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How Is Chocolate Made? kids' book from the leading digital reading platform with a collection of 40,000+ books from 250+ of the world's best publishers. Read now on Epic.

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Cacao tree

Cacao fruits on the tree

Scientific classification

Genus:

Species:

Synonyms

Cacao minar Gaertn.

Cacao minus Gaertn.

Cacao sativa Aubl.

Cacao theobroma Tussac

Theobroma cacao f. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Ducke

Theobroma cacao subsp. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cuatrec.

Theobroma cacao var. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cif.

Theobroma cacao subsp. sativa (Aubl.) León

Theobroma cacao var. typica Cif.

Theobroma caribaea Sweet

Theobroma integerrima Stokes

Theobroma kalagua De Wild.

Theobroma leiocarpum Bernoulli

Theobroma pentagonum Bernoulli

Theobroma saltzmanniana Bernoulli

Theobroma sapidum Pittier

Theobroma sativa (Aubl.) Lign. & Le Bey

Theobroma sativa var. leucosperma A. Chev.

Theobroma sativa var. melanosperma A. Chev.

Theobroma sativum (Aubl.) Lign. & Bey

Theobroma cacao ( cacao tree or cocoa tree) is a small (6-12 m (20-39 ft) tall) evergreen tree in the family Malvaceae. Its seeds, cocoa beans, are used to make chocolate liquor, cocoa solids, cocoa butter and chocolate. The largest producer of cocoa beans in 2018 was Ivory Coast, at 2.2 million tons.

Description

Its leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, 10-50 cm (4-20 in) long and 5-10 cm (2-4 in) broad.

The flowers are produced in clusters directly on the trunk and older branches; this is known as cauliflory. The flowers are small, 1-2 cm (- in) diameter, with pink calyx. The floral formula, used to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, is ✶ K5 C5 A(5°+5 ²) G(5).

While many of the world's flowers are pollinated by bees ( Hymenoptera) or butterflies/ moths ( Lepidoptera), cacao flowers are pollinated by tiny flies, Forcipomyia midges in the subfamily Forcipomyiinae. Using the natural pollinator Forcipomyia midges for Theobroma cacao was shown to have more fruit production than using artificial pollinators.

The fruit, called a cacao pod, is ovoid, 15-30 cm (6-12 in) long and 8-10 cm (3-4 in) wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighs about 500 g (1 lb) when ripe. The pod contains 20 to 60 seeds, usually called "beans", embedded in a white pulp.

The seeds are the main ingredient of chocolate, while the pulp is used in some countries to prepare refreshing juice, smoothies, jelly, and cream. Each seed contains a significant amount of fat (40-50%) as cocoa butter.

The fruit's active constituent is the stimulant theobromine, a compound similar to caffeine.

Nomenclature

The generic name Theobroma is derived from the Greek for "food of the gods"; from (theos), meaning 'god' or 'divine', and (broma), meaning 'food'. The specific name cacao is the Hispanization of the name given to the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages such as kakaw in Tzeltal, Kʼicheʼ and Classic Maya; kagaw in Sayula Popoluca; and cacahuatl in Nahuatl meaning "bean of the cocoa-tree".

Cacao ( Theobroma cacao) is one of 26 species belonging to the genus classified under the subfamily Byttnerioideae of the mallow family Malvaceae.

In 2008, researchers proposed a new classification based upon morphological, geographic, and genomic criteria: 10 groups have been named according to their geographic origin or the traditional cultivar name. These groups are: Amelonado, Criollo, Nacional, Contamana, Curaray, Cacao guiana, Iquitos, Marañon, Nanay, and Purús.

Distribution and domestication

T. cacao is widely distributed from southeastern Mexico to the Amazon basin. There were originally two hypotheses about its domestication; one said that there were two foci for domestication, one in the Lacandon Jungle area of Mexico and another in lowland South America. More recent studies of patterns of DNA diversity, however, suggest that this is not the case. One study sampled 1241 trees and classified them into 10 distinct genetic clusters. This study also identified areas, for example around Iquitos in modern Peru and Ecuador, where representatives of several genetic clusters originated more than 5000 years ago, leading to development of the variety, Nacional cocoa bean. This result suggests that this is where T. cacao was originally domesticated, probably for the pulp that surrounds the beans, which is eaten as a snack and fermented into a mildly alcoholic beverage. Using the DNA sequences and comparing them with data derived from climate models and the known conditions suitable for cacao, one study refined the view of domestication, linking the area of greatest cacao genetic diversity to a bean-shaped area that encompasses Ecuador, the border between Brazil and Peru and the southern part of the Colombian-Brazilian border. Climate models indicate that at the peak of the last ice age 21,000 years ago, when habitat suitable for cacao was at its most reduced, this area was still suitable, and so provided a refugium for the species.

Cacao trees grow well as understory plants in humid forest ecosystems. This is equally true of abandoned cultivated trees, making it difficult to distinguish truly wild trees from those whose parents may originally have been cultivated.

Currency system

Cacao beans constituted both a ritual beverage and a major currency system in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. At one point, the Aztec empire received a yearly tribute of 980 loads (Classical Nahuatl: xiquipilli) of cacao, in addition to other goods. Each load represented exactly 8,000 beans. The buying power of quality beans was such that 80-100 beans could buy a new cloth mantle. The use of cacao beans as currency is also known to have spawned counterfeiters during the Aztec empire.

Cultivation

In 2016, cocoa beans were cultivated on roughly 10,196,725 hectares (25,196,660 acres) worldwide. Cocoa beans are grown by large agroindustrial plantations and small producers, the bulk of production coming from millions of farmers with small plots. A tree begins to bear when it is four or five years old. A mature tree may have 6,000 flowers in a year, yet only about 20 pods. About 1,200 seeds (40 pods) are required to produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of cocoa paste.

Historically, chocolate makers have recognized three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate: Forastero, Criollo and Trinitario. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is arguably less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. In November 2000, the cacao beans coming from Chuao were awarded an appellation of origin under the title Cacao de Chuao (from Spanish: 'cacao of Chuao').

The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero group, the main and most ubiquitous variety being the Amenolado variety, while the Arriba variety (such as the Nacional variety) are less commonly found in Forastero produce. Forastero trees are significantly hardier and more disease-resistant than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans.

Major cocoa bean processors include Hershey's, Nestlé and Mars, all of which purchase cocoa beans via various sources. Chocolate can be made from T. cacao through a process of steps that involve harvesting, fermenting of T. cacao pulp, drying, harvesting, and then extraction. Roasting T. cacao by using superheated steam was found to be better than conventional roasting (use of ovens) because it resulted in same quality of cocoa beans in a shorter amount of time.

