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What is the history of constructivism, and how has it changed over time? - Concept to Classroom - Workshop: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning - WNET Education - Educational Broadcasting Corporation - thirteen.org

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What is the history of constructivism, and how has it changed over time? - Concept to Classroom - Workshop: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning - WNET Education - Educational Broadcasting Corporation - thirteen.org

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Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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What is constructivism? How does this theory differ from traditional ideas about teaching and learning? What does constructivism have to do with my classroom? Expert i…

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Pexels - Pictures of Students and Teacher

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Pexels - Pictures of Students and Teacher

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Scaffolding Content - University at Buffalo: Curriculum, Assessment and Teaching Transformation

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Scaffolding Content - University at Buffalo: Curriculum, Assessment and Teaching Transformation

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Guiding students through the learning process toward greater understanding.

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Instructional Scaffolding to Improve Learning - Northern Illinois University: Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning - NIU.edu 

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Instructional Scaffolding to Improve Learning - Northern Illinois University: Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning - NIU.edu 

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Fourth, the individual does it

This is the independent practice stage where individual students can demonstrate their task mastery (e.g., successfully completing a graphic organizer to demonstrate appropriate relationships among information) and receive the necessary practice to help them to perform the task automatically and quickly.

Types of Scaffolds

Alibali (2006) suggests that as students progress through a task, faculty can use a variety of scaffolds to accommodate students' different levels of knowledge. More complex content might require a number of scaffolds given at different times to help students master the content. Here are some common scaffolds and ways they could be used in an instructional setting.

Advance organizers - Tools used to introduce new content and tasks to help students learn about the topic: Venn diagrams to compare and contrast information; flow charts to illustrate processes; organizational charts to illustrate hierarchies; outlines that represent content; mnemonics to assist recall; statements to situate the task or content; rubrics that provide task expectations.

Cue Cards - Prepared cards given to individual or groups of students to assist in their discussion about a particular topic or content area: Vocabulary words to prepare for exams; content-specific stem sentences to complete; formulae to associate with a problem; concepts to define.

Concept and mind maps - Maps that show relationships: Partially or completed maps for students to complete; students create their own maps based on their current knowledge of the task or concept.

Examples - Samples, specimens, illustrations, problems: Real objects; illustrative problems used to represent something.

Explanations - More detailed information to move students along on a task or in their thinking of a concept: Written instructions for a task; verbal explanation of how a process works.

Handouts - Prepared handouts that contain task- and content-related information, but with less detail and room for student note taking.

Hints - Suggestions and clues to move students along: "place your foot in front of the other," "use the escape key," "find the subject of the verb," "add the water first and then the acid."

Prompts - A physical or verbal cue to remind-to aid in recall of prior or assumed knowledge.

Physical: Body movements such as pointing, nodding the head, eye blinking, foot tapping.

Verbal: Words, statements and questions such as "Go," "Stop," "It's right there," "Tell me now," "What toolbar menu item would you press to insert an image?", "Tell me why the character acted that way."

Question Cards - Prepared cards with content- and task-specific questions given to individuals or groups of students to ask each other pertinent questions about a particular topic or content area.

Question Stems - Incomplete sentences which students complete: Encourages deep thinking by using higher order "What if" questions.

Stories - Stories relate complex and abstract material to situations more familiar with students: Recite stories to inspire and motivate learners.

Visual Scaffolds - Pointing (call attention to an object); representational gestures (holding curved hands apart to illustrate roundness; moving rigid hands diagonally upward to illustrate steps or process), diagrams such as charts and graphs; methods of highlighting visual information.

Preparing to Use Scaffolding

As with any teaching technique, scaffolds should complement instructional objectives. While we expect all of our students to grasp course content, each of them will not have the necessary knowledge or capability to initially perform as we have intended. Scaffolds can be used to support students when they begin to work on objectives that are more complex or difficult to complete. For example, the instructional objective may be for students to complete a major paper. Instead of assuming all students know how to begin the process, break the task into smaller, more manageable parts.

1. First, the instructor provides an outline of the components of the paper

2. Then students would prepare their outline

3. The instructor then provides a rubric of how each paper criteria will be assessed

4. Students would then work on those criteria and at the same time and self-evaluate their progress

5. The pattern would continue until the task is completed (although scaffolds might not be necessary in all parts of the task)

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Instructional Scaffolding to Improve Learning | Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning | Northern Illinois University

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Similar to the scaffolding used in construction to support workers as they work on a specific task, instructional scaffolds are temporary support structures faculty put in place to assist students in accomplishing new tasks and concepts they could not typically achieve on their own.

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Socio-culturalism - Bohdana Allman - A Student's Guide to Learning Design and Research - EdTechBooks.org 

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Socio-culturalism - Bohdana Allman - A Student's Guide to Learning Design and Research - EdTechBooks.org 

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The sociocultural theory of learning and teaching is widely recognized in fields of educational psychology and instructional technology. The focus of this theory is on the role social interaction and culture play in the development of higher-order thinking skills. Vygotsky (1978), a Russian psychologist and the founder of sociocultural theory, believed that human development and learning originate in social and cultural interaction. In other words, the ways people interact with others and the culture in which they live shape their mental abilities.

Sociocultural theory is considered primarily a developmental theory. It focuses on change in behavior over time, specifically on changes that occur as individuals mature from infancy, to childhood, to adolescence, and finally to adulthood. The theory attempts to explain unseen processes of development of thought, of language, and of higher-order thinking skills with implications to education in general and is especially valued in the field of applied linguistics. The theory's focus on a developing child is the reason for referring to a child or children when discussing theoretical underpinnings throughout the text. However, because many implications and practical applications related to sociocultural theory are applicable to learners of all ages, when implications are discussed, the object is generally a learner or learners.

The term sociocultural theory represents a variety of theoretical positions and perspectives. This chapter will briefly introduce the theory's origins, identify the fundamental tenets of the theory with general implications, review strengths and limitations, and discuss implications related to instructional design.

Sociocultural Theory Origins

Origins of sociocultural theory are most closely associated with the work of a Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934). He was a talented scholar with broad interests, an accomplished researcher, and a prolific writer. Vygotsky's goal was "to create a new and comprehensive approach to human psychological processes" (Miller, 2011, p. 168). He was closely familiar with works of his contemporaries such as Pavlov as well as Piaget, Binet, and Freud and often commented on their ideas. His thinking was also influenced by philosophers such as Hegel, Marx, and Engels. He died of tuberculosis at the age of 37, only ten years after his professional career in psychology began (Miller, 2011).

Shortly after Vygotsky's death, his manuscripts were banned in the USSR for political reasons. It was not until the late 1960s when his work was allowed to be published again. Vygotsky first became known in the West when his Language and Thought was translated in 1962. His work continues to be disseminated through efforts of scholars such as Cole, Wertsch, John-Steiner, Lantolf, and Rogoff (Miller, 2011). Vygotsky's ideas markedly influenced theories of psychology and education (Driscoll, 2000) and continues to significantly affect educational practices today (Miller, 2011). Vygotsky's theories are often contrasted with Piaget's theories mainly because both psychologists focused on understanding cognitive processes and development in children. However, their theories were described by Bruner as incommensurate because they highlight "two ways human beings can make sense of their world: by means of logical necessity (Piaget) or by means of interpretive reconstruction of circumstances (Vygotsky)" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 240). Generally, Vygotsky's theories are viewed as complementary to Piaget's and other Western approaches since the broad sociocultural perspective balances the focus on the individual (Miller, 2011).

Fundamental Tenets of the Sociocultural Theory

There are three fundamental concepts that define sociocultural theory: (1) social interaction plays an important role in learning, (2) language is an essential tool in the learning process, and (3) learning occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development. Each idea will be discussed in more detail together with related concepts and implications to learning and education.

Social interaction plays an important role in learning. Vygotsky believed that thinking has social origins and that cognitive development cannot be understood without reference to the social context within which it is embedded. He proposed that social interaction plays a critical role in the process of cognitive development, especially in the development of higher order thinking skills. Social activity between a parent and a child or a teacher and a learner lays a foundation for how and what the child will think and do in other situations (Driscoll, 2000).

Vygotsky wrote: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57). This process is characterized as guided participation where a child actively acquires new cognitive skills and problem-solving capabilities through a meaningful collaborative activity with an assisting adult (Rogoff, 1990). It is through working together on a variety of tasks that a learner internalizes or adopts socially shared experiences and associated effects and acquires useful strategies and knowledge (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996; Scott & Palincsar, 2013). The processes of guided participation and internalization reveal the Vygotskian view of cognitive development "as the transformation of socially shared activities into internalized processes," or an act of enculturation, thus rejecting the Cartesian dichotomy between the internal and the external (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996, p. 192).

