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全球暖化 22世紀部分都市GDP或減10% - 大紀元

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《自然氣候變遷》（Nature Climate Change）研究指出，都市熱島效應及全球暖化雙重影響下，大幅提高城市溫度，造成的經濟損失，到了2100年，情況最糟城市，屆時國內生產毛額（GDP）恐大減10.9%。

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地球暖化 2015到2017史上最熱 - 國際 - 自由時報電子報

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2017年沒有聖嬰卻爆熱聯合國十八日指出，二○一五至一七年是有紀錄以來最熱的三年，其中二○一七年是未受聖嬰現象（El Niño）影響下最暖的一年，凸顯地球暖化是長期趨勢，人造溫室氣體是暖化主因之一。

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By Albert Lai Kwong-tak

"We can be the first generation to succeed in ending poverty; just as we may be the last to have a chance of saving the planet."

These are the bold words enshrined in an United Nations document last month entitled "Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development". One may dismiss this as grand positioning by world leaders who are keen for photo-ops, but quickly forget what they have signed by the time they step on the plane home.

Yet the crisis demanding such bold response remains - none other than the climate change challenge we all face. Not a single week goes by without some more grim announcements by scientists around the world.

One of the latest news comes from the California Institute of Technology. Their scientists found that should the global temperature increase to around 3 degree Celsius (5.4F) above the pre-industrial era then the ice shelves that hold back the giant continental ice sheets would be lost over the next few centuries. This would trigger a collapse that would go on for thousands of years, raising sea levels by 0.6 metres to 3 metres by the year 2300, ultimately up to 9 metres above current levels.
Why should Hong Kong people bother?
All frightening stuff, but what has that to do with Hong Kong, or more specifically, why should this generation of Hongkongers bother?

At this point, you may like to pay a visit to a few MTR stations - Hong Kong, Kowloon and Hunghom stations, because they will be the first batch of stations to be submerged in seawater. Nobody can tell when but with more frequent incidence of extreme weather events, such nightmares may occur in the next few decades rather than centuries.

As the UN document "2030 Agenda" points out, "Climate change is one of the greatest challenges of our time and its adverse impacts undermine the ability of all countries to achieve sustainable development. Increases in global temperature, sea level rise, ocean acidification and other climate change impacts are seriously affecting coastal areas and low-lying coastal countries, including many least developed countries and small island developing States. The survival of many societies, and of the biological support systems of the planet, is at risk."

The UN Climate Change Conference, COP21, which will begin meeting in Paris at the end of November, is designed to avert such crisis. Yet the prognosis is grim. Based on the current pledges by all states for carbon emissions reduction, the so-called "Intended Nationally Determined Contributions" (INDC), average global temperature will go up by 2.7-3.5 degree Celsius above pre-industrial level by 2100, way above 2 degrees - the safe level agreed by world scientists.

The bottom-up approach using INDC is a relatively recent invention after the failure of the Copenhagen Conference in 2009. To date governments have escaped meaningful scrutiny and rejected notions of "fair shares", asserting the uniqueness of their particular "national circumstances" and their "right" to determine their own level of climate ambition. The result is a large shortfall of emissions reductions creating risks that are tantamount to gambling with planetary security.

A recent report by 18 international NGOs, including Oxfam and World Wildlife Fund, made an attempt to estimate the fair shares for carbon reduction efforts among all countries, based on their historical responsibilities and their capacities to take climate action.

The finding is alarming. Not only does the current INDCs represent substantially less than half of the reduction in emissions required by 2030, but the ambition of all major developed countries fall well short of their fair shares. Those with the starkest gap between their climate ambition and their fair shares include Japan which contributes to one-tenth of its fair shares; United States, one-fifth; European Union, slightly over one-fifth; and Russia, none. On the contrary, developing countries like China, India and Indonesia have pledged more than their fair shares.

Hong Kong is in a unique position. While it is part of a developing country, Hong Kong enjoys high autonomy and is capable of contributing more than China as a whole. By doing so, the HKSAR Government can not only spur green growth in the local economy, but also strengthen China's negotiating position in Paris.