Production

In 2018, world production of cocoa beans was 5.3 million metric tons (5.8 million short tons), led by Ivory Coast with 37% of the total. Other major producers were Ghana (18%) and Indonesia (11%).

Conservation

The pests and diseases to which cacao is subject, along with climate change, mean that new varieties will be needed to respond to these challenges. Breeders rely on the genetic diversity conserved in field genebanks to create new varieties, because cacao has recalcitrant seeds that cannot be stored in a conventional genebank. In an effort to improve the diversity available to breeders, and ensure the future of the field genebanks, experts have drawn up A Global Strategy for the Conservation and Use of Cacao Genetic Resources, as the Foundation for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy. The strategy has been adopted by the cacao producers and their clients, and seeks to improve the characterization of cacao diversity, the sustainability and diversity of the cacao collections, the usefulness of the collections, and to ease access to better information about the conserved material. Some natural areas of cacao diversity are protected by various forms of conservation, for example national parks. However, a recent study of genetic diversity and predicted climates suggests that many of those protected areas will no longer be suitable for cacao by 2050. It also identifies an area around Iquitos in Peru that will remain suitable for cacao and that is home to considerable genetic diversity, and recommends that this area be considered for protection. Other projects, such as the International Cocoa Quarantine Centre, aim to combat cacao diseases and preserve genetic diversity.

Phytopathogens (parasitic organisms) cause much damage to Theobroma cacao plantations around the world. Many of those phytopathogens, which include many of the pests named below, were analyzed using mass spectrometry and allow for guiding on the correct approaches to get rid of the specific phytopathogens. This method was found to be quick, reproducible, and accurate showing promising results in the future to prevent damage to Theobroma cacao by various phytopathogens.

A specific type of bacteria Streptomyces camerooniansis was found to be beneficial for T. cacao by helping plant growth by accelerating seed germination of T. cacao, inhibiting growth of various types of microorganisms (such as different oomycetes, fungi, and bacteria), and preventing rotting by Phytophthora megakarya.

Various plant pests and diseases can cause serious problems for cacao production.

Insects

Cocoa mirids or capsids worldwide (but especially Sahlbergella singularis and Distantiella theobroma in West Africa and Helopeltis spp. in Southeast Asia)

Bathycoelia thalassina - West Africa

Conopomorpha cramerella (cocoa pod borer - in Southeast Asia)

Carmenta theobromae - C. & S. America

Fungi

Moniliophthora roreri (frosty pod rot)

Moniliophthora perniciosa (witches' broom)

Ceratocystis cacaofunesta (mal de machete) or (Ceratocystis wilt)

Verticillium dahliae

Oncobasidium theobromae (vascular streak dieback)

Oomycetes
Phytophthora spp. (black pod) especially Phytophthora megakarya in West Africa

Rats and other vertebrate pests (squirrels, woodpeckers, etc.)

NCBI genome ID

572

Ploidy

diploid

Genome size

345.99 Mb

Number of chromosomes

10 pairs

Year of completion

2010

The genome of T. cacao is diploid, its size is 430 M bp, and it comprises 10 chromosome pairs (2n=2x=20). In September 2010, a team of scientists announced a draft sequence of the cacao genome (Matina1-6 genotype). In a second, unrelated project, the International Cocoa Genome Sequencing Consortium-ICGS, co-ordinated by CIRAD, first published in December 2010 (online, paper publication in January 2011), the sequence of the cacao genome, of the Criollo cacao (of a landrace from Belize, B97-61/B2). In their publication, they reported a detailed analysis of the genomic and genetic data.

The sequence of the cacao genome identified 28,798 protein-coding genes, compared to the roughly 23,000 protein-coding genes of the human genome. About 20% of the cacao genome consists of transposable elements, a low proportion compared to other plant species. Many genes were identified as coding for flavonoids, aromatic terpenes, theobromine and many other metabolites involved in cocoa flavor and quality traits, among which a relatively high proportion code for polyphenols, which constitute up to 8% of cacao pods dry weight. The cacao genome appears close to the hypothetical hexaploid ancestor of all dicotyledonous plants, and it is proposed as an evolutionary mechanism by which the 21 chromosomes of the dicots' hypothetical hexaploid ancestor underwent major fusions leading to cacao's 10 chromosome pairs.

The genome sequence enables cacao molecular biology and breeding for elite varieties through marker-assisted selection, in particular for genetic resistance to fungal, oomycete and viral diseases responsible for huge yield losses each year. In 2017-18, due to concerns about survivability of cacao plants in an era of global warming in which climates become more extreme in the narrow band of latitudes where cacao is grown (20 degrees north and south of the equator), the commercial company, Mars, Incorporated and the University of California, Berkeley are using CRISPR to adjust DNA for improved hardiness of cacao in hot climates.

History of cultivation

Despite its original domestication having taken place in the upper Amazon probably c. 4000 years ago, cultivation, use, and cultural elaboration of cacao were early and extensive in Mesoamerica. Ceramic vessels with residues from the preparation of cacao beverages have been found at archaeological sites dating back to the Early Formative (1900-900 BC) period. For example, one such vessel found at an Olmec archaeological site on the Gulf Coast of Veracruz, Mexico dates cacao's preparation by pre-Olmec peoples as early as 1750 BC. On the Pacific coast of Chiapas, Mexico, a Mokaya archaeological site provides evidence of cacao beverages dating even earlier, to 1900 BC. In 2018, researchers who analysed the genome of cultivated cacao trees concluded that the domesticated cacao trees all originated from a single domestication event that occurred about 3,600 years ago somewhere in Central America.

Several mixtures of cacao are described in ancient texts, for ceremonial or medicinal, as well as culinary, purposes. Some mixtures included maize, chili, vanilla ( Vanilla planifolia), and honey. Archaeological evidence for use of cacao, while relatively sparse, has come from the recovery of whole cacao beans at Uaxactun, Guatemala and from the preservation of wood fragments of the cacao tree at Belize sites including Cuello and Pulltrouser Swamp. In addition, analysis of residues from ceramic vessels has found traces of theobromine and caffeine in early formative vessels from Puerto Escondido, Honduras (1100-900 BC) and in middle formative vessels from Colha, Belize (600-400 BC) using similar techniques to those used to extract chocolate residues from four classic period (around 400 AD) vessels from a tomb at the Maya archaeological site of Rio Azul. As cacao is the only known commodity from Mesoamerica containing both of these alkaloid compounds, it seems likely these vessels were used as containers for cacao drinks. In addition, cacao is named in a hieroglyphic text on one of the Rio Azul vessels. Cacao is also believed to have been ground by the Aztecs and mixed with tobacco for smoking purposes. Cocoa was being domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC.