Vygotsky's notion of social origins of learning stand in stark contrast to more popular views of Piaget's theory of cognitive development, who made a fundamental assumption that development through certain stages is biologically determined, originates in the individual, and precedes cognitive complexity. This difference in assumptions is significant, as it has important implications to learning and education. If "development is a precondition for learning," as Piaget states, then concepts and problems "should not be taught until children have developed the necessary logical operations to understand them" (Driscoll, 2000, p. 249). If we believe, as Vygotsky did, that learning drives development and that "development occurs as children learn general concepts and principles that can be applied to new tasks and problems," then we can structure curriculum and activities to actually promote individual student learning and development (Scott & Palincsar, 2013, par. 8). As children learn, they achieve a higher level of development, which in turn "affects their readiness to learn a new concept" (Miller, 2011, p. 197). In Vygotsky's own words:

Learning awakens a variety of internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and with his peers... learning is not development; however, properly organized learning results in mental development and sets in motion a variety of developmental processes that would be impossible apart from learning. Thus learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human, psychological functions (1978, p. 90).

Another implication based on the Vygotskian view of learning originating in social and historical contexts is that the sociocultural perspective acknowledges both individual differences and cross-cultural differences in development. This "sensitivity to diversity is quite important" because much of research and the resulting understanding of development is done on white, middle-class children of Western tradition and assumes universality (Miller, 2011, p. 198). Recognizing that "ideal thinking and behavior may differ for different cultures" and that "different historical and cultural circumstances may encourage different developmental routes to any given developmental endpoint" may liberate educators from a constricting universalist view and allow them to provide a nurturing environment where diversity is valued as a resource (Miller, 2011, p. 198).

Language is an essential tool in the learning process. The second important notion on which Vygotsky elaborated is related to the role of language in the learning process. Vygotsky reasoned that social structures determine people's working conditions and social interactions, which in turn shape their cognition, beliefs, attitudes, and perception of reality (Miller 2011). He extended his reasoning further with a notion that human action on both the social and individual planes is mediated by tools and signs, or semiotics, such as language, systems of counting, conventional signs, works of art, etc. Vygotsky suggested that through the use of these tools, or semiotic mediation, co-construction of knowledge is facilitated and social and individual functioning is mediated. These semiotic means play an important role in development and learning through appropriation, a process of adopting or internalizing these socially available psychological tools by an individual to assist future independent problem solving (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996). This means that children and learners do not need to reinvent already existing tools in order to be able to use them. They only need to be introduced to how a particular tool is used and then they can use it across a variety of situations, including novel events (Scott & Palincsar, 2013).

Vygotsky viewed language as a direct result of the symbols and tools that emerge within a culture. It is potentially the greatest tool at our disposal, a form of a symbolic mediation that plays two critical roles in development: to communicate with others and to construct meaning (McLeod, 2014). First, language is used to assign meaning during social interaction to facilitate communication in social settings. This occurs as a child engages in the environment and through a variety of social events and processes acquires language of their closest community, the family. Generally, this so called social speech emerges around age two, and it is a form of an external or over speech directed toward others with a communicative function (McLeod, 2014). A child discovers that words have meaning, realizes that this meaning is shared within the language community, and begins to use these words to communicate with others to fulfill their needs. During this process of development a child also internalizes the tone of voice, the way concepts are talked about, and the signs and symbols used to attach value to things and events, which eventually shape value sets of that individual (Miller, 2011; Tharp, 2001). Vygotsky believed that language and thought are two separate systems at this initial stage (Vygotsky, 1986).

The other role of language is that it aids in construction of understanding. It is a powerful tool of intellectual development and adaptation. Around age three, children begin to develop what is referred to as private speech. This is an external or overt language, just as social speech, but it is directed to self. Furthermore, private speech serves intellectual and self-regulating functions rather than a communicative function (McLeod, 2014; Vygotsky, 1986). This can be visible as a child voices thoughts aloud, especially while solving difficult problems or challenging tasks. They use language to plan out a strategy, organize thoughts, or collaborate with themselves as they would with a more knowledgeable other. In this way, private speech is not just a part of a child's activity, but it becomes a tool used by the child to facilitate their own cognitive processes and development (Miller, 2011). According to Vygotsky, at about age three language and thought begin to merge from two separate systems and become interdependent: thoughts become verbal and speech becomes representational (McLeod, 2014).

Transformation of private speech into inner speech is a gradual process. It is around age seven when private speech becomes less visible, a child's monologue internalizes, and private speech becomes inner speech. A child is able to 'think in words.' Vygotsky explained that while external speech is embodied thought in words, inner speech is more idiosyncratic, abbreviated, and fragmented, and it is "to a large extent thinking in pure meanings" (1986, p. 249). Inner speech, just like private speech, remains directed at self and retains self-regulating and intellectual functions, however, it is covert and inaudible (McLeod, 2014). This internalization of language is important, because it drives cognitive development. Inner speech takes the form of ideas that remain within our minds and directly impacts our thoughts, behaviors, and the development of higher order thinking skills.

Vygotsky thought that private speech is strongly affected by an individual's social environment, which has been supported by high correlations between social interaction and private speech observed in children (McLeod, 2014). Children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds are often raised in cognitively and linguistically more stimulating environments, and they tend to begin using and internalizing private speech faster than their less privileged peers (McLeod, 2014). This brings interesting implications to education. Supportive educational environments, especially during early elementary grades can provide additional cognitive and linguistic support and modeling of academic monologue, which may positively affect development of private and inner speech for children of all economic backgrounds and may in turn positively support their cognitive development and academic performance.

Learning occurs within the zone of proximal development. Probably the most widely adopted concept related to sociocultural theory is the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). It is "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). It is essentially the zone where learning takes place. Vygotsky strongly believed that learning should be matched with a child's developmental level and suggested that in order to understand the connection between development and learning it is necessary to distinguish the actual and the potential levels of development. He considered the ZPD to be a better and more dynamic indicator of cognitive development as compared to merely measuring what children can accomplish independently (Scott & Palincsar, 2013).

Vygotsky viewed the application of ZPD broadly, referring to "any situation in which some activity is leading children beyond their current level of functioning. Thus the zone can operate during play, work, school studies, and other ... activities" (Miller, 2011, p. 178). He argued that productive interactions "orient instruction toward the ZPD; otherwise, instruction lags behind the development of the child" (Scott & Palincsar, 2013, par. 8). Providing sensitive instruction and guidance within the ZPD allows a learner to develop skills and strategies they will eventually apply on their own in other situations, which is characteristic of developing higher cognitive skills (Vygotsky, 1978). The role of a learner's social partner is also critical since the type of social interactions, tools they use, and skills they practice determine the outcome of the collaborative experience, which could lead to a normal and accelerated development as well as to developmental delays and an abnormal development (Driscoll, 2011). Thus an ideal partner, whether an adult or a peer, should be advanced enough in knowledge or skill to promote learning and at the same time be able to interact within the zone not too far beyond the learner's reach. Additionally, partners in a successful collaborative activity share a degree of common understanding about the task, a common goal, described as intersubjectivity. It is not sufficient for the partners to merely work together, they must co-construct the problem's solution though coordinated effort, which implies shared power and authority over the process (Driscoll, 2011).

In the 1970s, Bruner, Wood and Ross added the notion of scaffolding to sociocultural theory (Puntambekar, 2009). Scaffolding is the support mechanism that helps a learner successfully complete a task within ZPD and as such is the practical tool in actualizing guided participation. Scaffolding describes an ongoing support provided to a learner by an expert in a process of learning and completing a task they cannot complete without assistance. It connotes a mutual and dynamic nature of interaction where both the learner and the expert influence each other and adjust their behavior as they collaborate (Miller, 2011). Similar to a way physical scaffolding provides both adjustable and temporary support to buildings under construction, scaffolding in a sociocultural context refers to a more skilled other providing a learner with necessary support as their emerging skills develop. These supports depend on the learner's needs and are gradually phased out as the learner become proficient, thus promoting movement toward autonomy (Miller, 2011). Scaffolding involves an expert knowledgeable about both content and pedagogy being able to adapt the task to the learner's ability. The expert motivates and guides the learner by providing just enough assistance, modeling, and highlighting critical features of the task as well as continually evaluating and adjusting supports as needed. Additionally, the expert facilitates reflection through suggestions and questions, which further promotes more complex, meaningful, and lasting learning experiences (Puntambekar, 2009).

