# data[].attributes.body
Redlining is "a practice that conditioned access to federally backed home loans on the perceived economic health of a neighborhood and used demographic factors such as race in those decisions."

# data[].attributes.headline
Bolling v. Sharpe (District of Columbia -1950)

# data[].attributes.subject
Bolling v. Sharpe (District of Columbia -1950)

# data[].attributes.body
-Since it's inception, D.C.'s population has always skewed towards an African American majority.

-Post WWII, despite the African American population made up 55% of the total population, the African American families did not challenge the segregation laws.

-Garner Bishop, an African American barber shop owner decided to address the unequal education

-Bishop led a group of 11 African Americans to the city's new High School named after John Phillip Sousa High School to enroll them in the high school. They were denied.

-Bishop took the case to Charles Houston. What was initially a suit that would provide a school equal to the JPS High School.

-When another attorney, James Nabritt Jr., took over the case due to Houston becoming ill, it moved from requesting an equal facility to a challenge of segregation as a whole.

-Although the action was not successful, it did establish a case against segregation.

# data[].attributes.body
-Following the Supreme Court's decision on Brown v Board of Education, U.S. Representative John Bell Williams (D-Mississippi) coined the term “Black Monday” on the floor of Congress to denote Monday, May 17, 1954.

-In opposition to the decision, white citizens' councils formally organized throughout the south to preserve segregation and defend segregated schools.

-The White Citizens' Council movement in Mississippi, led by Thomas Pickens Brady, a circuit court judge, published a handbook, Black Monday, in which the philosophy of the movement is stated, including its call for the nullification of the NAACP, the creation of a forty-ninth state for Negroes, and the abolition of public schools.

# data[].attributes.body
Redlining dates back to the 1930's and New Deal Legislation that was designed to give low interest rate loans to middle class Americans in the midst of the Great Depression to prevent further foreclosures.

To protect the loans the newly established (1934) Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) (now FHA) used red dots to signify areas they deemed bad for lending. Many of the red dotted areas had large minority populations.

The FHA also used an Unwriting Manual (1938) for loans applications that had language for racial standards in neighborhoods.

Redlining existed for roughly 50 years and was outlawed in 1977 with the Community Reinvestment Act.

# data[].attributes.headline
Belton (Bulah) v. Gebhart (Delaware - 1951)

# data[].attributes.subject
Belton (Bulah) v. Gebhart (Delaware - 1951)

# data[].attributes.body
-This case was a combination of two separate cases: Belton v. Gebhart and Bulah v. Gebhart.

-Louis Redding, the first Black attorney in Delaware represented the plaintiffs in both cases.

-The Belton suit was brought because the African American children of the Clayton Community was bussed to the Howard High School, which was the only high school available to them

-The Bulah case was brought because Mrs. Sarah Bulah's daughter was not permitted to go to her local school because she wasn't allow to ride with white children.

-When the combined suits were taken to the Delaware Court of Chancer where Chancellor Seitz directed the immediate admittance of the African American children to Claymont High School.

-This only applied to the students named in the suit, and did not apply broadly throughout Delaware.

# data[].attributes.headline
Brown v. Board of Education (Kansas -1950)

# data[].attributes.subject
Brown v. Board of Education (Kansas -1950)

# data[].attributes.body
-The NAACP (founded in 1909) and individual attorneys argued 11 cases from 1881-1949  against school desegregation at the Kansas Supreme court.

-Kansas law permitted but did not require racially segregated elementary schools in what they defined as “first class” cities with populations of 15,000 or more. Several of the early cases heard by the State Supreme Court successfully integrated schools in Kansas towns that did not meet the population standard of a “first class” city.

-A group of 13 parents agreed to participate on behalf of their children. Each plaintiff was to watch the newspaper for enrollment dates and take their child to the elementary school for white children that was nearest to their home. Once they attempted enrollment and were denied, they were to report back to the NAACP which provided attorneys with the documentation needed to file a lawsuit against the Topeka Board of Education.

-The case was taken to the district court where they ruled in favor of the Topeka school board.

# data[].attributes.headline
Briggs v. Elliot (South Carolina - 1950) 

# data[].attributes.subject
Briggs v. Elliot (South Carolina - 1950) 

# data[].attributes.body
-In 1947, Rev. James Hinton, the president of S.C. NAACP gave a speech challenging the segregation of schools.

-Rev. J.A. DeLaine, a local school teacher, attended Hinton's speech. He personally took action against the legality of the discriminatory practices.

-Bus transportation was at the center of this lawsuit. School officials, who rejected DeLaine's petitions, justified their actions citing that African American families do not collective pay as much taxes as white families.

