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Introduction to Syntax:

Syntax refers to the structure of sentences in language. This illustrates how we interpret sentences based on expected structures, highlighting the importance of recognizing underlying sentence structures.

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Syntax Study:

Syntax involves understanding the structure and ordering of components within a sentence. It focuses on how words and phrases are combined to convey meaning.

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Grammar had its beginnings in Greece.

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Syntactic Rules: Syntax analysis aims to adhere to the "all and only" criterion, accounting for all grammatically correct phrases and sentences in a language. Rules should logically produce well-formed structures without generating ill-formed ones.

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Generative Grammar:

Generative grammar aims to have a small set of rules capable of producing a potentially infinite number of well-formed structures. It reveals how different phrases and sentences are related or differ.

What is generative grammar in linguistics? According to Chomsky? (s/f). Quora. Recuperado el 13 de mayo de 2024, de https://www.quora.com/What-is-generative-grammar-in-linguistics-According-to-Chomsky

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Deep and Surface Structure:

Sentences may have different surface structures but share a common underlying deep structure. Structural ambiguity can arise when sentences have multiple underlying interpretations.

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Syntactic Analysis Tools:

Syntactic analysis uses abbreviations for parts of speech and phrases, such as NP (noun phrase) and VP (verb phrase), and employs symbols like arrows and brackets to represent syntactic relationships.

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Structural ambiguity occurs when a sentence can be interpreted in more than one way due to different underlying structures, despite having the same surface structure.

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Phrase Structure and Lexical Rules:

Phrase structure rules define the structure of phrases, while lexical rules specify which words can be used in these structures.

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Tree Diagrams:

Tree diagrams visually represent the hierarchical structure of sentences, showing how constituents are organized.

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Purpose of Lexical Rules:

Lexical rules complement phrase structure rules by specifying which words can be used to rewrite constituents like proper nouns (PN) within sentence structures.

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Surface Structure Variations:

Different sentences may have surface structure variations but share a common underlying deep structure, demonstrating the generative power of phrase structure rules.

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While it is recognized that the basic structures have been covered in the topic of syntax, there is much more to explore, especially in the analysis of sentences that are more complex and the incorporation of meaning analysis.

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1 What was the original literal meaning of syntax in Greek?The word “syntax” comes originally from Greek and literally means “a putting together” or “arrangement.”

2 What is wrong with the following rule of English syntactic structure? “A prepositional phrase rewrites as a preposition followed by a noun.”

In this case, it fails to acknowledge the potential complexity of     prepositional phrases.

In English syntax, we know that a prepositional phrase usually consists of a preposition followed by an object. However, the object of a preposition can be more than just a noun; It can also be a gerund, a pronoun, a clause or also a noun phrase. Additionally, prepositional phrases can include modifiers that describe the object in more detail.

Therefore, we could say that the most accurate would be: "A prepositional phrase usually consists of a preposition followed by a gerund, a pronoun, a clause or also a noun phrase, possibly with additional modifiers.

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3 Which of the following expressions are structurally ambiguous and in what way?

(a)  These are designed for small boys and girls.

This sentence is structurally ambiguous because it's unclear whether "small" applies only to "boys" or to both "boys" and "girls." Is it "small boys and girls" or "small boys" and "girls" separately? The lack of punctuation or additional context leaves this open to interpretation.

(b)  The parents of the bride and groom were waiting outside.

In This sentence is structurally ambiguous because it is not clear whether both the bride and groom share the same parents or whether each has their own set of parents. Are they "the parents of the bride" and "the parents of the groom" or "the parents of the bride and groom" collectively?

This could be interpreted either way.

(c)  How come a bed has four legs, but only one foot?

In this sentence, it is structurally unambiguous. It's a play on words that highlights the difference between the "legs" of a bed (support structures) and the "feet" of a bed (a measurement of length).

(d)  We met an English history teacher.

In this case the phrase is not structurally ambiguous. Directly indicates knowing a professor who teaches English history.

(e)  Flying planes can be dangerous.

This sentence is structurally ambiguous because in this case it is not clear whether "fly" refers to the action of airplanes ("planes that fly") or to pilots ("people who fly airplanes"). Without additional context, it could be interpreted either way.

(f)   The students complained to everyone that they couldn’t understand.

Structurally this phrase is unambiguous. It indicates that students complained about their inability to understand everyone.

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4 What part of speech is lovely in the following sentence?

We saw a lovely rainbow yesterday.

In this case, the word "lovely" functions as an adjective. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns by providing more information about their qualities or attributes. In this case, "lovely" describes the rainbow, specifying that it is pleasing or beautiful.

5 How many noun phrases are there in the following sentence?

George saw a small dog in the park near the fountain and it followed him when he left the park.

In this case, there are two noun phrases:

1-. "a small dog in the park near the fountain"

2-. "it" (as a pronoun representing the small dog)

Each of these phrases functions as a noun within the sentence.

6 Which part of the following sentence is the VP?

None of the people in the building supported the proposed rent increase.

In this sentence, the VP (Verb Phrase) is "supported the proposed rent increase." This phrase includes the main verb "supported" and its objects "the proposed rent increase," indicating the action performed by the subject ("None of the people in the building").

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7 Which of the following expressions would be generated by this phrase structure rule: NP

→ {Art (Adj) N, Pro, PN}?

(a) a lady (c) her (e) the widow

(b) the little girl (d) Annie (f) she’s an old woman

Let's analyze one by one:

(a) "a lady" - This fits the structure as it starts with an article "a" followed by a noun "lady".

(b) "the little girl" - Similarly, it fits the structure with the article "the", followed by the adjective "little", and then the noun "girl".

(c) "her" - This is a pronoun and fits the structure as it can directly be considered as Pro.

(d) "Annie" - This is a proper noun, thus it fits the structure as PN.

(e) "the widow" - Fits the structure as it starts with an article "the" followed by the noun "widow".

(f) "she’s an old woman" - This is a sentence rather than a noun phrase. It's not structured as per the given rule.

8 What kind of generative rule is this: N → {girl, dog, boy}?

Lexical rules directly specify individual words or lexemes that can be used to build phrases. In this case, the rule is defining the possible nouns (N) that can be used in a phrase. Each word listed within the curly braces is a separate lexical item, representing nouns like "girl", "dog", and "boy". These lexical rules provide the basic building blocks for constructing phrases and sentences in a language.

9 Do phrase structure rules represent deep structure or surface structure?

Deep structure refers to the underlying syntactic organization of a sentence, representing its abstract hierarchical structure before any transformations or surface adjustments are applied. Phrase structure rules define the possible ways in which constituents (such as noun phrases, verb phrases, etc.) can be combined to form sentences at this deep level of representation.

Surface structure, on the other hand, refers to the actual arrangement of words in a sentence as it is produced or perceived. This includes factors like word order, inflections, and other surface-level features.

10 Complete the following tree diagrams.

Figure 8.5 (Image inserted)

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1-. The study of language / George Yule.

Sixth edition. | Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press,

2016. | Previous ed.: 2014.

2-. Crystal, D. (2003) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (2nd edition)

Cambridge University Press

3-. What is generative grammar in linguistics? According to Chomsky? (s/f). Quora. Recuperado el 13 de mayo de 2024, de https://www.quora.com/What-is-generative-grammar-in-linguistics-According-to-Chomsky.