Modern history

The first European knowledge about chocolate came in the form of a beverage which was first introduced to the Spanish at their meeting with Moctezuma in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan in 1519. Cortés and others noted the vast quantities of this beverage the Aztec emperor consumed, and how it was carefully whipped by his attendants beforehand. Examples of cacao beans, along with other agricultural products, were brought back to Spain at that time, but it seems the beverage made from cacao was introduced to the Spanish court in 1544 by Kekchi Maya nobles brought from the New World to Spain by Dominican friars to meet Prince Philip. Within a century, chocolate had spread to France, England and elsewhere in Western Europe. Demand for this beverage led the French to establish cacao plantations in the Caribbean, while Spain subsequently developed their cacao plantations in their Venezuelan and Philippine colonies (Bloom 1998, Coe 1996). A painting by Dutch Golden Age artist Albert Eckhout shows a wild cacao tree in mid-seventeenth century Dutch Brazil. The Nahuatl-derived Spanish word cacao entered scientific nomenclature in 1753 after the Swedish naturalist Linnaeus published his taxonomic binomial system and coined the genus and species Theobroma cacao. Traditional pre-Hispanic beverages made with cacao are still consumed in Mesoamerica. These include the Oaxacan beverage known as .

The Maya believed the kakaw (cacao) was discovered by the gods in a mountain that also contained other delectable foods to be used by them. According to Maya mythology, the Plumed Serpent gave cacao to the Maya after humans were created from maize by divine grandmother goddess Xmucane. The Maya celebrated an annual festival in April to honor their cacao god, Ek Chuah, an event that included the sacrifice of a dog with cacao-colored markings, additional animal sacrifices, offerings of cacao, feathers and incense, and an exchange of gifts. In a similar creation story, the Mexica ( Aztec) god Quetzalcoatl discovered cacao (cacahuatl: "bitter water"), in a mountain filled with other plant foods. Cacao was offered regularly to a pantheon of Mexica deities and the Madrid Codex depicts priests lancing their ear lobes (autosacrifice) and covering the cacao with blood as a suitable sacrifice to the gods. The cacao beverage was used as a ritual only by men, as it was believed to be an intoxicating food unsuitable for women and children.

In Spanish: Theobroma cacao para niños

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Aztecs and Mayans first created xocolatl, a hot chocolate drink often mixed with vanilla or chili peppers. Cocoa beans were so highly valued, they were used as money until the 1800s. Ecuador was once the primary producer of cocoa, but today about 80 percent is grown in the West African nations of Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana.

Theobroma cacao: the Cacao Tree

Cocoa beans come from the cacao tree. The cocoa belt is found exclusively around the equator, with most cocoa trees growing within 10° of the equator. Cacao trees need a humid climate with a lot of rain. They grow best in the partial shade of large rainforest trees. The cacao tree is an evergreen that grows to be 15-25 feet tall. The fruit, which is called a pod, grows directly from the trunk and can reach 4-12 inches in length. The pods ripen into a variety of colors such as red, yellow and purple.

Each pod contains 20-60 cocoa beans, enclosed by sweet pulp. Because cacao trees tolerate the shade of taller rainforest trees, the rainforest does not need to be destroyed to grow cocoa. Each tree produces only 50-60 pods a year, yielding 15-20 pounds of beans. A single pod can contain 20-40 beans, and it takes around 400 beans to make only one pound of chocolate!

And now, let us follow the production of a chocolate bar from the bean to our taste buds...

Harvest

Harvest takes place twice a year from November to January and May to July. The fruit is hand-picked to protect the trees. Once harvested from the trees, the pods are opened and their seeds are removed.

Fermentation

First, the beans and pulp are laid in fermentation boxes. The process of fermentation produces heat, requiring the beans to be stirred. At the end of the five-day fermentation process, the beans become brown, bitterness subsides, and the flavor develops.

Drying

After fermentation, the beans still contain too much water to be turned into chocolate. The beans are spread out in the sunshine to dry. Most beans are sun-dried for up to 14 days. After drying, the beans are inspected and separated.

Roasting

Roasting takes place at 210° F for 10-15 minutes. Roasting sterilizes the beans, enhances flavor, and makes the next step much easier.

Winnowing

Winnowing is the process of taking the shells off of the beans. What is left over is the "nib," the most desired part of the bean.

Grinding

The nibs are then ground, either by machine or between two stones. A liquid mass called cocoa liquor is produced. With more grinding and the addition of sugar, chocolate is made!

Conching

Conching is the process of mixing the cocoa mass (not yet chocolate). It is continuously mixed at a certain temperature to develop flavor, remove moisture and break down large pieces. This can take hours to days, depending on the desired outcome. The finest chocolates are conched for five days.

Tempering

The next step is tempering. The chocolate is slowly heated and cooled, allowing the cocoa mass to solidify and stabilize. Without tempering, the chocolate would separate and would not harden well.

Chocolate!

Today, Americans consume 11.7 pounds of chocolate per person each year! Cocoa is the world's third most traded agricultural product after coffee and sugar.

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Chocolate: The Journey From Beans to Bar

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Share this... Facebook Twitter Linkedin EmailAztecs and Mayans first created xocolatl, a hot chocolate drink often mixed with vanilla or chili peppers. Cocoa beans were so highly valued, they were used as money until the 1800s. Ecuador was once the primary producer of cocoa, but today about 80 percent is grown in the West African [...]

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This remarkable reversal of fortune is perhaps partly responsible for the "myth" of the conquest, in which the gallant adventurer Cortés and a few hundred plucky conquistadors overcame overwhelming odds to defeat the tremendous might of the Aztec empire. The reality is far more complex, but at the same time far more impressive. In only two years, Hernán Cortés brought about the downfall of an efficient military civilisation through a combination of diplomacy, warfare, tactics, luck and sheer force of personality. The conquest of the Aztecs is more complicated than the simple myth of European superiority, but it remains an incredible achievement in military history.

In the early 16th century, Spanish colonies were already well established in the Caribbean islands and they were turning their eyes westward. In 1519, Cortés was appointed to lead an expedition to the American mainland but, apparently realising the potential of the gathered force of "conquistadors", as they came to be called, the governor of Cuba became suspicious and withdrew his permission for the expedition. Showing the relentless ambition which would lead him to success, Cortés defied the governor and sailed anyway, later justifying his actions by appeal to the Spanish Crown.

Having arrived in the Gulf of Mexico with the largest force yet seen in the New World, Cortés ordered that most of the 10 ships of his fleet be disabled, depriving the conquistadors and sailors of any choice but to follow him into the jungle.