Concepts of ZPD and scaffolding have quite revolutionary implications to assessment, instruction, and education in general. Traditionally, assessment measures what learners know and understand unaided at a given point of time. However, as briefly mentioned above, Vygotsky believed that taking into account both what a learner knows independently and what they can do or understand with assistance is a more accurate measure of that individual's learning. So-called dynamic assessment reveals performance improvements that are often not recognized by standard assessments and testing, which is especially apparent in underachieving children who commonly do not perform to their ability levels (Miller, 2011). Understanding what a child can accomplish without as well as with assistance can inform educators and other stakeholders, and it can also significantly improve quality and effectiveness of instruction.

Furthermore, sociocultural theory suggests a different dynamic for the relationship between the learner and the teacher than is currently typical in a school setting. The learner takes on more responsibilities such as determining their learning goals, becoming a resource of knowledge for peers, and being collaborators in the learning process. The teacher is viewed as a guide, an assistant, and a facilitator of learning rather than a transmitter of knowledge or an enforcer of rules (Grabinger, Aplin, & Ponnappa-Brenner, 2007). This shift in roles promotes individualized, differentiated, and learner-centered types of instruction, which when accompanied with effective pedagogical practices provides a powerful alternative for reforming current educational systems and creating environments that may "make it possible for the majority of individuals to develop deep understanding of important subject matters" (Watson & Reigeluth, 2016., par. 13, quoting Bransford et al., 1999, p. 6).

Strengths and Limitations of Sociocultural Theory

Sociocultural theory has several widely recognized strengths. First, it emphasizes the broader social, cultural, and historical context of any human activity. It does not view individuals as isolated entities, rather it provides a richer perspective focusing on the fluid boundary between self and others. It portrays the dynamic of a child acquiring knowledge and skills from the society and then in turn the child shaping their environment (Miller, 2011). Second, sociocultural theory is sensitive to individual and cross-cultural diversity. In contrast to many developmental theories that focus on universal aspects of development, sociocultural theory acknowledges both differences in individuals within a culture and differences in individuals across cultures. It recognizes that "different historical and cultural circumstances may encourage different developmental routes to any given developmental endpoint" depending on particular social or physical circumstances and tools available (Miller, 2011, p. 198). Finally, sociocultural theory integrates the notion of learning and development greatly contributing to our theoretical understanding of cognitive development. The idea of learning driving development rather than being determined by a developmental level of the learner fundamentally changes our understanding of the learning process and has significant instructional and educational implications (Miller, 2011).

There are also limitations to the sociocultural perspective. The first limitation is related to Vygotsky's premature death as many of his theories remained incomplete. Furthermore, his work was largely unknown until fairly recently due to political reasons and issues with translation. The second major limitation is associated with the vagueness of the ZPD. Individuals may have wide or narrow zones, which may be both desirable and undesirable, depending on the circumstances. Knowing only the width of the zone "does not provide an accurate picture of their learning, ability, style of learning, and current level of development compared to other children of the same age and degree of motivation" (Miller, 2011, p. 198). Additionally, there is little known about whether a child's zone is comparable across different learning domains, with different individuals, and whether the size of the zone changes over time. There is also not a common metric scale to measure ZPD (Miller, 2011). Finally, Rogoff points out that Vygotsky's theories may not be relevant to all cultures as originally thought. She provides an example of scaffolding being heavily dependent on verbal instruction and thus not equally effective in all cultures for all types of learning (McLeod, 2014; Rogoff, 1990).

Instructional Design Implications

So far this chapter has highlighted some important implications of sociocultural theory, which are generally applicable to instruction, assessment, and education. This section will review additional implications taking into considerations issues specifically related to the field of instructional design. Sociocultural theory is not commonly associated with instructional design methods. These methods traditionally rely on individualistic learning driven by set learning objectives and strands of often context-deprived topics being presented in a logical and structured sequence. Generally there is little or no consideration for already existing knowledge, relationships, or cultural richness. Systematic approaches to instructional design, often rooted in behaviorist theory, may be valuable for "teaching concepts, procedures and basic skills" (Grabinger, Aplin, & Ponnappa-Brenner, 2007, p.1). But Grabinger, Aplin, and Ponnappa-Brenner (2007) further propose that in order to

meet the goal of 'preparing people for an ever-changing world', instructional programs need to apply strategies that focus on the development of critical thinking, problem solving, research, and lifelong learning... (, which) require a sociocultural approach to instruction emphasizing learning from experience and discourse (p. 1).

Three major implications of sociocultural theory to instructional design will be discussed as a reaction to the above description of traditional instructional design. These include: focus on the individual learner, use of effective pedagogies centered around collaborative practice and communities of learners, and attention to funds of knowledge.

Most instructional design models, such as ADDIE, take into consideration only the common learner, tying learning with concrete and measurable objectives. Recently, a strong call has been issued for a complete shift in our education and instructional design approaches requiring a learner-centered instruction to reflect our society's changing educational needs (Watson & Reigeluth, 2016). New methodologies, such as Universal Design for Learning based in the learning sciences recognize that every learner is unique and strive to provide challenging and engaging curricula for diverse learners. Watson and Reigeluth (2016) mention that there are two important features of learning-centered instruction: a focus on the individual learner and a focus on effective learning practices. Sociocultural theory and related methodologies may provide a valuable contribution to this effort as they focus on a learner in their social, cultural, and historical context and also offer sound pedagogical solutions and strategies that facilitate development of critical thinking and encourage lifelong learning (Grabinger, Aplin, & Ponnappa-Brenner, 2007).

Sociocultural theory allows instructional designers to apply principles of collaborative practice that go beyond social constructivism and create effective communities of learners through effective pedagogies. The sociocultural perspective views learning taking place through interaction, negotiation, and collaboration in solving authentic problems while emphasizing learning from experience and discourse, which is more than cooperative learning. This is visible, for example, in situated learning theory and cognitive apprenticeship. In addition to the collaborative nature of learning, approaches grounded in sociocultural theory pay attention to and model the discourse, norms, and practices associated with a certain community in order to develop knowledge and skills important to that community (Scott & Palincsar, 2013). This approach is consistent with communities of practice and inquiry-based methods, which enculturate learners into the community of practice, highlighting the importance of effective pedagogical practices, quality of content, as well as strong social presence to increase the effectiveness of learning experiences and successfully facilitate critical thinking and higher-order learning outcomes (Garrison & Akyol, 2013). Furthermore, the emergence of new synchronous and asynchronous communication technologies and increased attention to computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) create new opportunities for applying sociocultural methodologies as their affordances allow quality collaboration and new ways of interacting in face-to-face, blended, and online environments (Garrison & Akyol, 2013).

Lastly, current instructional methodologies generally do not give much consideration for existing knowledge, established relationships, or cultural richness, commonly referred to as a learner's funds of knowledge. Garrison and Akyol (2013) explained that when social presence is established as part of a community of inquiry, which requires recognition and use of these funds of knowledge, "collaboration and critical discourse is enhanced and sustained" (p. 108). Establishment of solid social presence further reflects in positive learning outcomes, increased satisfaction, and improved retention (Garrison & Akyol, 2013). Integrating sociocultural practices into learning design, for example through creation of communities of inquiry, spontaneously integrates a learner's previous knowledge, relationships, and cultural experiences into the learning process and enculturate the learner into the new community of practice through relevant activities and experiences (Grabinger, Aplin, & Ponnappa-Brenner, 2007). Another interesting solution to supporting social and cognitive factors in learning is the creation of a third space for discourse where a learner's primary discourse related to home and informal social interactions is merged with the secondary formal discourse of school. This allows students to share in less formal environments, which lowers the affective filter, encourages exchanges, and gives students control over when, how, and what to share. Third-space discourse also encourages educators to recognize students' personal experiences and to incorporate their students' funds of knowledge into instruction, which results in increased conceptual understanding and use of academic language (Scott & Palincsar, 2013). When learners feel valued as participants in the community, when their prior experiences and knowledge are recognized and integrated into learning experiences, and when instruction reflects culturally sensitive practices, their motivation and satisfaction increases, and learning becomes deeper, lasting, and more meaningful.