-Despite the first attempt to see success from a suit filed in 1948, Pearson v. County BOE. Attorneys, Harold Boulware and Thurgood Marshall brought this suit to the U.S. District Court.  It was thrown out because the plaintiff's property spanned two different school districts.

-In 1950, funded by the NAACP, the case of Briggs v. Elliot was filed. It initially pursued equalization of facilities and obtaining buses. It evolved to an outright attack on segregation.

-The courted ruled against segregation but ordered schools to be equalized.

-All the petitioners and the judge that was sympathetic to them sustained severe backlash from this case.

# data[].attributes.headline
Davis, et al. v. County School Board of Prince Edward County (Virginia - 1951)

# data[].attributes.subject
Davis, et al. v. County School Board of Prince Edward County (Virginia - 1951)

# data[].attributes.body
-In April 1951, Barbara Rose Johns, a Moton High School student in Farmville, Va., organized a two-week-long student strike to protest poor school conditions. 117 students followed her. Notably, her uncle was the Rev. Vernon Johns, Dr. Martin Luther King's predecessor.

-The protest challenged equal facilities. Their school lacked indoor plumbing, a gymnasium, cafeteria, infirmary and teachers’ restrooms. Student overflow resided in an old school bus and three buildings covered in tar paper.

-The NAACP agreed to take the Prince Edward case on the condition that students and their parents would sue to challenge the constitutionality of segregation, not just to improve school conditions.

-The plaintiffs sought to overturn the state law mandating segregated schools in Virginia. A three-judge district court panel unanimously rejected the students’ request stating, "We have found no hurt or harm to either race."

# data[].attributes.body
20th century redlining housing policies have had a profound impact on the formation of school district boundary lines (attendance zones) we see today. Meaning lower income neighborhoods today were likely redlined in the 1930's.

Since school funding today is tied to property taxes these redlined communities today receive less educational funds, and are prone to higher teacher turnover.

This matters today since many marginalized minority groups are restricted in what they can afford in terms of housing. Many of these minorities groups are forced to rent due to bad credit ratings. Their bad credit rating in turn prevents them from purchasing a home in a desired area. This creates gross inequalities in education opportunities.

# data[].attributes.body
Housing Redlining and Its Lingering Effects on Education Opportunity

Pockets of Poverty

How local neighborhoods still feel the effects of redlining in Cincinnati

Redlining: How it Continue to Affect Education

Redlining in Cincinnati: Effects on Black Well Being

# data[].attributes.body
NCLB, which passed Congress with overwhelming bipartisan support in 2001 and was signed into law by President George W. Bush on Jan. 8, 2002, is the name for the most recent update to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965

# data[].attributes.body
-Under the NCLB law, states must test students in reading and math in grades 3 through 8 and once in high school. And they must report the results, for both the student population as a whole and for particular “subgroups” of students, including English-learners and students in special education, racial minorities, and children from low-income families.

-States were required to bring all students to the “proficient level” and each state got to decide, individually, just what “proficiency” should look like, and which test to use.

# data[].attributes.body
-Under the law, schools are kept on track toward their goals through a mechanism AYP. If a school misses its state’s annual achievement targets for two years or more, either for all the students or for a particular subgroup, it is identified as not making AYP and is subject to serious sanctions as the following

-A school that misses AYP two years in a row has to allow students to transfer to a better-performing public school in the same district.

-If a school misses AYP for three years in a row, it must offer free tutoring.

-Schools that continue to miss achievement targets could face state intervention. States can choose to shut these schools down, turn them into charter schools, take them over, or use another, significant turnaround strategy.

-By 2010, 38 percent of schools were failing to make adequate yearly progress, up from 29 percent in 2006.Minorities and low-income students are the one who are placed at a disadvantage by insisting that all students are entitled to qualified teachers, the law has stimulated recruitment efforts in states where low-income and minority students have experienced a revolving door of inexperienced, untrained teachers.

-The law also requires states to ensure their teachers are highly qualified which generally means that they have a bachelor’s degree in the subject they are teaching and state certification.

# data[].attributes.headline
What are some of the main criticisms of the current law?

# data[].attributes.subject
What are some of the main criticisms of the current law?

# data[].attributes.body
-Low-performing schools did much to improve student achievement.

-In many cases, students did not take advantage of the opportunity to transfer to another school or get free tutoring. States and districts also had difficulty screening tutors for quality.

-States also generally shied away from employing dramatic school turnaround strategies for perennially failing schools.

-The law has also been criticized for growing the federal footprint in K-12 education, and for relying too heavily on standardized tests.

