temperature ( Hoffman 1941 , Kaneko 1965 , Kaneko et al. 1965 , Weber and McPherson 1983a ).

Neonates move slowly in an undulating fashion and begin feeding on the ambrosial fungus within the gallery ( Hoffman 1941 ). Average developmental time of X. germanus from egg to adult was 15 to 18 d on tea roots at 23 to 24°C ( Kaneko 1965 , Kaneko et al. 1965 ), but required 24.9 d on artificial diet at 24°C ( Weber and McPherson 1983a ). Developmental times for X. crassiusculus have not been reported.

Adult progeny of X. germanus emerged from infested stems held under laboratory conditions about 60 d after gallery initiation ( Buchanan 1941 ), whereas X. crassiusculus adults emerged after 48-62 d ( Kovach 1986 ). Similarly, under field conditions in Tennessee, progeny of X. crassiusculus and X. germanus emerged 55-60 d after gallery initiation ( Oliver and Mannion 2001 ). The observed discrepancy between developmental time from egg to adult and subsequent emergence times of adult progeny from galleries is likely due to delayed dispersal of ambrosia beetle progeny from their natal galleries ( Biedermann and Taborsky 2011 , Keller et al. 2011 ). Adult progeny of some Scolytinae species delay dispersal from their natal galleries during which time they aid in the care of younger siblings ( Peer and Taborsky 2007 , Kirkendall et al. 2015 ).

Large variability has been documented in the number of adult X. germanus and X. crassiusculus progeny emerging per gallery. For instance, total progeny per gallery of X. germanus ranged from 1 to 53 when reared on black walnut ( Weber and McPherson 1983a ), 20 to 50 progeny when reared on tea plants ( Kaneko 1965 ), 2 to 54 progeny when reared on elm ( Hoffman 1941 ), and up to 18 progeny on chestnut ( Oliver and Mannion 2001 ). Similarly, an average of 8 X. crassiusculus adult females emerged per gallery in peach trees ( Kovach 1986 ), up to 27 progeny emerged per gallery from Bradford pear and Kwanzan cherry ( Mizell et al. 1994 ), and up to 59 progeny per gallery for chestnut ( Oliver and Mannion 2001 ). While brood sizes up to 65 and 100 progeny were reported for X. crassiusculus from the Congo and Ghana, respectively, 10-40 progeny are more likely in regions where year-round reproduction does not occur as in the tropics ( Schedl 1963 ; Beaver 1976 , 1988 ). The basis for variable progeny sizes is unknown, but might be related to growth of their symbionts within the host gallery.

Like other xyleborine ambrosia beetles, X. germanus and X. crassiusculus demonstrate haplodiploid sex determination; males arise from unfertilized eggs and possess eight chromosomes while females arise from fertilized eggs and have 16 chromosomes ( Takagi and Kaneko 1966 , Normark et al. 1999 , Hulcr et al. 2007 ). Offspring sex ratios are strongly biased toward females and ratios of 9:1 and 10:1 have been documented for X. germanus and X. crassiusculus , respectively ( Kaneko 1965 , Kaneko et al. 1965 , Takagi and Kaneko 1966 , Weber and McPherson 1983a , Kinuura 1993 ). However, the number of males in X. germanus families increases with brood size and females adjust their offspring sex ratio depending on colony density within the host ( Peer and Taborsky 2004 , Keller et al. 2011 ).

Phenology and Flight Activity

Xylosandrus germanus and X. crassiusculus overwinter as adults, primarily females, within their galleries ( Hoffman 1941 , Gauss 1960 , Weber and McPherson 1983a ). Both species may have an obligatory diapause ( Kovach 1986 ). Relatively large clusters of overwintering adults from different broods have been recovered from single galleries. Hoffman (1941) reported 200 X. germanus within an irregular gallery in elm. Weber and McPherson (1983a) reported 112 females and 42 males in a single gallery in black walnut. Females from nearby galleries presumably gather together in the individual gallery since a single female does not produce such a large brood ( Weber and McPherson 1983a ).

Data from X. germanus trap collections suggest two generations per year in Illinois, North Carolina, Ohio, and Tennessee ( Hoffman 1941 ; Weber and McPherson 1983a , 1991 ; Oliver and Mannion 2001 ; Gandhi et al. 2010 ). One to two generations per year for X. germanus also have been reported from Japan and Europe ( Kaneko et al. 1965 , Bruge 1995 , Faccoli 2000 , Henin and Versteirt 2004 ). However, the number of generations per year is at least partly dependent on ambient temperatures, and X. germanus and X. crassiusculus may have up to three generations per year within warmer US climates ( Hoffman 1941 , Gandhi et al. 2010 ). Up to four generations per year of X. crassiusculus were reported in Taiwan ( Wu et al. 1978 ).