This grand gesture confirmed his intention, as he later declared, "that they would conquer and win the land, or die in the attempt". Although his original instructions had been only to explore the region, Cortés hoped to achieve far greater gains. Rumours of a powerful kingdom in the interior had been confirmed by emissaries from the city of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztecs. Bringing gifts of gold which roused the Spaniards' greed, the messengers brought word from the Aztec tlatoani (speaker) Moctecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, the powerful ruler who became known to history as Montezuma.

When he heard of Cortés's arrival Montezuma refused to meet with the Spaniards, instead sending gifts, offering the tribute that frequently resolved disputes in Mesoamerican society. Much has been made of the Aztecs' "superstitious" belief that Cortés was a god, and that Montezuma was paralysed with fear by a series of omens predicting the downfall of the city. Cortés's deification appears to be a combination of mistranslation and later invention, however, and although it is very likely that some of the portents occurred - a comet, an eclipse, a deformed birth - it seems likely that, looking to explain their devastating defeat, the Aztecs retrospectively identified these omens as markers of their downfall. There is no real evidence that they were regarded as ominous premonitions before the conquest.

Exploiting internal hostilities

As the conquistadors marched toward Tenochtitlan they encountered the subjects and enemies of the Aztecs, and Cortés increasingly observed internal hostilities that he could exploit to his advantage. Through a combination of brutal force and diplomacy, he gradually convinced many groups to support him and openly defy the Aztecs. The people of Tlaxcala in particular had long been enemies of Tenochtitlan and, after first resisting the Spanish incursion ferociously, they accepted the military superiority of the Europeans and agreed to support them against Montezuma's rule. With their red and white insignia, thousands of Tlaxcalans accompanied the Spanish when, in November 1519, the conquistadors caught their first sight of the island city of Tenochtitlan, which seemed to one like an "enchanted vision" rising out of the lake. Cortés immediately recognised the city's value and hoped to present it intact to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

Wanting to secure the city peacefully, Cortés negotiated his way into Tenochtitlan as an ambassador of Charles V and was magnificently received by Montezuma, who entertained the Spaniards and their allies lavishly. During their first few days in the city, the conquistadors were shown both the wonders and horrors of this new world. They marvelled at the towering temples, grand palaces, beautiful gardens and great markets, but were revolted by the terrible spectacle of human sacrifice. The conquistador Bernal Díaz, who wrote a famous history of the conquest, described it graphically: "The walls of that shrine were so splashed and caked with blood that they and the floor too were black... the stench was worse than that of any slaughterhouse in Spain".

The Spanish revulsion at human sacrifice has often been described as nothing but a justification for their invasion, but the religious impetus to conquest should not be underestimated. Cortés was a devout Christian. His letters to Charles V show the profound belief that if the "evil practices" of the Aztecs could be stopped then they would "worship the true God with... fervour, faith and diligence" and his attitude is typical of many Catholics in this period. From his earliest days in the city, Cortés urged the Aztecs to renounce human sacrifice and replace their idols with images of the Virgin Mary.

The Spanish revulsion at human sacrifice has often been described as nothing but a justification for their invasion, but the religious impetus to conquest should not be underestimated

Surrounded by thousands of warriors in the Aztec capital, the conquistadors became increasingly aware of their precarious position and began to fear a trap. Withdrawal would have alienated their allies, who were receiving word of aggressive Aztec behaviour in the provinces, and so Cortés resolved on a bold course of action. He seized Montezuma, and for the next eight months ruled the city through him. Why and to what extent Montezuma cooperated remains unclear, but his cooperation certainly secured the temporary obedience of the people, albeit in an atmosphere of increasing resentment.

When Cortés was forced to leave the city to deal with a force sent by the governor of Cuba, the mounting antipathy between the Spanish and Aztecs finally exploded, and the Spanish were driven from the city. In the wake of this Night of Tears, Cortés showed remarkable fortitude, leadership and resourcefulness. Retreating to Tlaxcala, he marshalled his remaining forces and allies, not without difficulty, and determined to reverse their fortunes. The key to Cortés's plan was the building of 12 brigantines that would allow him to command the lake and besiege Tenochtitlan. Constructed in Tlaxcala, the boats were carried in pieces to the lake by thousands of indigenous bearers in an incredible feat of dedication and skill.

After Christmas 1520, the conquistadors set out to return to Tenochtitlan. They had to face attacks in outlying regions, but the brigantines were finally launched late in April 1521 and, with forces besieging the city from every direction, the battle began in earnest. The siege was devastating for both sides. The skill and sheer number of the Aztec warriors caused massive casualties among the attackers, even while they themselves died in huge numbers from starvation and disease.

Cortés repeatedly sought the Aztecs' surrender, hoping to avoid the total destruction of the city, but it became clear that the Aztecs would fight to the death and the attackers were forced to close the lines of escape, no longer drawing back to their camps at night, but advancing all the time and destroying buildings to prevent their recapture. During the turbulent days before the Night of Tears, Montezuma was killed - a crime of which each side accused the other. Cuauhtemoc, a young and determined warrior, succeeded to the throne after Montezuma's unfortunate successor died of the smallpox epidemic that was ravaging the city.

Combined with Spanish military technology, European diseases have often been accorded a major role in the conquest of the Aztecs; the "guns, germs and steel" theory made popular by Jared Diamond. The weapons and armour of the Spaniards were certainly formidable against the easily-shattered obsidian blades and arrows of the indigenous people, but the thousands of allies supporting the conquistadors should not be forgotten. Smallpox certainly added to the rigours of the siege and disrupted the Aztec chain of command, but it also affected other indigenous peoples, including Cortés's allies.

This "germ warfare" profoundly impacted on the New World as a whole, as indigenous populations, lacking any natural resistance, were devastated by European diseases. On 13 August 1521, Cuauhtemoc was captured and the Aztecs admitted defeat. Tenochtitlan, Cortés's great prize, and its inhabitants were decimated. Cortés had conquered the Aztecs, but at the expense of the beautiful city he hoped to secure.

This 'germ warfare' profoundly impacted on the New World as a whole, as indigenous populations, lacking any natural resistance, were devastated by European diseases

There is one final piece, or rather person, to this puzzle. Doña Marina, the indigenous translator who appears constantly at Cortés's side in images of the conquest, and who eventually bore him a son, was critical to his ability to negotiate with indigenous people, which was central to the conquest. The figure of Marina epitomises the controversy of the conquest's legacy. She has been seen alternately as the mother of the mestizo (people of mixed blood) nation or the ultimate traitor to her people, and this ambiguity underlies modern Mexican attitudes to their history.