At this critical juncture, Hong Kong civil society will be sending an NGO delegation to COP21. From decades of international experience it is clear that without active participation by civil society and the business sector, governments are incapable of pushing forward any visionary agenda. Oddly, Hong Kong government is not entitled to send its own delegation to Paris, though Secretary for Environment Wong Kam-sing will be taking a few local officials to join the China delegation.

Should Hong Kong people be proud to take their role as the last generation to save the planet, or be lamented by future generations for their inaction? Such clues can only be found in Paris.
Albert Kwong-Tak Lai is CEO of CarbonCare Asia, and Leader of HK NGO Delegation to COP21
Photo: VOHK Picture

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Climate Clash - Will Hong Kong be lost in Paris?

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By Albert Lai Kwong-tak "We can be the first generation to succeed in ending poverty; just as we may be the last to have a chance of saving the planet." These are the bold words enshrined in an United Nations document last month entitled "Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development".

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5. How will animals be affected by Arctic warming?

5.1 How will climate change affect the Arctic marine environment?

5.2 What will be the impact on marine fisheries?

5.3 How will climate change affect aquaculture?

5.4 How will animals on land be affected?

5.5 What will be the impacts on freshwater ecosystems?

Animal species' diversity, ranges, and distribution will change. More...

5.1 How will climate change affect the Arctic marine environment?

Ocean accounts for more than half of the surface area of the Arctic region. Many Arctic life forms rely on the sea's biological productivity and on the presence of sea ice, two factors that are highly dependant on climatic conditions. More...

Polar Bears depend on sea ice for their survival

5.1.1 Polar bears give birth and hunt on sea ice and they need it to travel from one region to another. Survival of mothers and cubs in the spring depends on the mothers' hunting success, which, in turn, depends on the stability and extent of sea ice. Less winter sea ice means that female polar bears have to go longer without food, which impacts their fat stores, and, in turn, their reproductive success.

Complete loss of summer sea-ice cover, which may occur in the course of this century, could threaten the survival of polar bears as a species or force them to adopt a land-based summer lifestyle. Living on land would not be without risks due to competition with other predators, possible cross breeding with brown or grizzly bears, and interactions with humans. More...

5.1.2 Certain seal species that rarely come to land, such as the harp seal, spotted seal and the ringed seal, depend on Arctic sea ice. Not only does sea ice provide a home for resting, giving birth and raising pups, it is also a feeding ground for some of them. Ice-dependent seal species are likely to have difficulty adapting to ice-free summers. Other species that currently live farther south, such as the harbour and grey seals, are likely to expand their geographic spread if the Arctic has less ice coverage. More...

5.1.3 Some seabirds such as ivory gulls and little auks are likely to be negatively affected by a decline in sea ice. Ivory gulls nest on rocky cliffs and fly out to the sea ice to fish through cracks in the ice and scavenge on top of the ice. A retreat of sea ice away from the coastal nesting sites would have serious consequences. The number of ivory gulls in Canada has already dropped by 90% over the last 20 years. More...

Walrus rely on sea ice for easier access to food

5.1.4 The ice edge in coastal areas is an important feeding ground for the walrus that use the ice as diving platforms to feed on clams on the sea floor. As the ice edge retreats away from the continental shelves to deeper areas, there will be no clams nearby to feed on. Walrus also travel large distances on floating ice, which allows them to feed over a wide area. More...

5.1.5 Ice algae grow at the porous bottom of sea ice and form the base of the unique marine food web connected to sea ice. The melting of ice can affect the availability of physical habitats for algae, as well as the temperature and salinity of surface waters, potentially disrupting the whole food web. More...

5.1.6 In addition to loss of habitat and feeding grounds, climate change poses other threats to Arctic marine mammals and some seabirds:

Increased risk of disease.

Increased precipitation, which will carry pollution from the south.

Expansion of the geographic spread of species ranges, which will increase competition between them.

Increased human activity, which will increasingly affect previously untouched areas.

5.1.7 Many marine communities depend on polar bears, walrus, seals, whales, seabirds, and other marine animals. Changes in the numbers and ranges of Arctic animals and birds may greatly affect northern communities' way of life. So will changes in ice conditions which are critical to the hunters' mobility. More...