Conclusion

The notion of social origins of learning, the interrelationship of language and thought, and the notion of ZPD are Vygotsky's most important contributions. However, it is the practical applications of sociocultural theory that create learner-centered instructional environments where learning by discovery, inquiry, active problem solving, and critical thinking are fostered through collaboration with experts and peers in communities of learners and encourage self-directed lifelong learning habits. Presenting authentic and cognitively challenging tasks within a context of collaborative activities, scaffolding learner's efforts by providing a structure and support to accomplish complex tasks, and providing opportunities for authentic and dynamic assessment are all important aspects of this approach. Sociocultural principles can be applied in effective and meaningful ways to design instruction across the curriculum, for learners of different ages and variety of skills, and it can be effectively integrated using a wide range of technologies and learning environments. The challenge remains for educators and instructional designers to elevate our practices from efficient systemic approaches for teaching and instructional design to focusing on individual learners and effective pedagogical practices to develop empowered learners ready to successfully negotiate the rapidly changing era of information. Technology is at our fingertips, it is up to us to competently implement its unique affordances to promote new ways to educate and support deep, meaningful, and self-directed learning. Grounding our practices in sociocultural theory can significantly aid our efforts.

References

Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Garrison, D. R., & Akyol, Z. (2013). The community of inquiry theoretical framework. Handbook of Distance Education, 3, 104-120.

Grabinger, S., Aplin, C., & Ponnappa-Brenner, G. (2007). Instructional design for sociocultural learning environments. W-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology, 10(1), n1.

John-Steiner, V., & Mahn, H. (1996). Sociocultural approaches to learning and development: A Vygotskian framework. Educational Psychologist, 31(3/4), 191-206.

Kozulin, A. (1990). Vygotsky's psychology: A biography of ideas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

McLeod, S. A. (2014). Lev Vygotsky. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

Miller, P. (2011). Theories of developmental psychology (5th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

Puntambekar, S. (2009). Scaffolding. Education.com. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/scaffolding/

Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking. New York: Oxford University Press.

Scott, S., & Palincsar, A. (2013). Sociocultural theory. Education.com. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/sociocultural-theory/

Tharp, R. (2001). Roland Tharp. Teaching English Language Learners (TELL). Retrieved from http://education.byu.edu/tell/transcriptions/march_2001/roland_tharp.html

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language. A. Kozulin (Trans.) .Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Watson, S. L. & Reigeluth, C. M. (2016). The learner-centered paradigm of education. In R. West (Ed.). Foundations of Learning and Instructional Design Technology. Retrieved from https://lidtfoundations.pressbooks.com/chapter/systemic-change/.

Bohdana Allman

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The sociocultural theory of learning and teaching is widely recognized in fields of educational psychology and instructional technology. The focus of this theory is on the role social interaction and culture play in the development of higher-order thinking skills.

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Zone of Proximal Development - HHuertaOTR - YouTube - Link from East Tennessee State University. etsu.edu  

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Zone of Proximal Development - HHuertaOTR - YouTube - Link from East Tennessee State University. etsu.edu  

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Vygotsky's Theory: What Can a Russian Child Development Theorist Tell Us About Teaching College Students? - East Tennessee State University. etsu.edu 

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Vygotsky's Theory: What Can a Russian Child Development Theorist Tell Us About Teaching College Students? - East Tennessee State University. etsu.edu 

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Yes, what Lev Vygotsky had to say about learning was really focused on children's learning. However, his principles hold true for learners no matter their age.

Consider this: If you are a middle-of-the-road crossword puzzler, would you prefer to tackle (a) the New York Times puzzle, (b) a puzzle in the local paper, or (c) a puzzle written for children?

If you are an average puzzler, the answer is likely (b). The kids' puzzle will be too easy (no challenge) and the NY Times puzzle is too difficult (little chance of success). We operate best when faced with tasks that are just a little challenging to us but not so hard that they become overwhelming.

Vygotsky said the same is true for learning. He said we learn best when new material is in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - not too easy, and just challenging enough that, with a little help from a more learned individual, we can master the material and shift our Zone upward.

The process of receiving help from others to master material is called "scaffolding." If you think of a wall being built, it initially has scaffolding to support the structure, which is gradually removed as the structure is capable of standing on its own. Vygotsky said this happens in learning, too: We receive help from people who know more, until we know enough on our own and no longer require assistance to grasp that bit of knowledge.

A simple and concrete example of this is when we help children learn to ride a bicycle - first with training wheels, then as we hold the bicycle steady for them (with some verbal coaching as well), and finally without any help, as children ride independently. Their ZPD for "bike riding" just shifted upward and, perhaps unfortunately, they are now ready to work on mastering more difficult stunts like wheelies or hands-free riding [which will likely be learned from more skilled peers rather than sensible adults].

The most useful takeaway points from Vygotsky's theory as pertain to college instruction are:

Make new material challenging but not too difficult

and

Ensure students receive some coaching assistance as they learn

How can I help students master more challenging material using Vygotsky's concepts?

1. Provide as much support as possible for new and challenging tasks. Students can then choose as much or as little as they need, depending on their level of ZPD. Some examples of support that can be provided include:

Checklists. These break down larger tasks into smaller ones that feel more surmountable. Some of the smaller tasks may be within the students' range of what they can already do or know (for example, "1) Review previous material on ___.").

Materials or resources on reserve or online. Provide lists of resources that may be useful for learning the material, and make them easily accessible to students through hard-copy or e-reserve at the library. Links to useful online resources can also be provided.

Modeling. Provide a demonstration to the class of a similar problem or case, in order for them to see how the task should be tackled.
Video talk-through. Particularly useful for online classes that don't get to see you regularly in class, create a short video of yourself explaining the task or new material. Sometimes an oral explanation is clearer than a written one.

2. Take advantage of the variety of ZPDs among your students. Some students will be more advanced toward mastery of your course material than others. Try grouping students so that each group has varying levels of mastery. The more advanced students will be able to help scaffold for the less advanced students. Be sure, however, to consider the learning needs of your more advanced students as well - perhaps by issuing them additional challenges (these don't necessarily need to be for credit).

Group problem-solving. Have students in mixed groups work toward a problem's solution.

Paired teaching and learning. Pair students up (even if they select their own partners, the odds are good that ZPDs will vary within the pair) and have them take turns teaching new material to one another. Make sure your instructions to students include ensuring that the material they teach to one another is correct - that is, they should provide feedback to one another as they progress.

Tutoring. You can privately request volunteers from your more advanced students to work once or twice with a struggling student on course material. Some advanced students are willing to accept this challenge, even for no additional course credit.

3. Review material to ensure students are roughly in the same beginning ZPD. Teaching new material assumes that previous material upon which the new concepts build are already well known. However, not every student has mastered previous material. Since spending time on review is never detrimental to any learner (see this article by Willingham for more explanation), go ahead and do some regular reviewing. Here are a few ways to accomplish this:

Ask students to provide summary explanations of previous material. Before introducing new material, or as you introduce it and explain its relationship to previous material, call on students to explain the previous material. This process keeps them more engaged and also provides you with an informal assessment of the accuracy of their understanding.

Give a quick quiz - graded or ungraded - on previous material. For ungraded quizzes, students can grade their own quizzes to see what they know and where they need to re-learn material. If announced, this method helps ensure to some degree that students will review material prior to class.

Require students to submit one follow-up question regarding previous material. Questions submitted may ask for clarification, or may ask about relationships between the previous material and new ideas. Either type will advance learning in the classroom. Review and answer these questions in a discussion format before introducing new material.

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Article on Vygotsky as applies to teaching and learning higher education

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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - Anders, Md - Cortland.edu

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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - Anders, Md - Cortland.edu

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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

"The Zone of Proximal Development is the distance between the actualdevelopmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the levelof potential as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or incollaboration with more capable peers." (Cole, 1962.) A child's actualdevelopmental level indicates a child's level of mental development at aparticular time. It indicates the functions that have already matured in thechild. A child's ZPD defines those functions that have not matured yet, butthat are in the process of maturing and developing. A child's ZPD permits us tooutline the child's immediate future and his overall dynamic state ofdevelopment. "Experience has shown that the child with the larger zone ofproximal development will do much better in school." (Hanfmann, 1962)

Ex. Taken from Lefrancois (1994)
Take, for example, two five-year-old children, who can both, under normal circumstances, answer questions thatother average five-year-olds can also answer. Their mental ages might be saidto correspond to their chronological ages, and their intelligence would bedescribed as average. But if, when prompted, one of these children couldsuccessfully answer questions corresponding to a mental age of but the othercould not, it would be accurate to say that the first child's zone of proximalgrowth is greater than the other's (that is, it spans a wider range of higherfunctions).