In recent years, the Aztec past has been increasingly rediscovered and valued as a vital part of Mexican heritage, but Spanish, particularly Catholic, culture also underlies their way of life. Colonialism cannot be justified by the doubtful measure of progress but, for better or worse, conquistadors helped to create the global world in which we live. Transatlantic links drove forward the exchange of goods, information and people, beginning the process of conquest and colonisation which created our modern multicultural world.
Caroline Dodds is a lecturer at the University of Leicester specialising in Aztec and early modern Atlantic history. Her book Bonds of Blood: Gender, Lifecycle, and Sacrifice in Aztec Culture was published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2008
Hernán Cortés: a short biography
Hernán Cortés was born in Extremadura, Spain, in the mid-1480s of respectable but undistinguished hidalgo (minor noble) birth. In 1506, he sailed to the Indies where he helped in the conquest of Cuba and married a relative of its first governor. In 1518, dissatisfied with life as a landowner, administrator and politician, he set out on his expedition to the American mainland. In 1522, after conquering the Aztecs, Cortés was appointed captain-general and governor of "New Spain" (Mexico), granting him great property and influence. In 1528, he sailed to Spain, where he was received and rewarded by Charles V, who also blessed his second marriage. After returning to Mexico in 1530, Cortés spent much of his life struggling to assert his rights and preserve his reputation, having met with considerable political opposition and been accused of murdering his first wife (who died in 1522). After returning to Spain in 1540 to plead his cause, he died disillusioned in Seville in 1547. Despite his bitterness, he was a rich man, and left both wealth and status to his many children.
The Aztec empire: culture and sacrifice

Between about 1350 and the 1520s, the Aztecs flourished on the site of modern-day Mexico City. They rose from humble beginnings as migrants from the north through a combination of military and diplomatic tactics to become the dominant force in the region.

Originally founded on inhospitable marsh and small islands in Lake Texcoco, by the 16th century their great island capital of Tenochtitlan had grown into a spectacular metropolis, linked to the mainland by three tremendous causeways and the heart of a network of nearly 400 subject and allied cities. A huge marketplace drew thousands of people every day from all over this "empire" (as some historians have called it) and a ceremonial precinct lay at the centre of the city, from which the pyramid of the Great Temple towered over the grid of canals and streets.

The city was clean and well-ordered, with strong laws and political administration, but the Aztecs have often been regarded as a brutal and even evil people because they practised human sacrifice. The Aztec gods required human blood (let from living bodies, as well as through the death of sacrificial victims) to nourish them and sustain the world. It was believed that sacrifice led to a privileged afterlife and some Aztecs themselves became victims, but captives were most commonly used for this purpose.

It was believed that the gods had destined the Aztecs to be a warrior people, and they became increasingly focused on warfare and military achievement, even practising "flowery wars" specifically for the purpose of securing victims. The Aztecs were not dehumanised by this bloodshed, however. They were an expressive and sophisticated civilisation that valued poetry, art and family highly. They believed sacrifice was a privilege, and were able to accept that violent death was a necessary part of life.

Cortés's route from Vera Cruz to Tenochtitlan
During his march to the Aztec capital, Cortés gathers valuable allies among enemies of Montezuma 8 August 1519: Beginning of the march to Tenochtitlan Having skirmished their way along the coast, and met with Montezuma's emissaries, Cortés and the conquistadors set out for Tenochtitlan from their settlement of Vera Cruz. 23 September 1519: Alliance is forged After several weeks of outright confrontation, the conquistadors make peace with the Aztecs' Tlaxcalan enemies and they enter the city of Tlaxcala, marking the beginning of the alliance between them. 8 November 1519, Cortés faces Montezuma Cortés faces Montezuma on the great causeway leading to Tenochtitlan. Less than a week later, he seizes the Aztec ruler and takes control of the city. 30 June 1520: Spaniards flee Tenochtitlan The Spaniards and their allies flee Tenochtitlan on the Night of Tears. Having lost more than half their company, they rally at Tlacopan before retreating to Tlaxcala. 28 April 1521: Start of the battle for Tenochtitlan Having fought their way back to the lake, the conquistadors launch their brigantines, besiege the city, and the great battle for Tenochtitlan begins. 13 August 1521: Aztecs surrender After months of fierce fighting, which leaves Tenochtitlan in ruins, the last tlatoani Cuauhtemoc is captured in a canoe on the lake and the Aztecs finally surrender.
Five key factors in the conquest
A combination of luck, allies and might have enabled Cortés to succeed
The importance of his leadership has at times been overstated, but Cortés undoubtedly made critical and creative decisions at key moments in the conquest and provided effective and often inspirational leadership. A clear and ambitious tactician, he was devout, brave and single-minded in pursuit of his goals.

Guns, armour and steel weaponry would not alone have been sufficient to overcome the Aztecs' numerical advantage, but they were certainly effective, particularly in skirmishing. Horses and war dogs were also new to the Aztecs, who quickly realised their tactical importance and began to target them in battle.

Alliances with the Aztecs' enemies and disgruntled subjects ensured the conquistadors an almost unending supply of warriors, auxiliary support, food and other supplies. Links with individuals, particularly the interpreter Malinztin, also gave Cortés considerable tactical and diplomatic advantages and allowed him to negotiate directly with indigenous peoples.

Lacking any natural immunity, the indigenous peoples were decimated by diseases brought by the conquistadors. Smallpox was particularly devastating during the conquest of Mexico and, in the following years, other illnesses such as measles, mumps, typhus, influenza and the plague brought many indigenous American populations to near extinction.

The Aztecs' practice of warfare disadvantaged them in some encounters as they fought to capture victims for human sacrifice rather than to kill. An earlier realisation of the extent of the conquistadors' intentions might also have allowed the Aztecs to marshal resistance and move against them more effectively.
This article was first published in the November 2007 issue of BBC History Magazine

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Cortés and Montezuma: the conquering of Tenochtitlan

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Find a detailed account of how Spanish captain Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and earned his fearsome reputation along the way

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Hernán Cortés and Moctezuma, the Conquest of a Golden City

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Montezuma I (1397-1469), who ruled the Aztecs from 1440 to 1469, is best known for his expansion of the empire and for his building projects, including the dike across Lake Texcoco and the temple to the god Huitzilopochtli. He declared that war was the main task of the Aztecs in order to ensure a constant supply of sacrificial victims for Huitzilopochtli, who demanded many victims a year. Montezuma's pattern of conquering an enemy and demanding tribute became the norm for all future Aztec conquests.

Montezuma I, also known as Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina ("'The Angry Lord, Archer of the Skies") was the grandson of the first leader of Tenochtitlan ("Cactus Rock"). The great city-state of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan was the great city-state of the Aztecs. It was located on an island in Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico. Tenochtitlan was the forerunner of Mexico City, the capital of modern Mexico. Montezuma's father, Huitzilhuitl ("Hummingbird Feather"), had many children; Montezuma was born about 1397, the son of a princess of Cuernavaca named Miahuaxihuitl.