Since X. germanus and X. crassiusculus overwinter as adults, they do not require a minimum heat accumulation (i.e., degree-days) in order to complete their development. However, flight and attack activity in Ohio are influenced by spring temperatures; no attacks or trap captures occurred prior to one to two days of at least 20°C maximum daily temperatures ( Reding et al. 2013a ). First flight of overwintering X. crassiusculus was initiated in February to March with adult flights continuing into October in South Carolina, Mississippi, and Florida ( Kovach 1986 , Atkinson et al. 2000, Werle et al. 2012 ). First flight of X. germanus and X. crassiusculus occurred in March to April with adult flights continuing into at least September in Illinois, Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio, Tennessee, and Virginia ( Weber and McPherson 1983a , 1991 ; Oliver and Mannion 2001 ; Reding et al. 2010 , 2013a ; Reed and Muzika 2010 ).

Peak diurnal flight activity by X. germanus and X. crassiusculus occurs in late afternoon into night ( Wu et al. 1978 , Weber and McPherson 1991 , Zach et al. 2001 ) and X. germanus and X. crassiusculus generally fly low to the ground. Weber and McPherson (1991) captured the majority of X. germanus specimens at a 1 m trap height, and Reding et al. (2010) determined traps at 0.5 m were more effective than 1.7 or 3.0 m. Similarly, traps positioned at 0.5 and 1.7 m above ground were more effective than 3.0 m for X. crassiusculus ( Reding et al. 2010 ).

Hosts

Xylosandrus germanus and X. crassiusculus attack a wide variety of woody species. Over 200 species in 51 families were included by Weber and McPherson (1983b) in a world list of hosts for X. germanus . Similarly, over 120 species were listed for X. crassiusculus ( Schedl 1963 ). While deciduous and coniferous species are attacked, reports from ornamental plant nurseries ( Ranger et al. 2015a ) and tree fruit orchards ( Agnello et al. 2015 ) generally involve thin-barked deciduous species. Main hosts for X. germanus and X. crassiusculus cannot be distinguished due to their broad host range and preference for living but weakened individuals; hosts can also vary across growing regions. However, some genera or species that have been attacked in ornamental plant nurseries within different regions include dogwood ( Cornus spp.), honeylocust ( Gleditsia triacanthos L.), Japanese snowbell ( Styrax japonicus S. et Z.), magnolia ( Magnolia spp.), maple ( Acer spp.), oak ( Quercus spp.), and redbud ( Cercis spp.) ( Reding et al. 2010 ; Ranger et al. 2015a ; Frank, Gill, Ranger, Schultz, Werle, personal observation). Examples of attacked plant species have also been compiled ( Schedl 1963 ; Weber and McPherson 1983b ; Mizell et al. 1994 ; Solomon 1995 ; CABI 2008 , 2009 ) and documented ( Ranger et al. 2015a ).

Stems and trunks are preferred over branches for both X. germanus and X. crassiusculus ( Oliver and Mannion 2001 ; Reding et al. 2010 ; Ranger et al. 2013b , 2015b ). Stems <10 cm and 7.5 cm in diameter are preferred by X. germanus and X. crassiusculus , respectively, but as neither species are strongly size-selective they will also attack recently cut stumps and logs stored in millyards ( Wood 1982 , Weber and McPherson 1984b , Braza 1995 , Solomon 1995 , Soné et al. 1998 , Atkinson et al. 2000, Zach et al. 2001 , Henin and Versteirt 2004 , Coyle et al. 2015 ). Plants of varying sizes and species growing in ornamental nurseries, orchards, plantations, and landscapes can be targeted for attack. The broad range of plants attacked by X. germanus and X. crassiusculus , coupled with the large diversity of trees commonly grown within ornamental nurseries, poses considerable challenges from a management perspective.

Symptoms and Damage

Mass attacks by X. germanus , X. crassiusculus , and other opportunistic generalist ambrosia beetles can quickly result in extensive losses within ornamental nurseries. Plants can exhibit rapid dieback following attacks by X. germanus and X. crassiusculus , especially during spring months. The physiological and pathological basis for dieback is not well understood or established, but dieback may in part be attributed to a host hypersensitive response to symbiotic and opportunistic microorganisms associated with X. germanus and X. crassiusculus . Attacks do not always result in plant death, but growth, aesthetic, and economic value of ornamental nursery plants can be negatively affected. Since tunneling by ambrosia beetles can kill small-diameter plants or make them unmarketable (detection in shipment can result in rejection by state horticulture inspectors), ornamental producers generally have very little to no tolerance for ambrosia beetle attacks.

Attacks can sometimes be difficult to detect due to the small diameter of the gallery entrance ( Figs. 4 C and 7 A-C). Yet, toothpick-like extrusions of chewed wood material projecting up to 3-4 cm out from the stems are a characteristic symptom of attacks by X. germanus , X. crassiusculus , and other ambrosia beetles ( Fig. 8 A-D), but these are not always apparent especially during windy, dry, or wet conditions. Since the adult females do not feed on the host plant, the "toothpicks" are not frass but instead compacted chewed wood material excavated during the tunneling process. Sap stains on bark is also a key symptom associated with ambrosia beetle attacks and is most frequently observed in spring, but sometimes in late summer or early fall, particularly on honeylocust ( Fig. 9 A-F; Ranger, personal observation). Wilting foliage and branch dieback are also symptomatic of ambrosia beetle attacks and commonly observed in spring; profuse basal sprouting can (later) occur in response to dieback ( Fig. 10 A-D).