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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) "The Zone of Proximal Development is the distance between the actualdevelopmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the levelof potential as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or incollaboration with more capable peers." (Cole, 1962.) A child's actualdevelopmental level indicates a child's level of mental development at aparticular time.

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Lev Vygotsky – Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development - Dr. Serhat Kurt - EducationalTechnology.net 

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Lev Vygotsky – Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development - Dr. Serhat Kurt - EducationalTechnology.net 

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Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian teacher who is considered a pioneer in learning in social contexts. As a psychologist, he was also the first to examine how our social interactions influence our cognitive growth. He was convinced that learning occurred through interactions with others in our communities: peers, adults, teachers, and other mentors. Vygotsky sought to understand how people learn in a social environment and created a unique theory on social learning. He determined that teachers have the ability to control many factors in an educational setting, including tasks, behaviors, and responses. As a result, he encouraged more interactive activities to promote cognitive growth, such as productive discussions, constructive feedback, and collaboration with others. Vygotsky also stated that culture was a primary determinant of knowledge acquisition. He argued that children learn from the beliefs and attitudes modeled by their culture.

See also: Andragogy Theory - Malcolm Knowles

Vygotsky had a groundbreaking theory that language was the basis of learning. His points included the argument that language supports other activities such as reading and writing. In addition, he claimed that logic, reasoning, and reflective thinking were all possible as a result of language. This led to the development of instructional strategies to support growth in literacy as well as a reassessment of the classroom setup. Teachers were to encourage leadership in the classroom, collaborative learning, and thoughtful discussions. With the exception of independent tasks, which were also included, the goal was to create purposeful, meaningful exchanges between students. The role of the teacher was to facilitate learning by directing the dialogue and confirming contributions in an effort to further motivate the students.

See also: Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

The primary role of the teacher in the educational context is to act as a facilitator for learning. Guided exchanges, comprehensive discussions, and the creation of an engaging community are valuable strategies for cognitive development. Many educators have incorporated Vygotsky's ideas of social connection and small group learning in the classroom in an effort to see more growth.

See also: Inclusive Teaching Strategies

Fundamentally, Vygotsky recognized that social settings and learning were closely entwined. Therefore one must identify and implement strategies that are effective in a social context. It is also important to note that the culture of each individual is created by their unique strengths, language, and prior experience. One of the ways that students gain knowledge is when they collaborate with their peers or mentors on activities that involve problem-solving skills and real-life tasks.

Cognitive Development and the Social World

Vygotsky maintained that the social world is not only the interactions between peers and their teacher but also consisted of outside influences within the community. Prior knowledge, such as learned behaviors at home, impact learning in the classroom environment. As such, Vygotsky outlined three main concepts related to cognitive development: (i) culture is significant in learning, (ii) language is the root of culture, and (iii) individuals learn and develop within their role in the community. Culture can be defined as the morals, values, and beliefs of its community members, which are held in place with systems and establishments. Acceptable attitudes and conduct are communicated by the use of language. Culture is shaped over time as the result of specific events, whose messages are then conveyed to its members. Vygotsky explained that culture consistently affects cognitive development by affecting human behavior. He wanted others to realize that there is a complex relationship between culture and human development. It is a cycle; at the same time that the culture is influencing an individual, that individual is in turn creating culture.

See also: Massive open online courses (MOOCs), Definitions

Vygotsky used the stages of childhood development to further explain the relationship between culture and learning. As a baby, you display elementary functions designed for your survival: crying, a sense of your mother's scent, and familiar voices. These displays gradually fade out as a result of external stimuli: imitating, consequences, and conditioning by others. It is replaced with problem-solving skills such as reflection, bargaining, and reasoning. This higher-level thinking is influenced by cultural factors. The values and beliefs of a community, including models of acceptable behavior, create pressure for others to adopt the preferred attitudes and protocol of that society. Etiquette is communicated orally and by example.

Language is the basis of Vygotsky's ideas on social interaction. The development of speech occurs in three stages: external, egocentric, and inner speech. External or social speech occurs from birth until the age of three. Babies use language to communicate their feelings, express their emotions, and share simple words. They use language to state their needs and also respond to their parent's speech. You can begin to see the social influence on behavior as early as this stage based on the reactions to their demands. Even though babies use language to control their needs, the people around them express approval or disapproval based on their behavior. This leads to cognitive development within the individual. The next stage, egocentric speech, occurs between the ages of three and seven. As they begin to rationalize internally their actions or behavior, children begin to talk to themselves. This inner speech helps them control their reasoning and organize their thoughts. They continue to interpret meaning from the reactions of others, further integrating the cultural beliefs into their own cognitive development. Without language, Vygotsky believed that we would be limited to a more primitive function. Language is ultimately the tool by which we communicate the desired behaviors and therefore enable the development of a society and its culture.

See also: ADDIE Model: Instructional Design

Similar to inner speech is the idea of internalization. Internalization should not be confused with introjection, which involves minimal participation from the individual themselves. It is the conditioning put forth by others, for example, the consequences or reactions toward a behavior. Internalization is where the cognitive development of an individual is influenced by society as they adopt the morals and ethics of a community for themselves. They begin to view their culture's beliefs as their own. Internalization should not be confused with socialization, where individuals develop attitudes due to a need to belong to a community and not the actual obligation to do so. In Vygotsky's theory, internalization was important to social development. We can observe key skills develop on the social level then again within an individual as they internalize cultural influences. External influences are adopted as intrapersonal characteristics throughout the internalization process.

See also: Kirkpatrick Model: Four Levels of Learning Evaluation

It is important to note that the education system influences the thoughts and belief systems of the children within. One's teachers and peers directly affect cognitive development by the language they use and the interpretations they offer of cultural events. While Piaget believed that a child builds a unique view of the world, Vygotsky suggested that others within a child's social circle influence their perspectives, values, and attitudes. Individuals are actively engaging within their learning environments, continuously analyzing the reactions of others and modifying their responses as they adopt or reject accepted standards as their own. Both learning and culture are depended on the other: individuals are constantly determining what is acceptable in society, and the environment is continuously confirming what would be considered appropriate behavior. Vygotsky states that it is the combination of cultural influences and genetics that create one's personality.

Secondly, Vygotsky specified that the conclusions should be made based on the behavior of a student in a social setting. He did not place emphasis on intelligence itself. Instead, Vygotsky proposed the idea of the zone of proximal development, which distinguishes between what a child is able to accomplish independently and what they achieve under close guidance from a teacher. He maintained that learning occurred in the presence of tasks specific to the child's current ability under the supervision of a more competent person. In order to capitalize on this growth, Vygotsky encouraged testing based on the social context. He disagreed with the notion of independent intelligence assessments, preferring to focus on the potential of each student within the learning environment. The zone of proximal development is affected by the unique attributes of each individual, including personality, self-regulation, and previous knowledge. As the zone of proximal development cannot be clearly defined, it is challenging to explain the link between social interaction and learning. It does, however, support the argument for a more student-centered education system as well as the many factors that can influence potential outcomes.

Criticisms of Vygotsky

1. Observation and testing

Vygotsky's theories have been heavily criticized for his lack of experimental tests. He relied widely on observation of his subjects to prove his findings as he believed that social interaction was a key factor to learning. His vague definition of social interaction, in which failed to state the best methods to engage with others, allowed the criticisms to continue even after his death.

2. Active participation in the acquisition of knowledge

While some philosophers assume that learning occurs naturally and fluidly, Vygotsky believed that leaners actively engage in the acquisition of knowledge. The criticism of Vygotsky's theory is that it does not account for the slower rate of cognitive growth in some children. Both genetics and passive experience are thought to play some role as well.

3. Societal Influences

Criticisms about the vagueness of his theories are not limited to just the acquisition of knowledge. Others were also critical about Vygotsky's theory of language, which stated that learning comes from cultural influences. Vygotsky minimized the role of genetics and instead highlighted socialization as key to language learning. Although it is possible that Vygotsky just never elaborated on his theory in his lifetime, some observations are detrimental to his work. Even with consistent social support, some children are never able to develop cognitively until a certain age. Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, conducted a systemic study of cognitive development that offers some answers where Vygotsky could not. Piaget observed that children's learning occurred in stages, and they needed to reach the next stage, or milestone before they could understand some concepts.

4. Lack of Cultural Relevance

Even assessing Vygotsky's theory as a whole proved to be problematic. Vygotsky's theory revolves around the idea that social interaction is central to learning. This means the assumption must be made that all societies are the same, which is incorrect. Vygotsky emphasized the concept of instructional scaffolding, which allows the learned to build connections based on social interactions. In reality, only some learning activities place an emphasis on language, while other skills are acquired instead with hands-on practice and observation.