After Huitzilhuitl died, Montezuma's warrior brother Chimalpopoca ruled for ten years, then was assassinated. During Chimalpopoca's reign, another brother, Tlacaelel, joined Montezuma in gaining the support of a group of young, militant nobles. This group chose Itzcoatl ("Serpent of Knives") as the next leader of the Aztecs. Itzcoatl, brother of Huitzilhuitl, enlarged the area controlled by the Aztecs, with his nephews, Tlacaelel and Montezuma as generals of the army.

Upon Itzcoatl's death in 1440, Montezuma was picked to take over the reins of command. Unlike the previous leaders, who held the title "Speaker," he was called "Great Speaker," because he spoke for not only the Aztecs, but also for the tribes who paid tribute to them. Montezuma's coronation was a vast ceremony, with the sacrifice of many prisoners. Seated on a basketwork throne, Hungry Coyote, the Lord of Texcoco, placed the fire crown, a turquoise diadem, on the head of his friend Montezuma.

Montezuma was a wise ruler and a modest man. He lived in a simple, clean palace and had only a few wives. A great deal of his time was passed in conversation with sage friends, as well as with his half-brother, Tlacaelel, who acted as the "serpent woman" or chief military and political adviser to several Aztec rulers. Montezuma consulted Tlacaelel about every matter, and Tlacaelel told him that it was Montezuma's duty to constantly seek advantage for his household, court, and domains and to enlarge his empire at every opportunity. Tlacaelel sat next to Montezuma in court and was the only person allowed to be treated as the king's equal.

Satisfied the Sun God

Montezuma solidified the triple alliance between Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan with a formula for dividing the spoils of war. The booty was split into five parts; one part went to Tlacopan and the remainder was shared by the other two groups. Encouraged by Tlacaelel, Montezuma also began construction of a new temple to Huitzilopochtli, originally the hummingbird god but now worshiped as the god of battle, the lord of creation, and the all-powerful Sun god. The temple of Huitzilopochtli, also known as the templo mayor, great temple, or great pyramid, had more than one hundred steps. Over a period of two years during Montezuma's reign, thousands of slaves and workers constructed this edifice, even during times of famine. They used canoes to transport the stone and wood to the sacred area. The temple was inaugurated in 1455 following the Aztec victory over the Huaxtecs, who served as the temple's first sacrificial victims.

Montezuma ordered all subject people to provide workers and material for the building of the new temple. Although he hesitated to force the fierce and numerous Chalca tribe to contribute, Tlacaelel insisted. The Chalcas were stubborn opponents who killed a great many Aztecs, including three brothers of Montezuma and Tlacaelel. The two tribes battled periodically for 20 years, at first with Montezuma in command of the Aztec army. This was a new concept, invented by Tlacaelel who maintained that the ruler should begin his rule by leading his subjects in battle and wetting his feet with the blood of sacrificed victims. Montezuma was a successful warrior and sacrificed the first group of Chalca victims to the Sun god in Tenochtitlan.

Huitzilopochtli required a continual supply of sacrificial victims, whose blood and body parts fed the god to ensure the daily journey of the sun across the sky. The ceremony required four priests to hold the victim, while the king lifted an obsidian knife above his head, brought it down on the victim's body, reached in to grab the heart, pulled it out, and held the beating heart up, sprinkling the blood in the direction of the sun. The king then placed the heart in the mouth of the statue of Huitzilopochtli. Montezuma and Tlacaelel took turns killing the first few victims, after which the chief priests took over. Up to 20,000 victims were sacrificed to Huitzilopochtli and other Aztec deities every year.

Ensured a Food and Water Supply

The Valley of Mexico where the Aztecs ruled contained about one million people during Montezuma's reign. "This Aztec heartland included not only Tenochtitlan, but at least nine provincial centers and a large number of smaller settlements, the largest and densest population concentration in the entire history of pre-Hispanic American. The only way to feed everyone was by efficient, government-controlled agriculture," explained Brian Fagan in The Aztecs. Montezuma employed inspectors to make sure that every bit of land was planted and that extra food was sent to the capital.

In 1449 Lake Texcoco flooded the city of Tenochtitlan. Rain and hail ruined the harvests and famine struck the Valley of Mexico. Montezuma asked his cousin Nezahualcoyotl, ruler of Texcoco, for help. Nezahualcoyotl directed the construction of a nine-mile-long dike that would help control the water level and also lessen the saltiness of the water so it could be used for farming. The immense project took almost ten years and tens of thousands of workers to complete. After the dike was finished, Montezuma requested that Nezahualcoyotl direct the construction of a three-mile-long aqueduct to bring more drinking water to the city.

In the first half of the 1450s many disasters struck the Aztecs. Grasshoppers and frost destroyed two harvests. Snow and rain caused terrible flooding one year; and the next two years saw an extended drought. People had no food, and some even sold their children to distant tribes for corn. Famine led to rebelliousness among the tribes paying tribute to the Aztecs. Montezuma and Tlacaelel met with the provincial puppet rulers of these tribes and arranged for phony wars, called "Flower Wars," in which the chieftains told the Aztecs the size and location of their armies, guaranteeing an Aztec win.

In 1455 the Aztec calendar's 52-year cycle ended and the calendar began again, an occasion marked by fasting and making new fire. Also at this time, the famine ended because of abundant harvests. Worried about future famines, Montezuma decided to ensure a reliable food supply by conquest and the collection of tribute. In 1458 he and his army attacked and conquered the province of Panuco, thus extending the Aztec empire to the sea. In 1461 the army conquered the lands of the Totonacs to the south, along with the people of Coatzocoalcos, and four years later Montezuma defeated the Chalca. His last war, against the Tepeaca in 1466, solidified a course of military expansion that determined Aztec policies until the Spanish arrived in 1519.

During Montezuma's rule, an old garden in Huaxtepec was rediscovered. Montezuma hired an overseer named Pinotetl to renovate the garden's stone fountains, as well as the area's irrigation system. While Pinotetl worked, Montezuma sent requests to the Lord of Cuetlaxtla for vanilla orchids, cacao trees, and other valuable plants, as well as for gardeners who would know how to replant and care for them. The replantings were successful, giving Montezuma great joy, for which he thanked the gods.

Montezuma's Sumptuary Laws

During Montezuma's reign rules of conduct were established that drew lines between various levels of Aztec society and singled out those of high birth or bravery in battle. Dress and forms of salutation were ritualized, as embellished clothing was reserved for various noble classes and lower classes were prohibited from donning cotton cloth, wearing sandals, or owning clothes that extended below the knee. Only noblemen could reside in homes of more than one story or use fine glazed ceramic eating vessels. Montezuma himself wore the finest jewels and finely woven cotton clothing and donned a headdress with bright feathers. His laws legislated all forms of behavior, from adultery to drunkenness to more criminal activities, with slavery a typical punishment.