Tissue discoloration is also common in tissues adjacent to the galleries, which may be attributed to symbiotic fungi, secondary pathogens, host defense responses, and infusion of oxygen into the tissues ( Fig. 11 A-E; Koch 2008 ). Ambrosiella spp. nutritional symbionts are not fungi commonly associated with wilt diseases and are not known to be pathogenic ( Mayers et al. 2015 ). Still, a hypersensitive overreaction to the symbiotic fungi or secondary microorganisms leading to walling-out (i.e., compartmentalization) in the vascular tissues ( Merrill 1992 ) or pathogenicity of opportunistic microbes (e.g., Fusarium spp.; Fig. 12 A-B) coupled with weakened host vigor may induce dieback and hasten plant death. Rather than acting as direct vectors of Fusarium spp., X. germanus and X. crassiusculus may facilitate the introduction of secondary pathogens that subsequently enhance their colonization success ( Mayers et al. 2015 ). Attacks by X. germanus on black walnut were suggested to provide an infection site for Fusarium spp., and X. germanus consistently was associated with cankers caused by F. solani on yellow poplar in a plantation ( Kessler 1974 , Anderson and Hoffard 1978 ). Fusarium spp. infections have been observed growing from the tunnel entrances and within the associated sap (Ranger and Werle, personal observation; Fig. 12 A-B). Mechanical damage associated with tunneling is not responsible for wilting and dieback, but blockage of the transpiration stream by fungi or a mucilaginous material may be responsible ( Kovach 1986 , Dute et al. 2002 ).

Impact of Physiological Stressors on Host Preference

Xylosandrus germanus and X. crassiusculus traditionally have been viewed as pests of stressed, diseased, or dying plants, but attacks have also been reported on "apparently healthy" plants showing no visible symptoms of chronic (e.g., dieback, stunted, or poor growth) or acute (e.g., wilting) stress. However, it should be cautioned that plants subjected to physiological stress may visually appear healthy, but still emit stress-related volatiles that signal their weakened state to opportunistic ambrosia beetles like X. germanus and X. crassiusculus ( Ranger et al. 2010 , 2015a , b ). In some cases, visible symptoms resulting from physiological stress can take several years to become fully evident ( Schoeneweiss 1978 , Wargo 1996 ). Plants considered apparently healthy while under attack by X. germanus , X. crassiusculus , and other opportunistic ambrosia beetles are likely to be experiencing or have a history of physiologically stress at the time of attack ( Ranger et al. 2010 , 2015a , b ). For instance, plantation-grown black walnut ( Juglans nigra L.) trees initially characterized as apparently healthy at the time of attack by X. germanus exhibited slower growth rates in the year before attack compared to nonattacked trees ( Weber and McPherson 1984b ). Similarly, European beech trees, Fagus sylvatica L., growing in Western Europe that were considered apparently healthy at the time of attack by X. germanus and other opportunistic ambrosia beetles may have first been injured by extreme frost events ( Nageleisen 1994 , Grégoire et al. 2001 , Henin and Versteirt 2004 , La Spina et al. 2013 ). Visually assessing plant health may therefore not be particularly effective for distinguishing individuals that are at risk for attack by X. germanus , X. crassiusculus , and other ambrosia beetles. Furthermore, at times it can be challenging to determine what physiological stressor(s) predisposed plants to attack, particularly if the attacks were initiated at a low level and went undetected. Efforts are currently underway to assess portable devices for aiding arborists and pest management professionals in evaluating plant health by detecting the emission of ethanol from plants that visually appear apparently healthy (Ranger and Schultz, unpublished data).

Instances of flooding and poor drainage are not uncommon in ornamental plant nurseries ( Fig. 13 A-E). For example, field observations from commercial nurseries in northeastern Ohio during 2011 indicated record-breaking spring precipitation, poor drainage, and perhaps excessive planting depth predisposed dogwood trees, Cornus florida and Cornus kousa  ×  florida , to attack ( Fig. 13 C-E; Ranger et al. 2013b ). In one case more than 200 dogwoods were lost to attack by ambrosia beetles, mainly X. germanus . The grower initially concluded the trees were healthy at the time of attack with no history of infestation, but closer examination demonstrated ambrosia beetles acted as bio-indicators of tree stress. Notably, out of 166 randomly selected trees examined, 165 or 99% exhibited extensive branch dieback, but only 117 or 70.5% of the trees were attacked by ambrosia beetles (Ranger, personal observation). A region of necrotic tissue was observed moving up the stem from the roots on both nonattacked trees and attacked trees ( Fig. 13 C-E). Experiments conducted under controlled conditions have supported anecdotal field observations that X. germanus and X. crassiusculus preferentially attack flood-stressed trees but rarely attack neighboring nonflooded trees ( Ott 2007 ; Ranger et al. 2013b , 2015b ; Reed et al. 2015 ). Xylosandrus germanus and X. crassiusculus also can distinguish among tree species varying in their tolerance of flood-stress and preferentially select intolerant over more tolerant species corresponding to ethanol emissions ( Ranger et al. 2015b ). Both X. germanus and X. crassiusculus also colonized flood-stressed C. florida , but failed to introduce their symbiotic fungus or produce offspring within galleries created in nonflooded trees.