5. Guided Learning: Zone of Proximal Development

One of the most important aspects of Vygotsky's theory is also criticized: the Zone of Proximal Development. It is viewed as an attempt to make Piaget's theories trendy by rewording his ideas and presenting them in an alternate way. The concept of the zone of proximal development is not well understood and is criticized as an "umbrella term" under which many models of cognitive development could fall.

Overall, Piaget's work has been more heavily scrutinized than Vygotsky's. This is due to the ambiguous nature of Vygotsky's theories, which make them difficult to test and measure. In addition to these challenges, Vygotsky's work needs to be translated from Russian, which is time-consuming in itself.

See also: Fully and Partially Online Courses: Definitions

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Lev Vygotsky - Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development - Educational Technology

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Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian teacher who is considered a pioneer in learning in social contexts. As a psychologist, he was also the first to

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Constructivism as a Theory for Teaching and Learning - Saul McLeod, SimplyPsychology.org 

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Constructivism as a Theory for Teaching and Learning - Saul McLeod, SimplyPsychology.org 

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Constructivism Learning Theory & Philosophy of Education

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Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the active role of learners in building their own understanding. Rather than passively receiving information, learners reflect on their experiences, create mental representations, and incorporate new knowledge into

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The sociocultural theory is a psychological theory which explores the relationships between external and internal processes. The theory focuses on the creation and usage of mediating tools that play a role in how humans think. It helps create a framework that facilitates in systematically investigating cognition, keeping in mind the social context. Human development is viewed as a socially mediated process that varies from culture to culture.

Oksana Kuzmina/dollar photo club

Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky, a Russian literary critic, educator and psychologist is known as the father of sociocultural theory. According to him, social interaction is the source of learning and development which is not found solely in the mind of an individual. Humans can be studied or understood only as a part of society, culture or history and not in isolation. The sociocultural theory is a theory of the mind and is a reflection of Vygotsky's focus on the relationship between the physiological aspects of an individual and the contexts and artifacts that are socially or culturally produced. These relationships transform the mental or cognitive functions of an individual.

Vygotsky played an important role in qualitative descriptions, which became a vital component of experimental findings. This was due to his belief that psychology should be studied as internal processes that are mediated socially and then culturally communicated. He conducted 'on-site' experiments in schools and playgrounds and proved that field testing had more pros than cons and could be used in place of laboratory testing or as a follow-up method.
Socioculturalism
According to sociocultural thought, human activity like learning and behaviour are impacted by individual, social and contextual issues. Humans are considered to be social and reflexive in nature and this causes human thought and behaviour to be altered by the complexities of that social world. Therefore, when studying any phenomenon, it is important to keep in mind the context in which it took place. The focus on the role of social dynamics ensures that a holistic view of the phenomenon is obtained. At times, the interplay of social dynamics affects the outcome of a phenomenon.
Sociocultural Theory
According to the sociocultural theory, knowledge does not exist inside the head of a human being. Meanings are negotiated where individuals, culture and activity intersect. It tries to explain how social mediation plays a role in the construction, reconstruction and transformation of culturally and historically situated meanings.

According to Vygotsky, when it comes to development, children use collaborative dialogues with the more knowledgeable members of the society to learn various aspects of their culture. This includes values, beliefs, norms and ways to solve different problems. These knowledgeable members may be parents, teachers or more competent peers. The various social interactions of a child influence his/her personal characteristics and social skills. Therefore, the sociocultural environment in which development takes place also influences its form.
Culture and Intellectual Development
Culture plays a role in transforming the elementary functions like perception, sensation, attention and memory that a child is born with into sophisticated mental processes called 'higher mental functions.' Cultures provide their children with distinctive 'tools of intellectual adoption.' These tools help enhance their mental processes that are normally limited by biological constraints. For example, every culture teaches its children different strategies for remembering things. While a western society may impress upon its children the need for taking notes, another society may teach the use of a pictorial memory or another culture may suggest the use of tying strings around one's finger to remind of various tasks. This shows that cultures play a very important role in teaching children how to think and, with their focus on specific beliefs and values, also teach children what to think about.
Social Contribution to Personal Growth
According to Vygotsky, when a child is faced with a range of tasks that seem too complex for him to learn/accomplish alone, he is in a 'zone of proximal development.' In such a scenario, collaborative (guided) learning works best. Here, a more skillful tutor helps the child learn or acquire new skills through cooperative or collaborative dialogues. The child will first try to understand the instructions, then internalizes the information and finally regulates his performance. In some situations, the tutor on observing the development of the child, may customise his instructions and support to meet the needs of the child. This helps the child improve his abilities to grasp and understand the problem better. This willingness to tailor instructions based on need is called 'scaffolding.'

Therefore, guided learning is a socialization process where a child acquires culturally relevant skills and activities by participating hands-on in various tasks. These tasks can range from farming, learning to play tennis, hunting prey, cooking, etc.

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The sociocultural theory is a psychological theory which explores the relationships between external and internal processes. The theory focuses on the creation and usage of mediating tools that play a role in how humans think. It helps create a framework that facilitates in systematically investigating cognition, keeping in mind the social context.

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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development - Saul McLeod, PhD - SimplyPsychology.org 

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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development - Saul McLeod, PhD - SimplyPsychology.org 

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By Saul Mcleod, PhD | Updated August 18, 2022,

The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly of what has become known as sociocultural theory.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process in which children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. Vygotsky's theory is comprised of concepts such as culture-specific tools, private speech, and the Zone of Proximal Development.

Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."

Unlike Piaget's notion that childrens' development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function" (1978, p. 90). In other words, social learning tends to precede (i.e., come before) development.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development. He developed his theories at around the same time as Jean Piaget was starting to develop his ideas (1920's and 30's), but he died at the age of 38, and so his theories are incomplete - although some of his writings are still being translated from Russian.

Like Piaget, Vygotsky could be described as a constructivist, in that he was interested in knowledge acquisition as a cumulative event - with new experiences and understandings incorporated into existing cognitive frameworks. However, whilst Piaget's theory is structural (arguing that development is governed by physiological stages), Vygotsky denies the existence of any guiding framework independent of culture and context.

No single principle (such as Piaget's equilibration) can account for development. Individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which it is embedded. Higher mental processes in the individual have their origin in social processes.

Vygotsky's Ideas

Vygotsky's theory focuses on the role of culture in the development of mental abilities e.g. speech and reasoning in children.

According to Vygotsky, adults in society foster children's cognitive development by engaging them in challenging and meaningful activities. Adults convey to children the way their culture interprets and responds to the world.

They show the meaning they attach to objects, events and experiences. They provide the child with what to think (the knowledge) and how to think (the processes, the tools to think with).

The interactions with others significantly increases not only the quantity of information and the number of skills a child develops, it also affects the development of higher order mental functions such as formal reasoning. Vygotsky argued that higher mental abilities could only develop through the interaction with more advanced others.

Vygotsky proposed that children are born with elementary mental abilities such as memory and perception and that higher mental functions develop from these through the influence of social interactions.

Vygotsky agreed with Piaget that the development of cognitive abilities takes place in stages and he also agreed broadly with the description of the stages however he viewed cognitive development as a social process where children learn from experienced adults.

Vygotsky stated that language has two functions. Inner speech is used for mental reasoning and external speech is used to converse with others. These operations occur separately. Indeed, before the age of two, a child employs words socially; they possess no internal language. Once thought and language merge, however, the social language is internalized and assists the child with their reasoning. Thus, the social environment is ingrained within the child's learning.

Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways:

This contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development (Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the way that Piaget does).

Hence Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across cultures, whereas Piaget states cognitive development is mostly universal across cultures.

(i) Vygotsky states the importance of cultural and social context for learning. Cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge. In contrast, Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems largely from independent explorations in which children construct knowledge of their own.

(ii) For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about.

According to Piaget, language depends on thought for its development (i.e., thought comes before language). For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age, producing verbal thought (inner speech).

For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language.

Adults transmit their culture's tools of intellectual adaptation that children internalize. In contrast, Piaget emphasizes the importance of peers, as peer interaction promotes social perspective taking.

Effects of Culture: - Tools of intellectual adaptation

Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic abilities for intellectual development called 'elementary mental functions' (Piaget focuses on motor reflexes and sensory abilities).