Montezuma died in 1469 and was succeeded by his 19-year-old cousin Axayacatl. Axayacatl was the father of Montezuma II, the ruler of the Aztecs at the time of the Spanish invasion and conquest. More than five centuries later, in 1978, excavations began in Mexico City at the site of the great temple. Nearby were found funerary urns made of clay and obsidian and inscribed with the year of Montezuma's death. Archaeologists surmised that these may be the funereal urns of the great Aztec ruler himself.

Books

Fagan, Brian, The Aztecs, W. H. Freeman and Company, 1984.

Kandell, Jonathan, La Capital: The Biography of Mexico City, Random House, 1988.

Thomas, Hugh, Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico, Simon & Schuster, 1993.

Townsend, Richard F., The Aztecs, Thames & Hudson, 2000.

Periodicals

Papers from the Institute of Archaeology, Volume 4, 1993.

Online

Museo del Templo Mayor Web site, http://archaeology.la.asu.edu/ (January 26, 2002).

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Montezuma I (1397-1469), who ruled the Aztecs from 1440 to 1469, is best known for his expansion of the empire and for his building projects, including the dike across Lake Texcoco and the temple to the god Huitzilopochtli.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Montezuma II, also spelled Moctezuma, (born 1466-died c. June 30, 1520, Tenochtitlán, within modern Mexico City), ninth Aztec emperor of Mexico, famous for his dramatic confrontation with the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés.

Why is Montezuma II significant?

When did Montezuma II reign?

How did Montezuma II die?

In 1502 Montezuma succeeded his uncle Ahuitzotl as the leader of an empire that had reached its greatest extent, stretching to what is now Honduras and Nicaragua, but that was weakened by the resentment of the subject tribes to the increasing demands for tribute and victims for the religious sacrifices. Montezuma was commander of the army and organized extensive expeditions of conquest in deference to Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and of the sun. Through astrologers, the god instilled in the emperor a kind of fatalism in the face of an uncertain future.

Historians long held that the Aztecs had feared and expected the return of another important deity-Quetzalcóatl, the white, bearded god who would rule over the empire-and that the white, bearded Cortés was aware of this fear and used it to his advantage in his expedition across Mexico. Some 21st- century historians, however, questioned not only whether the Aztecs thought Cortés was a god but whether the legend of Quetzalcóatl was really a part of the Aztecs' belief system. They suggested the well-known version of this story was a Spanish creation that was subsequently incorporated into Aztec lore.

Montezuma tried to buy off Cortés, but the Spaniard made alliances with those subject tribes who hated Aztec rule. Welcomed into the capital city of Tenochtitlán by Montezuma, Cortés realized it was a trap and, instead, made the emperor his prisoner, believing that the Aztecs would not attack as long as he held Montezuma captive. Montezuma's submission to the Spaniards, however, had eroded the respect of his people. According to Spanish accounts, he attempted to speak to his subjects and was assailed with stones and arrows, suffering wounds from which he died three days later. The Aztecs, however, believed the Spaniards had murdered their emperor, and Cortés's force was nearly destroyed as it tried to sneak out of Tenochtitlán at night.

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Montezuma II, ninth Aztec emperor of Mexico, famous for his dramatic confrontation with the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes. Montezuma became Cortes's prisoner in Tenochtitlan. The Spanish claimed Montezuma died at the hands of his own people; the Aztecs believed that the Spanish murdered him.

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Discover facts about Hernando Cortes - the Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec empire. This brief biography takes you through his life story from birth to death.

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November 1519
The Most Beautiful Thing in the World
When Cortés and his men reached Tenochtitlán they were stunned. This, indeed, was a City of Dreams.

On November 8, 1519, the Spaniards marched along the causeway leading into the city. The towers, temples and canoes were thick with crowds who gathered to gape at the men and their horses.

The two processions met at the entrance to Tenochtitlán. Montezuma was in a litter draped with fine cotton mantles and borne on the shoulders of the lords. He emerged from the litter and placed necklaces of gold and precious stones round Cortés' neck. Cortés placed a necklace of pearls and cut glass around the neck of Montezuma, but was held back by two lords when he tried to embrace the emperor.

The Aztecs led the Spaniards into the heart of the city where Montezuma showered them with more gifts and then quartered them in sumptous apartments. The Aztecs knew about the massacre in Cholula and believed that the Spaniards could be irrationally and unpredictably cruel. It was as Tenochtitlán had given shelter to a monster. An Aztec account relates how the people of Tenochtitlán felt:

"as if everyone had eaten stupefying mushrooms..., as if they had seen something astonishing. Terror dominated everyone, as if all the world were being disembowelled.... People fell into a fearful slumber...."

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Hernán Cortés ‑ Biography, Facts & Accomplishments

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Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés (1485‑1547) traveled to Mexico in 1519, where he eventually overthrew the Aztec empire and helped build Mexico City.

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The Nibble: History of Chocolate Timeline - Origin of Chocolate

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When was it first made?

The first people to make chocolate were some of the most famous ancient civilizations of Mexico and Central America, including the Aztecs, Incas and Mayans. They mixed the crushed cocoa seeds with different type of seasonings, including chilies, to make a hot, spicy and frothy drink called 'chocolatl' which meant warm liquid.

When was it discovered by travellers?

According to the historians, Christopher Columbus, the famous explorer, had tasted this drink and had also brought some cocoa beans to Spain. Though Columbus discussed the possibility of using the cocoa beans commercially with the Spanish King and Queen, they somehow did not show any interest in it and the matter was put to rest.

When it became famous?

Some years later, Hernan Cortez, a Spanish explorer, happened to visit the Aztecs in Mexico. The Aztecs served him their royal drink 'chocolatl'. Though the drink tasted slightly bitter, Cortez liked it very much and took some cocoa beans back with him to Spain. In order to make the drink sweeter, he added some cane sugar to it. This new drink soon became a rage in Spain, especially in the aristocratic section of the society. The Spanish then wisely started cocoa tree plantation which turned into an extremely profitable business. The Spanish people successfully kept the art of their cocoa plantations and royal drink a secret from the rest of the European countries for almost a hundred years.

It was the Spanish monks, who leaked the secret out and then what happened was bound to happen. Chocolate drinks became the most preferred beverage after tea and coffee in the entire world. Soon, other European countries also started developing their own cacao industry.