Drought stress also induces ethanol production by plants ( Kelsey and Joseph 2001 ), but the presumed unsuitability of drought-stressed stems for growing their symbiotic fungi may minimize the impact of this particular stressor on predisposing plants to colonization. Under free choice conditions, X. germanus and X. crassiusculus preferentially attacked flood-stressed over drought-stressed C. florida trees (Frank, Ranger, and Schultz, unpublished data). Thus, factors other than just ethanol emission probably play a role in the decision-making process during host acceptance by X. germanus and X. crassiusculus , such as host tissue moisture levels.

In addition to water-related stressors, field observations from ornamental plant nurseries suggest that frost injury predisposes intolerant trees to attack ( Fig. 14 A-E; Ranger et al. 2015a ). For instance, trees growing within ornamental nurseries in northeastern Ohio were subjected to a mild winter in 2011-2012 and a record-breaking warm March resulting in trees budding up to one month earlier than normal ( Timlin et al. 2012 ). Vulnerable root and vegetative tissues were then exposed to successive freezing events that occurred in April 2012. Ambrosia beetle attacks subsequently were documented on trees intolerant of late frost, namely, eastern redbud ( Cercis canadensis L.), Japanese maple ( Acer palmatum Thunb.), Japanese snowbell ( S. japonicus ), Japanese zelkova ( Zelkova serrata (Thunb.) Makino), and Kentucky yellowwood ( Cladrastis kentukea (Dum.-Cours.) Rudd) ( Ranger et al. 2015a ). Ambrosia beetle attacks were also observed on tulip poplar ( Liriodendron tulipifera L.) following an early spring freeze in Ohio and Tennessee (Ranger and Oliver, personal observation). Similarly, Heidenreich (1960) reported that young oak ( Quercus rubra L.) and sycamore ( Acer pseudoplatanus L.) trees damaged by frost were subsequently attacked by X. germanus . Extreme frost events also preceded attacks by X. germanus and other ambrosia beetles in large stands of European beech trees, F. sylvatica , in Western Europe ( Grégoire et al. 2001 , La Spina et al. 2013 ). Bark tissue on F. sylvatica trees experimentally injured by freezing was more attractive to X. germanus and other ambrosia beetles than noninjured tissue ( La Spina et al. 2013 ). Experimentally frost-injured S. japonica were also preferentially attacked by X. germanus and X. crassiusculus (Ranger and Schultz, personal observation).

Field observations and reports from ornamental nurseries and tree fruit orchards throughout the midwestern, eastern, and southeastern United States also indicated low temperature stress during the winter months of 2013-2014 and again in 2014-2015 appear to have predisposed trees to attack ( Fig. 15 A-D). In particular, tree species in an ornamental nursery in Ohio exhibiting varying degrees of bark splitting were attacked by ambrosia beetles in 2014 and 2015, namely, Chinese elm ( Ulmus parvifolia Jacq.), Chinese fringetree ( Chionanthus retusus Lindl. & Paxt.), common hackberry ( Celtis occidentalis L.), hardy rubber tree ( Eucommia ulmoides Oliv.), eastern redbud, hawthorn ( Crataegus punctata Jacq.), linden ( Tilia sp. ), oak ( Quercus spp . ), sweetgum ( Liquidambar styraciflua L.), and sugar maple ( Acer saccharum Marsh.) ( Fig. 15 A-D; Ranger pers. obs.). Low temperature stress also may have predisposed kwanzan cherry ( Prunus serrulata L.) to attacks in Virginia (Schultz, personal observation), and striped maple ( Acer pensylvanicum L.), hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus L.), paperbark maples ( Acer griseum Pax.), red beech ( Nothofagus fusca (Hook. f.) Oerst.), Japanese snowbell, and yellowwood ( Cladrastis sp.) in Maryland in 2014 and 2015 (Gill personal observation).

Monitoring Tactics

Ethanol is the standard attractant used in traps for monitoring X. germanus , X. crassiusculus , and a variety of other ambrosia beetles. Ethanol lures can be easily made by filling a plastic container with 70-95% ethanol (i.e., ethyl alcohol) and inserting a wick through the lid. Denatured ethanol can be used, but not isopropyl or other commercially available alcohols. However, commercial lures eliminate the need for frequent refilling due to rapid evaporation of the ethanol ( Oliver et al. 2004 ). Unscented ethanol-based hand sanitizers can also be used as a lure ( Steininger et al. 2015 ). Attraction of X. germanus and X. crassiusculus to ethanol can be enhanced by addition of conophthorin and α-pinene, but the effect is not always consistent and the additional lure costs do not provide an added benefit ( Miller and Rabaglia 2009 ; Dodds and Miller 2010 ; Gandhi et al. 2010 ; Ranger et al. 2011a , 2014 ; Van DerLaan and Ginzel 2013 ; Miller et al. 2015 ).