Elementary mental functions include -

Eventually, through interaction within the sociocultural environment, these are developed into more sophisticated and effective mental processes which Vygotsky refers to as 'higher mental functions.'

Each culture provides its children tools of intellectual adaptation that allow them to use the basic mental functions more effectively/adaptively.

Tools of intellectual adaptation is Vygotsky's term for methods of thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize through social interactions with the more knowledgeable members of society.

For example, memory in young children this is limited by biological factors. However, culture determines the type of memory strategy we develop. For example, in western culture, children learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies, other strategies must be developed, such as tying knots in a string to remember, or carrying pebbles, or repetition of the names of ancestors until large numbers can be repeated.

Vygotsky, therefore, sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone, as affected by the beliefs, values, and tools of intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a person develops and therefore socio-culturally determined. The tools of intellectual adaptation, therefore, vary from culture to culture - as in the memory example.

Social Influences on Cognitive Development

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the corner/edge pieces and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers encouragement when she does so.

As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving cooperative or collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development.

In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development, one must understand two of the main principles of Vygotsky's work: the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.

Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.

For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music groups, how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance craze - a child or their parents?

In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in their learning process, are now using electronic performance support systems.

Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does.

Zone of Proximal Development

The concept of the more knowledgeable other is integrally related to the second important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.

This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

Vygotsky consequently focuses much more closely on social interaction as an aid to learning; arguing that, left alone, children will develop - but not to their full potential. He refers to the gap between actual and potential learning as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - and argues that it is only through collaboration with adults and other learners that this gap can be bridged.

The Zone of Proximal Development is the gap between the level of actual development, what the child can do on his own and the level of potential development, what a child can do with the assistance of more advanced and competent individuals. Social interaction, therefore, supports the child's cognitive development in the ZPD, leading to a higher level of reasoning.

For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above) by itself and would have taken a long time to do so (if at all), but was able to solve it following interaction with the father, and has developed competence at this skill that will be applied to future jigsaws.

ZPD is the zone where instruction is the most beneficial as it is when the task is just beyond the individual's capabilities. To learn we must be presented with tasks that are just out of our ability range. Challenging tasks promote the maximum cognitive growth.

As a result of shared dialogues with more knowledgeable others, who provide hints and instructions as well as encouragement, the child is able to internalize the 'how to do it' part of the task as part of their inner or private speech. This can then be used by the child on later occasions when they tackle a similar task on their own.

Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.

Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development.

Evidence for Vygotsky and the ZPD

Freund (1990) conducted a study in which children had to decide which items of furniture should be placed in particular areas of a dolls house.

Some children were allowed to play with their mother in a similar situation before they attempted it alone (zone of proximal development) while others were allowed to work on this by themselves (Piaget's discovery learning).

Freund found that those who had previously worked with their mother (ZPD) showed the greatest improvement compared with their first attempt at the task. The conclusion being that guided learning within the ZPD led to greater understanding/performance than working alone (discovery learning).

Vygotsky and Language

Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication purposes. Vygotsky viewed language as man's greatest tool, a means for communicating with the outside world.

According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays two critical roles in cognitive development:

1: It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.

2: Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: social speech which is external communication used to talk to others (typical from the age of two); private speech (typical from the age of three) which is directed to the self and serves an intellectual function; and finally private speech goes underground, diminishing in audibility as it takes on a self-regulating function and is transformed into silent inner speech (typical from the age of seven).

For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age. At this point speech and thought become interdependent: thought becomes verbal, speech becomes representational. When this happens, children's monologues internalized to become inner speech. The internalization of language is important as it drives cognitive development.

'Inner speech is not the interiour aspect of external speech - it is a function in itself. It still remains speech, i.e., thought connected with words. But while in external speech thought is embodied in words, in inner speech words dies as they bring forth thought. Inner speech is to a large extent thinking in pure meanings.'

Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist to document the importance of private speech. He considered private speech as the transition point between social and inner speech, the moment in development where language and thought unite to constitute verbal thinking.

Thus private speech, in Vygotsky's view, was the earliest manifestation of inner speech. Indeed, private speech is more similar (in its form and function) to inner speech than social speech.

Private speech is 'typically defined, in contrast to social speech, as speech addressed to the self (not to others) for the purpose of self-regulation (rather than communication).'

Unlike inner speech which is covert (i.e., hidden), private speech is overt. In contrast to Piaget's (1959) notion of private speech representing a developmental dead-end, Vygotsky (1934, 1987) viewed private speech as: 'A revolution in development which is triggered when preverbal thought and preintellectual language come together to create fundamentally new forms of mental functioning.' (Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005: p. 1)

In addition to disagreeing on the functional significance of private speech, Vygotsky and Piaget also offered opposing views on the developmental course of private speech and the environmental circumstances in which it occurs most often (Berk & Garvin, 1984).

Through private speech, children begin to collaborate with themselves in the same way a more knowledgeable other (e.g., adults) collaborate with them in the achievement of a given function.

Vygotsky sees "private speech" as a means for children to plan activities and strategies and therefore aid their development. Private speech is the use of language for self-regulation of behavior. Language is, therefore, an accelerator to thinking/understanding ( Jerome Bruner also views language in this way). Vygotsky believed that children who engaged in large amounts of private speech are more socially competent than children who do not use it extensively.

Vygotsky (1987) notes that private speech does not merely accompany a child's activity but acts as a tool used by the developing child to facilitate cognitive processes, such as overcoming task obstacles, enhancing imagination, thinking, and conscious awareness.

Children use private speech most often during intermediate difficulty tasks because they are attempting to self-regulate by verbally planning and organizing their thoughts (Winsler et al., 2007).

The frequency and content of private speech are then correlated with behavior or performance. For example, private speech appears to be functionally related to cognitive performance: It appears at times of difficulty with a task.

For example, tasks related to executive function (Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005), problem-solving tasks (Behrend et al., 1992), schoolwork in both language (Berk & Landau, 1993), and mathematics (Ostad & Sorensen, 2007).

Berk (1986) provided empirical support for the notion of private speech. She found that most private speech exhibited by children serves to describe or guide the child's actions.

Berk also discovered than child engaged in private speech more often when working alone on challenging tasks and also when their teacher was not immediately available to help them. Furthermore, Berk also found that private speech develops similarly in all children regardless of cultural background.

Vygotsky (1987) proposed that private speech is a product of an individual's social environment. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that there exist high positive correlations between rates of social interaction and private speech in children.

Children raised in cognitively and linguistically stimulating environments (situations more frequently observed in higher socioeconomic status families) start using and internalizing private speech faster than children from less privileged backgrounds. Indeed, children raised in environments characterized by low verbal and social exchanges exhibit delays in private speech development.

Childrens' use of private speech diminishes as they grow older and follows a curvilinear trend. This is due to changes in ontogenetic development whereby children are able to internalize language (through inner speech) in order to self-regulate their behavior (Vygotsky, 1987).

For example, research has shown that childrens' private speech usually peaks at 3-4 years of age, decreases at 6-7 years of age, and gradually fades out to be mostly internalized by age 10 (Diaz, 1992).

Vygotsky proposed that private speech diminishes and disappears with age not because it becomes socialized, as Piaget suggested, but rather because it goes underground to constitute inner speech or verbal thought" (Frauenglass & Diaz, 1985).

Applying Vygotsky's Theory to the Classroom

Vygotsky's approach to child development is a form of social constructivism, based on the idea that cognitive functions are the products of social interactions.

Vygotsky emphasized the collaborative nature of learning by the construction of knowledge through social negotiation. He rejected the assumption made by Piaget that it was possible to separate learning from its social context.

Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels. First, through interaction with others, and then integrated into the individual's mental structure.

Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals.

Teaching styles based on constructivism mark a conscious effort to move from 'traditional, objectivist models didactic, memory-oriented transmission models' (Cannella & Reiff, 1994) to a more student-centred approach.

Traditionally, schools have not promoted environments in which the students play an active role in their own education as well as their peers'. Vygotsky's theory, however, requires the teacher and students to play untraditional roles as they collaborate with each other.

Instead of a teacher dictating her meaning to students for future recitation, a teacher should collaborate with her students in order to create meaning in ways that students can make their own (Hausfather, 1996).

For example, a pupil and teacher begin a task with different levels of skill and understanding. As each adjusts to the perspective of the other, the teacher has to translate their own insights in a way that is within the grasp of the pupil, and the pupil develops more complete understanding of a task or concept.
The pupil is able to internalize the 'how to do it' part of a task as part of their private or inner speech dialog. Vygotsky referred to this process as intersubjectivity.

