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The Quechuan language is theorized to have mainly been spoken in a small area in the southern Peruvian highlands until about 1450. After the Incan conquests, however, Quechuan greatly expanded and became the Incan language. Regardless, what is more largely studied is the Incan's way of recording information. While the Incas had no written records, they found various other ways to preserve their information. Oraly, they mostly recorded through legends, and stories were preserved by memorizers. Their largest form of recording information, however, is through Quipu. They can be described as long textile cords with various pendant cords. The meanings of quipus are determined by their knots, cord composition, ply, length, end treatment, color, and spacing between cords. The knot tied in its position usually records a numeric value. To represent these, there are three basic knots with two possible orientations. The two orientations are S and Z. The first type of not is the E-Knot and is tied as Figure 8. This represents 1. There is also a long knot wrapped between two and nine times, and the numeric value is however many times the knot was wrapped (4 times = 4). The final knot is a single knot representing either ten or certain powers of ten.

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Quipu Image - Used to record statistical information (taxes, census data, storehouse inventories)

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The Incas are one of the oldest Andean (inhabiting the Andes) Civilization who ruled from the Pacific coast from the northern border of modern Ecuador to the Maule River in central Chile. According to the legend, the Inca's were brought into existence at Tiwanaku from the sun god Inti, naming them the 'Children of the Sun'. The founder of the Inca dynasty was Manco Capac, who was in control of the Incan capital of Cuzco, established in the 12th Century. The fourth emperor Mayta Capac inhabited the Incas throughout Andes.

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The Incas had polytheistic beliefs and combined animism, fetishism, and the following of nature Gods. Animism is the belief that plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena all have a soul to be cherished. Similarly, fetishism is the worshiping of inanimate objects because of the belief that it has magical powers or is inhabited by a holy spirit. The major nature Gods that the Incas worshiped were Inti, the sun God, Viracocha, the creator God/culture hero, and Apa Illapu, the rain God. Inca rituals included divination and the sacrifice of humans and animals to ensure the good health of the king and honor the Gods. The Incas would also establish sacred sites, utilizing their natural land features such as mountaintops, caves, and springs. With these, they would make astronomical observations, hold religious ceremonies, and also hold agricultural ceremonies for harvesting seasons. The Incas would enforce and impose their religion on surrounding societies by building temples on others' sacred sites. They also would steal conquered peoples' sacred relics hold them in Cuzco. However, the Inca's belief system was destroyed by Spanish campaigns against idolatry.

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Colonial image of Manco Capac holding onto the sun god, Inti

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Portrait of the fourth Incan emperor-Mayta Capac

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Machu Picchu, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, believed to be built by the Incans for their emperor Pachacuti (1438-1472)

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The ayllu created a base for social structure and allowed for the family to manage all their economics and trade in one place. The Incans had no currency, but kept a form of labor taxation and created markets. The system was very efficient, it made sure citizens had all necessities, and economic changes were made through a barter system, where they could trade goods with each other. In the labor taxation, citizens (including children), would be on rotation on labor such as farming, construction, or home building. Two thirds of a farmer’s crops would be given to the government, and in exchange, the government provided Incas with tax revenues. Not only that, they also gave food, shelter, and clothes.

Trade in the ancient and medieval worlds was not just an economic activity, but one that paved the way for the exchange of products and ideas, and in the end greatly enriched the society and provided much diversity. The resources that moved from one region to another allowed for the advancements in technology and art techniques, and merchants and artists gained new social statuses. Trade centers grew into large cities, becoming places of cultural and economic exchange. In the Incan Empire, trading resulted in emergence of diplomatic relations and resources that helped to maintain a powerful army, thus widening the power and riches of the empire. The geographic conditions which rendered the Incan Empire one of the center points of business were the natural resources from the Andes, jungles, shorelines, and plains. The mountains were full of rich soil and acted as natural barriers.

The structures and artifacts left by the Incan Empire are evidence of the beliefs, culture, affluence, and prosperity of this large monarchy. Most of the temples and smaller worship grounds were made of gold and silver, resources from the mountains, for the purpose of worshiping the God of the sun, thus showing their dedication and high level of civilization. Art pieces, such as ceramics and textiles, show the artistic and accomplished ability of the Incans and their skills to trade with others, just like the prowess they instilled in agriculture, which had a very advanced irrigation of its times, further improving the economic prosperity of the empire.