A variety of ethanol-based traps ( Fig. 16 A-H) can be purchased commercially or homemade. Oliver et al. (2004) evaluated a variety of homemade and commercial traps and found that a simple Baker-type trap made from a 2-liter soft drink bottle was inexpensive and effective ( Fig. 16 A). Similarly, Steininger et al. (2015) determined a simple, one-window bottle trap was comparable to bottle traps with multiple windows for capturing X. crassiusculus and other Scolytinae. Lures should ideally be suspended within the trap to maximize ambrosia beetle attraction. Soapy water or low-toxicity antifreeze (i.e., propylene glycol) diluted with an equal part of water should be used as a killing agent and preservative in the traps. Fumigant strips in the collection vessel were less effective than propylene glycol ( Oliver et al. 2004 ).

As an alternative to wick-type or sachet lures, woody stems can be cored, filled with 95% ethanol, and plugged with a rubber stopper or soaked for 24 h in 95% ethanol then placed in traps ( Fig. 16 E). Traps baited with ethanol-infused stem sections were five times more attractive to X. germanus than traps baited with a pouch-style ethanol lure ( Ranger et al. 2012 ). Baiting, irrigating, or injecting trees with ethanol also induces attacks on specific trees, and can provide insight into seasonal attack activity and be useful for screening insecticides ( Fig. 16 F-G; Ranger et al. 2010 , 2012 , 2013a , 2015a ; Frank and Sadof 2011 ; Reding et al. 2013b ). Trees intolerant of flooding, such as C. florida , can be flood-stressed using a plastic bag and pot-in-pot system to prevent drainage and induce attacks for monitoring purposes or evaluating insecticides ( Fig. 16 H; Ranger et al. 2013a , 2015b ).

Ethanol-baited traps or ethanol-infused bolts should be suspended just above ground level ( Weber and McPherson 1991 , Reding et al. 2010 ). To intercept beetles, traps should also be placed near wooded areas, which are the source of beetles dispersing into ornamental nurseries ( Ranger et al. 2013a , Reding et al. 2015 , Werle et al. 2015 ).

Management and Control Options

Cultural Control

Maintaining plant health is the foundation of an integrated pest management program for ambrosia beetles in ornamental plant nurseries, particularly since insecticides are difficult to time accurately and do not completely prevent attacks on stressed plants. Both X. germanus and X. crassiusculus are poor colonizers of vigorous plants ( Ranger et al. 2015b ). The significance of physiological stressors in predisposing plants to attack should not be overlooked. Risk factors should be considered and addressed as part of an effective management program. Appreciating that many have noted plants were "apparently healthy" prior to attack, growers would benefit from an awareness of factors that predispose plants to attack (such as flooding) and tools that can detect when they are in a susceptible state, when such factors are not otherwise apparent. Their capability to rapidly locate plants in the early stages of physiological stress makes X. germanus and X. crassiusculus challenging to manage. Despite a broad host range, beetles can distinguish among slight differences in host condition and only target certain species and cultivars within a given year and location based on host vigor ( Weber and McPherson 1984b , Ranger et al. 2015a ). Both X. germanus and X. crassiusculus are poor colonizers of healthy plants, which is likely due to an inability to establish their symbiotic fungus in such hosts; as previously noted, oviposition does not begin until the symbiotic fungus is established.

Controlled experiments and anecdotal field observations indicate poor drainage and plant unsuitability for a particular growing site resulting in susceptibility to frost injury and low temperature stress can contribute to plants being predisposed to attack. Predictions for increasing frequency and severity of extreme climatic events suggest we may expect increasing attacks by nonnative ambrosia beetles on intolerant plants. Plant species or cultivars tolerant of abiotic stressors should be incorporated into production practices, but the tolerance levels of contemporary ornamental plant cultivars are not always thoroughly understood.

Trap plants can be used to attract additional beetles for two to three weeks after attacks are initiated, but should be burned or chipped before new adults emerge. Since plants can occasionally recover from attacks, ornamental plant producers may choose to avoid culling plants with a relatively low level of attacks. Neighboring healthy plants are poor hosts for X. germanus and X. crassiusculus and unlikely to be attacked or colonized ( Ranger et al. 2015b ). Dying plants and brush piles within ornamental nurseries also should be burned or chipped annually to minimize breeding sites.

Biological/Microbial Control

No parasitoids have been found associated with X. germanus ( Weber and McPherson 1983a , Kenis et al. 2004 ), although a wasp (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) was found in a gallery of X. germanus in Germany ( Gauss 1960 ). A variety of opportunistic predatory insects such as clerid beetles are known to feed on bark and ambrosia beetles ( Kenis et al. 2004 ), but almost no specific examples exist in the literature pertaining to X. germanus or X. crassiusculus.

Some entomopathogenic fungi have exhibited promising efficacy against X. germanus and its symbiotic fungi. Castrillo et al. (2011) demonstrated commercial strains of Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill. strain ATCC 7040 (Naturalis-L, Troy BioSciences, Phoenix, AZ) and Metarhizium anisopliae strain F52 (Met52, Novozyme Biologicals, Bagsvaerd, Denmark) were associated with comparatively high mortality of adult female X. germanus . Inoculation of adult females also reduced the number of beetles forming galleries and producing brood. Brood sizes of inoculated X. germanus females also were smaller and some had up to 100% of the progeny infected across all life stages.