7 Interesting facts about chocolate

1. The Aztecs and Mayans used chocolates as money to buy things.

2. The Aztec kings drank more than tens of cups of hot chocolate in a day.

3. In ancient times, chocolate was known as 'food of Gods'.

4. The early people only 'drank' chocolate; they did not 'eat' chocolate until the first chocolate bars were manufactured in Switzerland in the year 1819.

5. Those who are exceptionally fond of eating chocolates are known as chocoholics.

6. Just as caffeine is known to energize people, chocolates are believed to make people happy.

7. The Chocolates contain a wide range of nutrients including vitamins such as Vitamin-B and minerals such as potassium, calcium and iron.

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History of Chocolate - General Knowledge for Kids | Mocomi

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The first people to make chocolate were some of the most famous ancient civilizations of Mexico and Central America, including the Aztecs, Incas and Mayans. They mixed the crushed cocoa seeds with different type of seasonings, including chilies, to make a hot, spicy and frothy drink called 'chocolatl' which meant warm liquid.

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Kiddle is a safe search engine, offering a safe web, image, and video search. Results are vetted by editors.

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Chocolate begins with the seeds of the cacao tree. The cacao tree grows in warm areas of North and South America, Africa, and Asia. The seeds form in long, cucumber-shaped fruits called pods. When the pods are ripe, workers cut them from the tree and remove the seeds. The seeds sit for several days before being dried, either by the Sun or in an oven. The dry seeds, called cocoa beans, are then shipped to processing plants or chocolate factories.

At the plant or factory, workers roast the beans in giant ovens to bring out their flavor. Machines then remove the hard skin surrounding the beans. Next, machines grind the beans into a paste, called chocolate liquor. Chocolate liquor is made up of chocolate solids and a kind of fat called cocoa butter.

A dry powder called cocoa can be made by pressing some of the cocoa butter out of the chocolate liquor. Cocoa powder is sold unsweetened for use in baking and as a flavoring ingredient. It may also be mixed with sugar and milk to make hot chocolate drinks.

Chocolate for eating is made by adding extra cocoa butter to chocolate liquor. To make dark chocolate, workers add sugar to this mixture. To make milk chocolate, workers add both sugar and milk. These mixtures may be poured into molds to make different shapes of candy.

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Chocolate is a food and a flavoring that is popular throughout the world. Many candies, baked goods, and drinks contain chocolate. How Chocolate Is Made Chocolate begins with...

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When did chocolate come to Europe?

No one knows for sure when chocolate came to Europe. Legend has it that explorer Hernán Cortés brought chocolate to his homeland of Spain in 1528.

Cortés was believed to have discovered chocolate during an expedition to the Americas. In search of gold and riches, he instead found a cup of cocoa given to him by the Aztec emperor.

When Cortés returned home, he introduced cocoa seeds to the Spanish. Though still served as a drink, Spanish chocolates were mixed with sugar and honey to sweeten the naturally bitter taste.

Chocolate quickly became popular among the rich and wealthy in Spain. Even Catholic monks loved chocolate and drank it to aid religious practices.

Chocolate seduces Europe

The Spanish kept chocolate quiet for a very long time. It was nearly a century before the treat reached neighboring France, and then the rest of Europe.

In 1615, French King Louis XIII married Anne of Austria, daughter of Spanish King Phillip III. To celebrate the union, she brought samples of chocolate to the royal courts of France.

Following France's lead, chocolate soon appeared in Britain at special "chocolate houses". As the trend spread through Europe, many nations set up their own cacao plantations in countries along the equator.

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Up until this point, chocolate had only ever been consumed as a drink. But things started to change in 1828. Coenraad van Houten from Amsterdam was the man who changed the game: he invented the 'cocoa press', which could separate the fat from a cacao bean, leaving behind a fine powder.

This powder was much more tasty to enjoy as a drink, and people started adding milk to it instead of water, making it more like the hot chocolate we'd drink today. This method also meant chocolate could be mass-produced, which made it cheaper and so the wider public could buy and enjoy it. Some called this the democratisation of chocolate.

In 1847 British chocolatier J.S. Fry and Sons had the novel idea of recombining the fat and liquor, and adding sugar. He set this in moulds, and voila! The chocolate bar was born.

The chocolate made through this method resembled a mild dark chocolate. The next big episode in the chocolate saga came when Swiss chocolatier Daniel Peter put powdered milk in the mix, creating the world's first milk chocolate bar.

Chocolate's popularity soared from then on, and it's never really declined.

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Up until this point, chocolate had only ever been consumed as a drink. But things started to change in 1828. Coenraad van Houten from Amsterdam was the man who changed the game: he invented the 'cocoa press', which could separate the fat from a cacao bean, leaving behind a fine powder.

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Chocolate... everyday millions of people enjoy it in all its delicious forms, but where does it come from and how did it get to be so popular? In this short history of chocolate, we'll look at how a simple, rather bitter-tasting little bean was transformed into one of the best loved foods in the world.

When did it begin?

It's all began thousands of years ago in the Americas when the chocolate we know today was very different! Ancient civilisations such as the Mayans and Aztecs revered cacao (or cocoa) beans and they were used as offerings to their gods and also as currency.

Cacao was used for many things in the Mayan civilisation - official ceremonies, rituals and tributes. The Mayans would also make a drink from cacao, which consisted of cacao beans ground up with maize and then mixed with water... sometimes it would be flavoured with spices or vanilla, then poured from one cup to another to create a thick, foamy drink called 'xocolatl', meaning 'bitter water'.

The Aztecs took this 'chocolate drink' and would add chilli and achiote (annatto seeds), which would give the liquid a red hue, this would be given to Aztec soldiers, or used as an aphrodisiac and as a treat for the men at banquets.

Chocolate in Europe

Chocolate finally made its way to Europe following the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, however at first the Spanish didn't realise the potential for cacao, preferring other wonders like gold. In 1519, the Spanish conqueror Hernando Cortez visited the court of Emperor Montezuma in Mexico, where he was presented with a golden goblet of chocolate. He introduced the Spanish to the cacao seeds, and although it was still presented in liquid form, the spices were replaced with honey and sugar to give an overall sweeter taste.

The Spanish were able to establish their own huge plantations and export large amounts of cacao back to Europe. By the 17th century, chocolate had become something of a luxury item among Europe's aristocracy. In the 17th century, diarist Samuel Pepys swore by chocolate's energising properties and Napoleon carried it with him into battle. But with the advent of the industrial revolution and mass production in the late 18th and early 19th century, delicious chocolate, now in a solid form, began to grow in popularity.

Chocolate today

Today, chocolate has become one of the most versatile and beloved foods in the world. And yet it's become so much more - we have a with chocolate that we have with few other foods. It comforts us, delights us, draws us in and gives us a taste experience unlike any other. Simply put, we love it. And the humble beans it comes from have come a long way in its 4,000 year history.

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