-Its emphasis on math and reading tests has narrowed the curriculum, forcing on subjects that aren’t explicitly tested, like social studies, foreign languages, and the arts.

-The funding allocated by NCLB--less than 10 percent of most schools' budgets--does not meet the needs of the under-resourced schools, where many students currently struggle to learn.

-Critics claim that the law's focus on complicated tallies of multiple-choice-test scores has dumbed down the curriculum, fostered a "drill and kill" approach to teaching, mistakenly labeled successful schools as failing, driven teachers and middle-class students out of public schools and harmed special education students and English-language learners through inappropriate assessments and efforts to push out low-scoring students in order to boost scores. The law has been protested by more than twenty states and dozens of school districts that have voted to resist specific provisions. No Child Left Behind has actually made it harder for states to improve the quality assumed.

# data[].attributes.body
https://edpolicy.stanford.edu/library/blog/873https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/no-child-left-behind-an-overview/2015/04

# data[].attributes.body
The War on Drugs refers to the policies carried out by the US government dating back roughly 50 years to the Nixon Administration as an attempt to curb the flow of illegal drugs into and within the United States. The term came from a press conference in June of 1971 wherein Nixon referred to drug abuse as "enemy number one". The legislation that began the modern War on Drugs is generally agreed to be the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970.  This act was reauthorized by President Reagan as the Anti-Drug Abuse Act, which added more policies towards drug free schools. It saw third evolution when President Clinton reauthorized it as the Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act of 1994, making it a truly bipartisan policy disaster.

# data[].attributes.body
In many ways, the impact of the War on Drugs was like a bomb going off, especially in more urban areas that felt a disproportionate impact. Incarceration rates, especially amongst black males, began to skyrocket, and the term "school to prison pipeline" joined the academic lexicon.

# data[].attributes.body
The War on Drugs, especially after the reauthorizations of the 80s and 90s, had a corrosive effect on education. Zero tolerance policies became en vogue after 1994, as federal funding became tied to discipline, and actually incentivized suspending or calling the police on students who broke the rules. What began as an ostensible way to keep schools and students safe led to scenarios in which students could be suspended for bringing Advil to school. For many years, urban school districts policies relied on police to prosecute even minor problems, which resulted in black students being prosecuted at a rate approaching six times as great as white students. And as we as a society have started to learn over the last decade, once a person is introduced to the criminal justice system, it is exceedingly difficult for them to emerge. Thankfully, these policies have fallen out of fashion in the last few years, which seems to be leading to a new rise in graduation rates.

# data[].attributes.body
Ending the War on Drugs: By the Numbers

How the War on Drugs Kept Black Men Out of College

School to Prison Pipeline is a Direct Policy Descendent of Nixon's War on Drugs

The War on Drugs is a War on Kids

# data[].attributes.body
"We will oppose…with every facility at our command, and with every ounce of our energy, the attempt being made to mix the white and Negro races in our classrooms. Let there be no misunderstanding, no weasel words, on this point: we dedicate our every capacity to preserve segregation in the schools."

- Virginia Governor James Lindsay Almond, Jr.

https://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/4444

# data[].attributes.body
-The Supreme Court first heard arguments for the case in December 1952. Because of its controversial nature and anticipated resistance from southern states, no decision was reached.

-During the Court’s recess, Chief Justice Vinson died and Chief Justice Warren was appointed. In December 1953, the Court heard the case again

-On May 17, 1954 at 12:52 p.m., the United States Supreme Court issued a unanimous decision, ruling that it was a violation of the 14th Amendment to separate children in public schools based on race.

-One year later, in December of 1955, the U.S. Supreme Court issued a decree that desegregation of public schools should occur “with all deliberate speed.” That pronouncement is known as Brown II.

https://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/educational-resources/supreme-court-landmarks/brown-v-board-education-podcast

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-brown.html
https://brown65.the74million.org/brownvboard
https://www.nps.gov/brvb
https://brownvboard.org/

# data[].attributes.body
-Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery.
-Fourteenth Amendment provided citizenship to new freed slaves.
-Fifteenth Amendment guaranteed the right to vote.

-Despite these three amendments put in place during Reconstruction, between 1873 and 1883, the Supreme Court handed down a series of decisions that virtually nullified the work of Congress and the civil rights progress that was made.

# data[].attributes.headline
Plessy v Fergusson's Impact on Education

# data[].attributes.subject
Plessy v Fergusson's Impact on Education

# data[].attributes.body
Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark 1896 U.S. Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine.

-In the area of education, it was felt that the children of former slaves would be better served if they attended their own schools and in their own communities. These images of schools for black students show that facilities were separate but never equal.