Chemical Control

Nursery growers rely on properly timed preventive trunk sprays of insecticides to protect plants from attack by X. germanus and X. crassiusculus . No insecticide treatments provide 100% protection. Furthermore, no rescue treatments exist for ambrosia beetles once they have tunneled into a host plant, so timing insecticides prior to attack based upon adult flight activity is currently the best strategy. Oliver and Mannion (2001) noted that insecticide applications are most effective when closely timed with flight activity, applied repeatedly, or have long residual activity. Reding et al. (2013a) demonstrated preventive insecticide treatments should be applied in the spring after 56 degree-days (10°C base temperature) have been reached and before temperatures of ≥20°C are forecasted. Current management recommendations are trunk applications every two weeks during spring flight activity, which could encompass 12-16 wk in southern regions ( Frank and Sadof 2011 ).

Some pyrethroid insecticides have been found to be more effective than other materials, if somewhat inconsistent. Cypermethrin and bifenthrin provided the best efficacy against attacks by X. crassiusculus on attractive bolts, while permethrin, chlorpyrifos, and esfenvalerate provided a lower level of efficacy ( Mizell and Riddle 2004 ). Acephate, cyfluthrin, endosulfan, fenpropathrin, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam were ineffective as sprays. Frank and Bambara (2009) also indicated chlorpyrifos was ineffective. Permethrin was associated with the fewest attacks on ethanol-injected trees, while substrate drenches and trunk sprays of systemic insecticides including chlorantraniliprole, cyantraniliprole, tolfenpyrad, and dinotefuran were not effective ( Reding et al. 2013b ). Permethrin also minimized attacks on ethanol-injected trees ( Frank and Sadof 2011 ) and has been recommended for ambrosia beetle control, but repeated treatments may be required during peak ambrosia beetle flight. In addition to active ingredient, insecticide formulation can influence efficacy and residual activity of trunk sprays for bark beetles and other wood-boring insects, with emulsifiable concentrates (EC) generally being more effective than wettable powders (WP) ( Fettig et al. 2013 ; Herms, personal observation). Preventive treatments with fungicides have not exhibited efficacy (Ranger and Schultz, personal observation).

Trunk sprays of some botanical formulations, especially products containing allyl isothiocyanate, also show some efficacy against reducing ambrosia beetle attacks ( Ranger et al. 2011b ). However, the higher costs often associated with botanical insecticides could hamper their incorporation into a management program. Botanical insecticides would be of interest to organic producers.

Push-Pull Strategy

Ambrosia beetles, including X. germanus and X. crassiusculus , overwinter within their host plants, and recent studies have confirmed that wooded areas serve as source populations for beetles moving into neighboring ornamental nurseries ( Ranger et al. 2013a , Reding et al. 2015 , Werle et al. 2015 ). Behavioral manipulation as part of a push-pull management strategy ( Pyke et al. 1987 , Miller and Cowles 1990 ) may be effective for managing ambrosia beetles in ornamental nurseries, using repellents to push beetles away from vulnerable nursery stock and attractants to pull beetles into annihilative traps.

Verbenone, a bark beetle antiaggregation pheromone, is a promising push component for strategic deployment in ornamental nurseries. At a release rate of 50 mg/d, verbenone reduced attraction of X. germanus to ethanol-baited traps by 96.9% ( Ranger et al. 2013a ). Verbenone also reduced attraction of X. germanus to ethanol-baited traps at a release rate of 2 mg/d ( Ranger et al. 2014 ). Orientation by X. crassiusculus , X. compactus , and X. saxesenii also were disrupted by verbenone ( Dudley et al. 2006 , Van DerLaan and Ginzel 2013 ). A verbenone dispenser attached to ethanol-injected Magnolia virginiana L. trap trees deployed in Ohio reduced ambrosia beetle attacks by 85% compared to trap trees without a verbenone dispenser ( Ranger et al. 2013a ). In some instances, attacks on ethanol-injected trees also decreased with an increasing proximity to a verbenone emitter. Similarly, verbenone reduced the attraction of X. germanus and Gnathotrichus materiarius (Fitch) to red pine, Pinus resinosa Ait., trap trees, which were created by stem injections of the herbicide dicamba (3,6-dichloro- ο -anisic acid; Dodds and Miller 2010 ). The capability of verbenone to interrupt ambrosia beetle orientation and reduce attacks suggests deployment of verbenone emitters could be a push component for deflecting beetles before their dispersal into ornamental nurseries. The effectiveness of repellents under field conditions also can improve by incorporating attractive host-plant odors (i.e., ethanol-baited traps) and host-masking repellents.

The strategic deployment of an ethanol-based trapping tactic, such as ethanol-baited traps or ethanol-infused stems, along the perimeter of growing areas adjacent to woodlots is a promising pull component that could be used to intercept ambrosia beetles before their dispersal into ornamental nurseries, given the positive concentration response to ethanol exhibited by X. germanus and X. crassiusculus ( Klimetzek et al. 1986 , Reding et al. 2011 , Ranger et al. 2012 ). However, additional studies are required to determine the optimal combination of repellent push components and attractive pull components along the perimeter of ornamental nurseries.