At the time, although they didn't have a form of writing, they created a system of bookkeeping called quipu, a method of making knots in string. It was a complex knot arrangements and color coded regions to represent the decimal system. The economy of the empire was managed through quip, and the people who kept these records were called quipucamayocs.

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The following padlet will discuss points on the matters of politics, economics, society, religion, and technological and artistic advancements. Topics on social communication and preservation of information as well as the political structure, emphasizing the monarchy and administrative government of the Incas, will be discussed. Furthermore, beliefs of animism and fetishism and their similarities will be used to express the religious beliefs of the Incas. The economics of the Incas encompasses their trade, influenced by geographical factors. Their artistic and technological advancements can be shown through artifacts, infrastructures, roadways, and irrigation systems.

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The Inca Empire was characterized to be a monarchy with a centralized and hierarchical government structure. The capital, Cuzco, was the center of bureaucratic and religious power of the Inca Empire. At the top of the hierarchy, the Sapa Inca (hereditary kings) was the absolute ruler whose word was law. The successor to the emperor was not automatically given to the oldest son, but to the son that was best fitted for the role. The emperor was in complete control of politics, society, and the army. Beneath the Sapa Inca were his high priest, the William Umu, and groups of nobles, the panaqa, all of which were in blood relation to the Sapa Inca. These groups assisted the emperor in political issues and decisions, such as the choosing of a successor. The noble groups beneath them, hanan and hurin, became more distantly related to the Sapa Inca and then a final group that were not blood related and were made Inca as a privilege. The lowest of status were the administrators who were supervising the ayllu, which consisted of groups of families who worked together and helped support one another.

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Inca Empire Hierarchical Power Structure 

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The Inca empire stretched from the northern border of modern-day Ecuador, to the Maule River in Chile, along the Pacific coast, and mostly among the Andes Mountains. Because of the Incas' vast land ownership, a sophisticated and highly efficient network of roads was created in connecting all of the Incas' territories, with the development of its construction beginning under the rule of Pachacuti Yuca Yupanqui, the ninth Sapa Inca. Much of the Incas' effort was put into creating the roads and pathways, especially considering their unique land geography. Alongside the development of the miles and miles of roads, the Incas had as well incorporated bridges and stairways among this system-- allowing for transportation among mountainous regions. The Incas accounted for the prevention of this road system from eroding with the integration of stone-lined channels and culverts that directed water away from the roads. This transportation system that the Incas had constructed proved highly efficient in regards to maintaining empire control, trade, military movement, as well as a method of vast communication across the empire.

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The Sapa Inca was the absolute ruler and the leader of the Incas. He was believed to be a direct descendant of the sun God, Inti. His divine status had legitimized him and his authority to control all aspects of society.

The royalty of the Inca empire heavily relied on blood relation to the emperor. The emperor was expected to marry on his accession, and would typically marry one of his close relatives. His wife along with his supporting nobles would influence him as to which son would be selected as heir to the throne. They placed an emphasis on the succession being merit based and seeing which would be best at leading the Incas.

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An Inca mountain road, approaching Machu Picchu.

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The Incas had advanced among other fields of work in adjusting to their terrain. One of these, being their production of farming terraces (appearing as almost giant green staircases), in account of their living in mountainous areas with little level lands. These terraces were constructed of stone walls, which retained heat during the day and radiated it back towards the crops they encased during the cold temperatures of the night. Each terrace pertained a base layer of gravel, topped with sand and topsoil-- where seeds were planted. The terraces allowed for the growing of crops in varying altitudes, reduced soil erosion, as well as controlled temperature and moisture levels. Though maintaining and constructing of these terraces called for a significant amount of work and labor, the terraces largely promoted agricultural production in the Inca empire-- widely supporting and stabilizing the population, as well as promoting trade.

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Inca terrace ruins of Winay Wayna in Peru.

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How had the Incas used their location among mountainous regions to their advantage in promoting economic growth and development?