ZPD

Because Vygotsky asserts that cognitive change occurs within the zone of proximal development, instruction would be designed to reach a developmental level that is just above the student's current developmental level.

Vygotsky proclaims, "learning which is oriented toward developmental levels that have already been reached is ineffective from the view point of the child's overall development. It does not aim for a new stage of the developmental process but rather lags behind this process" (Vygotsky, 1978).

Appropriation is necessary for cognitive development within the zone of proximal development. Individuals participating in peer collaboration or guided teacher instruction must share the same focus in order to access the zone of proximal development.

"Joint attention and shared problem solving is needed to create a process of cognitive, social, and emotional interchange" (Hausfather,1996).

Furthermore, it is essential that the partners be on different developmental levels and the higher level partner be aware of the lower's level. If this does not occur, or if one partner dominates, the interaction is less successful (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather, 1996).

Vygotsky's theories also feed into the current interest in collaborative learning, suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced peers can help less advanced members operate within their ZPD.

Scaffolding and reciprocal teaching are effective strategies to access the zone of proximal development.

Reciprocal Teaching

A contemporary educational application of Vygotsky's theory is "reciprocal teaching," used to improve students' ability to learn from text. In this method, teachers and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher's role in the process is reduced over time.

Reciprocal teaching allows for the creation of a dialogue between students and teachers. This two way communication becomes an instructional strategy by encouraging students to go beyond answering questions and engage in the discourse (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather, 1996).

A study conducted by Brown and Palincsar (1989), demonstrated the Vygotskian approach with reciprocal teaching methods in their successful program to teach reading strategies. The teacher and students alternated turns leading small group discussions on a reading. After modeling four reading strategies, students began to assume the teaching role.

Results of this study showed significant gains over other instructional strategies (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather,1996). Cognitively Guided Instruction is another strategy to implement Vygotsky's theory. This strategy involves the teacher and students exploring math problems and then sharing their different problem solving strategies in an open dialogue (Hausfather,1996).

The physical classroom, based on Vygotsky's theory, would provide clustered desks or tables and work space for peer instruction, collaboration, and small group instruction. Learning becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.

Like the environment, the instructional design of material to be learned would be structured to promote and encourage student interaction and collaboration. Thus the classroom becomes a community of learning.

Scaffolding

Also, Vygotsky theory of cognitive development on learners is relevant to instructional concepts such as "scaffolding" and "apprenticeship," in which a teacher or more advanced peer helps to structure or arrange a task so that a novice can work on it successfully.

A teacher's role is to identify each individual's current level of development and provide them with opportunities to cross their ZPD.

A crucial element in this process is the use of what later became known as scaffolding; the way in which the teacher provides students with frameworks and experiences which encourage them to extend their existing schemata and incorporate new skills, competences and understandings.

Scaffolding describes the conditions that support the child's learning, to move from what they already know to new knowledge and abilities.

Scaffolding requires the teacher to provide students the opportunity to extend their current skills and knowledge.

During scaffolding the support offered by a adult (or more knowledgeable other) gradually decreases as the child becomes more skilled in the task. As the adult withdraws their help, the child assumes more of the strategic planning and eventually gains competence to master similar problems without the aid of a teacher or more knowledgeable peer.

It is important to note that this is more than simply instruction; learning experiences must be presented in such a way as to actively challenge existing mental structures and provide frameworks fo

Five ways in which an adult can "scaffold" a child's learning:

1. Engaging the child's interest

2. Maintaining the child's interest in the task e.g. avoiding distraction and providing clear instructions on how to start the task.

3. Keeping the child's frustration under control e.g. by supportive interactions, adapt instructions according where the child is struggling

4. Emphasising the important features of the task

5. Demonstrating the task: showing the child how to do the task in simple, clear steps.

As the child progresses through the ZPD, the level of scaffolding necessary declines from 5 to 1.

The teacher must engage students' interest, simplify tasks so they are manageable, and motivate students to pursue the instructional goal. In addition, the teacher must look for discrepancies between students' efforts and the solution, control for frustration and risk, and model an idealized version of the act (Hausfather, 1996).

Challenges to Traditional Teaching Methods

Vygotsky's social development theory challenges traditional teaching methods. Historically, schools have been organized around recitation teaching. The teacher disseminates knowledge to be memorized by the students, who in turn recite the information back to the teacher (Hausfather,1996). However, the studies described above offer empirical evidence that learning based on the social development theory facilitates cognitive development over other instructional strategies.

The structure of our schools do not reflect the rapid changes our society is experiencing. The introduction and integration of computer technology in society has tremendously increased the opportunities for social interaction.

Therefore, the social context for learning is transforming as well. Whereas collaboration and peer instruction was once only possible in shared physical space, learning relationships can now be formed from distances through cyberspace.

Computer technology is a cultural tool that students can use to mediate and internalize their learning. Recent research suggests changing the learning contexts with technology is a powerful learning activity (Crawford, 1996). If schools continue to resist structural change, students will be ill prepared for the world they will live.

Critical Evaluation

Vygotsky's work has not received the same level of intense scrutiny that Piaget's has, partly due to the time-consuming process of translating Vygotsky's work from Russian. Also, Vygotsky's sociocultural perspective does not provide as many specific hypotheses to test as did Piaget's theory, making refutation difficult, if not impossible.

Perhaps the main criticism of Vygotsky's work concerns the assumption that it is relevant to all cultures. Rogoff (1990) dismisses the idea that Vygotsky's ideas are culturally universal and instead states the concept of scaffolding - which is heavily dependent on verbal instruction - may not be equally useful in all cultures for all types of learning. Indeed, in some instances, observation and practice may be more effective ways of learning certain skills.

There is much emphasis on social interaction and culture but many other aspects for development are neglected such as the importance of emotional factors e.g. the joys of success and the disappointments and frustration of failure, these acts as motivation for learning.

Vygotsky overemphasised socio-cultural factors at the expense of biological influences on cognitive development, this theory cannot explain why cross-cultural studies show that the stages of development (except the formal operational stage) occur in the same order in all cultures suggesting that cognitive development is a product of a biological process of maturation.

Vygotky's theory has been applied successfully to education. Scaffolding has shown to be an effective way of teaching (Freund, 1990) and based on this theory teachers are trained to guide children from they can do to the next step in their learning through careful scaffolding. Collaborative work is also used in the classroom, mixing children of different level of ability to make use of reciprocal / peer teaching.
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Saul Mcleod, PhD, is a qualified psychology teacher with over 17 years' experience of working in further and higher education. He has been published in psychology journals including Clinical Psychology, Social and Personal Relationships, and Social Psychology.

Mcleod, S. (2022, May 05). Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

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By Saul Mcleod, PhD | Updated August 18, 2022, The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly of what has become known as sociocultural theory.

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Acknowledging Learner Variability, Changes in UDL Guidelines 2.0 - National Center on Universal Design for Learning 

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Acknowledging Learner Variability, Changes in UDL Guidelines 2.0 - National Center on Universal Design for Learning 

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National Center on Universal Design for Learning

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Universal Design for Learning for HE and FET in a Blended Learning Context - QQI

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Universal Design for Learning for HE and FET in a Blended Learning Context - QQI

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Universal Design for Learning for HE and FET in a Blended Learning Context

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UDL Guidelines from the Center of Excellence in Teaching and Learning

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UDL Guidelines from the Center of Excellence in Teaching and Learning

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Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning at OU

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Universal Design for Learning (Part 2): UDL Guidelines

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CAST (UDL creators) Give Brief Explanation of Universal Design for Learning

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CAST (UDL creators) Give Brief Explanation of Universal Design for Learning

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Mentions need to make learning and teaching methods, resources, and assessments more diverse and flexible to cater to a wider range of students.

Questions to ask: "What is my goal? What do I want students to know, do, and care about?" "What barriers in the classroom might interfere with my diverse students reaching these goals?"

UDL has three main principles to eliminate these barriers: Representation, Action & Expression, and Engagement.
Represent and provide content in multiple different mediums and provide support.
Give students plenty of options to express and act on what they know, and provide models, feedback, and support.
Provide multiple means of engagement, and numerous choices and options that engage and keep students' interest.

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Explains why curriculums need to change to encompass diversity amongst students and the way they learn.

UDL is a framework to help guide this. It is based on neuroscience. It suggests using different types of media, and ensuring all media is accessible, so that a wide range of learners can understand the content and find it easier to learn.

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What is Universal Design for Learning (UDL)?