Concluding Remarks

Ambrosia beetles, particularly X. germanus and X. crassiusculus , are among the most destructive and challenging insect pests of crops in ornamental plant nurseries. There is still much critical knowledge to learn about ambrosia beetle biology, behavior, and ecology, especially as more invasive bark and ambrosia beetles are introduced into N. America. For example, the nonnative ambrosia beetle Anisandrus maiche Stark has recently become established in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia and been documented to attack ornamental nursery trees ( Rabaglia et al. 2009 , Ranger et al. 2015b ). Although this publication focused on X. germanus and X. crassiusculus , understanding the biology, ecology, and pathology of their primary and auxiliary fungi are also important components necessary for developing effective management plans. Although rapid wilting and dieback are commonly observed following ambrosia beetle attacks, the fundamental causes for the symptoms are not well understood. Further studies are needed to optimize a push-pull strategy for managing ambrosia beetles in ornamental plant nurseries.

Acknowledgments

We thank Jenny Barnett (USDA-ARS), Betsy Anderson (USDA-ARS), Hélène Doughty (VT-HRAREC), Elizabeth Barekzi (VT-HRAREC), and Elizabeth Gliem (VT-HRAREC) for technical assistance. We also thank two anonymous reviewers for providing useful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. This project was funded by the Floriculture and Nursery Research Initiative (USDA-FNRI), Horticultural Research Institute (HRI), USDA-ARS National Program 304-Crop Protection and Quarantine (Project 3607-22000-012-00D), American Nursery and Landscape Association, USDA-Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, and the Virginia Nursery and Landscape Association. Mention of proprietary products or companies does not imply any endorsement or preferential treatment by the USDA-Agricultural Research Service, The Ohio State University, Virginia Tech, Tennessee State University, North Carolina State University, Clemson University, or the University of Maryland.

References Cited

(CABI) Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International Invasive Species Compendium

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Biology, Ecology, and Management of Nonnative Ambrosia Beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) in Ornamental Plant Nurseries

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Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford) and Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Motschulsky) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) are two of the most damaging nonnative ambrosia beetle pests in ornamental plant nurseries. Adult females tunnel into the stems and branches of host plants to create galleries with brood chambers. Hosts are infected with symbiotic Ambrosiella spp.

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Primeros resultados de la comunidad de insectos forestales capturada en trampeos para detectar la especie invasora Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Scolytinae)

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Primeros resultados de la comunidad de insectos forestales capturada en trampeos para detectar la especie invasora Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Scolytinae)

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Proyecto LIFE SAMFIX: Primeros resultados de la comunidad de insectos forestales capturada en trampeos para detectar la especie invasora Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Scolytinae)

1. [1] Departamento de Ecología, Universidad de Alicante

2. [2] CIEF VAERS

3. [3] SILCO S.L

Localización: Cuadernos de la Sociedad Española de Ciencias Forestales, ISSN 1575-2410, ISSN-e 2386-8368, Nº. 46, 1, 2020, págs. 71-82

Idioma: español

Títulos paralelos:

LIFE SAMFIX project: First results of the forest insect community captured in traps to detect the invasive species Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Scolytinae)

Enlaces

Texto completo (pdf)

Resumen

español
Xylosandrus crassiusculus es una especie exótica de escolítido de ambrosía que se detectó en la península Ibérica por primera vez en 2016 en unos algarrobos atacados en un área residencial, en Benifaió, a unos 20 km de la ciudad de Valencia y colindante con el Parque Natural Municipal de El Tello (Llombai). Tan sólo se han registrado ataques de X. crassiusculus sobre algarrobo, causando el secado de ramillos, la muerte de ramas e incluso la de la totalidad de parte aérea del árbol, aunque sin mermar la capacidad de rebrote. Se trata de un insecto muy polífago, con hospedadores como Diospyros kaki, Ficus carica, Malus domestica, Prunus avium, P. domestica, P. pérsica, y los géneros Alnus, Quercus, Populus, Salix, Ulmus, entre otros. El proyecto SAMFIX tiene el objetivo desarrollar de forma colaborativa competencias e investigación para desarrollar protocolos y herramientas de gestión de dos especies exóticas de X. crassiusculus y X. compactus. Cuenta con socios de Italia, Francia y España. La Universidad de Alicante es el socio español, Departamento de Ecología y el Instituto Universitario de investigación CBIO, colaborando con el Servicio de Ordenación y Gestión Forestal de la Generalitat Valenciana. Se aportan los primeros resultados relativos a la comunidad de saproxílicos asociada a X. craussiusculus, enmarcada en las tareas C3 y D2 del proyecto SAMFIX. Se está encontrando una comunidad compleja, compuesta preliminarmente por entre 40 y 50 especies, que incluye xilófagos, floemófagos, escolítidos de ambrosía autóctonos, depredadores, depredadores facultativos, e incluso otras especies invasoras ya establecidas como Xyleborus ferrugineus