# data[].attributes.headline
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) 

# data[].attributes.subject
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) 

# data[].attributes.body
-In 1908, a deadly race riot rocked the city of Springfield, Illinois eruptions of anti-black violence – particularly lynching – were horrifically commonplace, but the Springfield riot was the final tipping point that led to the creation of the NAACP.

-Appalled at this rampant violence, a group of white liberals that included Mary White Ovington and Oswald Garrison Villard (both the descendants of famous abolitionists), William English Walling and Dr. Henry Moskowitz issued a call for a meeting to discuss racial justice. Some 60 people, seven of whom were African American (including W. E. B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells-Barnett, and Mary Church Terrell), signed the call, which was released on the centennial of Lincoln's birth.

-Over the next several decades the NAACP worked at guaranteeing the 13, 14, and 15 amendments. The organization notably challenged the legitimacy of the legal  "separate but equal" doctrine behind segregation.

https://naacp.org/about/our-history

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-segregation.html

# data[].attributes.body
On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, forty-three, was arrested for disorderly conducted for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white passenger. Her arrest and fourteen dollar fine for violating city ordinance, led African American bus riders and others to boycott the Montgomery city buses. It also helped to establish the Montgomery Improvement Association led by a then unknown young minister from the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, Martin Luther King, Jr. The boycott lasted for one year and brought the Civil Rights Movement and Dr. Martin King to the attention of the world.

# data[].attributes.headline
School Integration in Clinton, Tennessee - 1956

# data[].attributes.subject
School Integration in Clinton, Tennessee - 1956

# data[].attributes.body
Clinton High School in Clinton, Anderson County, Tennessee, was set to be the first high school in the South to be integrated after the Brown decision. Integration was progressing smoothly until John Kasper, leader of the White Citizens Council and a staunch segregationist, came to town. Protests and riots ensued from that day until early in December, when several white citizens escorted the African American students to class, as shown here. One of the escorts was badly beaten afterwards. As a result of the episode the school was closed on December 4, but reopened six days later without incident.

# data[].attributes.body
In 1956 U.S. District Court Judge J. Skelly Wright ordered the desegregation of the New Orleans public schools. After a series of appeals, in 1960, Wright set down a plan that required the integration of the schools on a grade-per-year basis, beginning with the first grade. The School Board issued a test to black kindergartners to determine the best candidates. Six-year old Ruby Bridges was one of six children selected. Four agreed to proceed. On November 14, Bridges integrated the William Frantz Public School. In retaliation, white parents withdrew her classmates and Bridges's father was fired from his job. Ruby completed the first grade alone with the support of Barbara Henry, a Boston teacher, and Dr. Robert Coles, a child psychiatrist. Ruby's walk to school the first day, escorted by U.S. Marshals, inspired the 1964 Norman Rockwell painting, “The Problem We All Live With.”

# data[].attributes.body
Seventeen African American students were selected to attend the all white Central High School in 1957 but by opening day the number had dwindled to nine. Pictured here with Daisy Bates, a newspaper journalist and active member in the local NAACP, are nine students, Ernest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Elizabeth Eckford, Terrace Roberts, Carlotta Walls, Gloria Ray, Jefferson Thomas, Melba Pattillo, and Minnijean Brown. Bates would become the advisor for the nine students. The day before school opened, Governor Orval Faubus called the National Guard to surround Central High, declaring “blood would run in the streets” if blacks students attempted to enter.

# data[].attributes.headline
Obstruction and Delays in Virginia - 1958

# data[].attributes.subject
Obstruction and Delays in Virginia - 1958

# data[].attributes.body
The diehard segregationist campaign of “massive resistance” took many forms. In Virginia's Prince Edward County, location of one of the original school-segregation cases, local authorities evaded court-ordered integration by closing the public schools and supporting new, white-only, private schools. The Supreme Court reviewed these actions in 1964. This handwritten draft ruling by Justice William O. Douglas indicates his frustration with “over a decade” of delays since Brown: “Afterward numerous opinions were written by the District Court and the Court of Appeals but our mandate in the Brown case has never been implemented.”

# data[].attributes.body
We Shall Overcome! captures one of the pivotal moments in the Civil Rights Movement, the March on Washington held on August 28, 1963. This LP was produced by the Council for United Civil Rights Leadership and issued by Folkways Records. It includes part of President Kennedy's news conference about the event, Dr. King's “I Have a Dream” speech, and Bayard Rustin's “Demands on the March,”speech that asked for civil rights legislation to “include public accommodations, decent housing, integrated education, and the right to vote.”

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html