English
Xylosandrus crassiusculus is an alien ambrosia beetle species detected for first time in Iberian Peninsula in 2016, attacking a few carob trees in a residential area of Benifaió, near of Valencia, surrounding of the Parque Natural Municipal de El Tello (Llombai). Only attacks on carob trees have been observed, causing death of fine and big branches, and in only a case the entire tree death, although without diminishing their regrowing ability. They are insects with a wide host spectrum: Diospyros kaki, Ficus carica, Malus domestica, Prunus avium, P. domestica, P. pérsica, and the genus Alnus, Quercus, Populus, Salix, Ulmus, among others. The LIFE SAMFIX project is aimed to developing collaborative competences and researchs for develop protocols and tools for of management of two alien species X. crassiusculus and X. compactus. The project have partners in Italy, France and Spain. The Spanish partner is the University of Alicante (Department of Ecology and CBIO Institute), in collaboration with the Servicio de Ordenación y Gestión Forestal of the Valencian Regional Gobernment. First results of community of saproxylic beetles associated to X. crassiusculus are showed, product of C3 and D2 Actions of SAMFIX project. A high complexed community emerging from our results, composed at the present by between 40 or 50 species, including xylophagous, floemophagous, native ambrosia beetles, predators, intraguild predators, and other alien species as Xyleborus ferrugineus.

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proyecto life samfix: primeros resultados de la comunidad de insectos forestales capturada en trampeos para detectar la especie invasora xylosandrus crassiusculus (coleoptera

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Proyecto LIFE SAMFIX: Primeros resultados de la comunidad de insectos forestales capturada en trampeos para detectar la especie invasora Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Scolytinae)

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Autorías: D. Gallego, Noelia Molina, Nicolò di Sora, Hugo Mas Gisbert, E. González. Localización: Cuadernos de la Sociedad Española de Ciencias Forestales. Nº. 46, 2020. Artículo de Revista en Dialnet.

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Sobre la nomenclatura de una especie norteafricana de Pachyrhinus Schoenherr, 1823 (Coleoptera, Curculionidae)

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Sobre la nomenclatura de una especie norteafricana de Pachyrhinus Schoenherr, 1823 (Coleoptera, Curculionidae)

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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33763965/

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Affiliations

¹ Department of Plant Biotechnology, Centre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India.

² Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland, Ecosciences Precinct, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.

³ Department of Agricultural Entomology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India.

Affiliations

¹ Department of Plant Biotechnology, Centre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India.

² Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland, Ecosciences Precinct, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.

³ Department of Agricultural Entomology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India.

Abstract

Background: The rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is a cosmopolitan pest of stored cereal grains and other commodities globally. Infestations caused by S. oryzae makes grains unsuitable for consumption, processing, and export. Deltamethrin, a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide, is widely used in major grain storages in India as a prophylactic treatment to control this pest. However, recurrent use of this insecticide had led to genetic resistance in S. oryzae, questioning its ongoing use at the current recommended concentration.

Results: Dose response analysis of resistant (Delta-R) and susceptible (Lab-S) strains of S. oryzae collected from grain storages across southern India, revealed that Delta-R was 134-fold more resistant than the Lab-S at median lethal concentration (LC ₅₀ ). A concentration of 180 ppm over 48 h effectively discriminated 16 resistant field populations from Lab-S with per cent resistance ranging from 8.72% to 75.86%. Exposing all the resistant populations to 1000 ppm over 48 h identified 12 populations with strongly resistant individuals and confirmed the existence of two distinct resistance phenotypes, 'weak' and 'strong' in S. oryzae. Furthermore, sequence analysis of the voltage-gated sodium channel (vgsc) gene in Delta-R identified a single target site mutation, T929I conferring resistance in S. oryzae. CAPS (Cleaved Amplified Polymorphic Sequence) marker analysis of this allele confirmed that frequency of resistance is high (up to 0.96) supporting the results of phenotypic analysis.

Conclusion: Both phenotype and molecular marker analyses clearly demonstrated that deltamethrin at 180 and 1000 ppm can be used to discriminate weakly and strongly resistant populations in S. oryzae, respectively. Resistance diagnostics based on the mutation, T929I, supports our phenotypic data and indicates that resistance to deltamethrin in S. oryzae is prevalent in southern parts of India, stressing the need to identify a synergist or suitable alternatives. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Keywords: T929I; deltamethrin; diagnostics and management; resistance; stored grain.

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voltage-gated sodium channels / genetics*

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national center for biotechnology information

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Phenotypic and molecular analyses in rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (Linneaus) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae): identification of a super kdr mutation, T929I, conferring resistance to deltamethrin - PubMed

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Both phenotype and molecular marker analyses clearly demonstrated that deltamethrin at 180 and 1000 ppm can be used to discriminate weakly and strongly resistant populations in S. oryzae, respectively. Resistance diagnostics based on the mutation, T929I, supports our phenotypic data and indicates th ...

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https://biblioteca.cenicafe.org/bitstream/10778/4241/1/CAP9.pdf

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http://www.repositorio.ufal.br/jspui/bitstream/123456789/8769/1/Caracteriza%c3%a7%c3%a3o%20da%20microbiota%20intestinal%20cultiv%c3%a1vel%20de%20Rhynchophorus%20palmarum%20Linnaeus%20%28Coleoptera%20-%20Curculionidae%29%20e%20determina%c3%a7%c3%a3o%20da%20atividade%20celulol%c3%adtica.pdf