5.2 What will be the impact on marine fisheries?

Arctic marine fisheries provide an important food source globally, and are a vital part of the region's economy. In the past climate change has induced major ecosystem shifts in some areas and this could happen again resulting in radical unpredictable changes in species present. More...

5.2.1 An example of a positive impact of climate change is the population in West Greenland which thrived between the 1920s and 1960s, a time period when the waters were warmer then they are now. A warming of the climate is thus likely to have a positive effect on the cod population allowing more fishing. An example of a negative impact is the fishing of shrimp in Greenlandic waters which is likely to suffer, both from the predicted changes in climatic conditions and from the growing cod population who feed on shrimp. More...

5.2.2 In the early 1950s, the Norwegian stock was the largest in the world, and was important to Norway, Iceland, Russia, and the Faroe Islands. In the 1960s, a sudden and severe cooling of the waters west of the Norwegian Sea where the herrings were feeding, combined with high intensity fishing, contributed to the collapse of the Norwegian Herring Stock. Since the 1970s the return of favorable climatic conditions and international agreements on restricting the capture of herring permitted a gradual recovery of the stock. Such international agreements will be crucial in future as climate change alters fish stocks and their ranges. More...

5.2.3 A climate shift also occurred in the Bering Sea in 1977, bringing about an abrupt warming that favored a number of commercially fished species, such as herring, pollock and cod, and led to record catches of salmon in subsequent years.

In some areas, such as most of the North Atlantic, where only a relatively slight warming is expected, the total effect of climate change on fish stocks is likely to be less strong than the effects of fisheries management, at least for the next few decades. In the Bering Sea, however, the impacts of rapid climate change are already apparent, with a displacement or a decline of cold-water species brought about by the warming of bottom waters. While it seems unlikely that the effects of climate change on fisheries will have long-term social and economic impacts throughout the Arctic, particular people and places may be strongly affected. More...

5.3 How will climate change affect aquaculture?

Aquaculture in the Faroe Islands

5.3.1 Salmon and trout are the two main aquaculture species farmed in the Arctic. Norway has developed a large industry over the past two decades and is now the world's largest farmed salmon producer.

The speed at which fish grow might be expected to increase in slightly warmer water. Greater water temperature increases, however, may have a negative impact on growth rates and the general health of farmed species. Other negative impacts of warmer waters on aquaculture may include increases in diseases and toxic algal blooms. Relocating aquaculture infrastructure further north to adjust to increasing water temperatures would be costly.

The aquaculture industry depends on huge supplies of wild fish (in the form of fishmeal and oil) in order to feed farmed salmon and trout. These wild fish are caught elsewhere in the world, like anchovies from the South Pacific, and can also be affected by climate change. Many of the species that are fished to make fishmeal are also an important part of the diet of certain wild species that are of high commercial value but that are currently not abundant due to overfishing. Reductions in the production of fishmeal and oil might be needed in order for these stocks to recover. More...

5.3.2 The ocean surrounding the Faroe Islands is an important feeding ground for wild stocks of northern European Atlantic salmon. These islands enjoy particularly good conditions for farming Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout.

Despite early setbacks due to disease and market fluctuations, the Faroe Islands have become an important international player in salmon farming. Many people are employed both in fish farming and in related industries, and aquaculture accounts for 25% of the total income from exported goods. Global warming will increase fish growth rates, provided it does not exceed 5°C (9°F). This positive impact (on fish production) would, however, be offset by some warming-related increases in fish diseases and toxic algae blooms. More...

5.4 How will animals on land be affected?

5.4.1 Arctic animals on land include:

small plant-eaters like ground squirrels, hares, lemmings and voles;

large plant-eaters like moose, caribou/reindeer and musk ox; and

meat-eaters like weasels, wolverines, wolves, foxes, bears and birds of prey.

Climate-induced changes are likely to cause a series of cascading effects involving many species of plants and animals. If grasses, mosses and lichens no longer live in the same areas due to a changing climate, it will have implications for the animals that feed on them, and on the predators or human communities that depend on those animals.

In snow-covered areas, warming could increase the occurrence of repeated freezing and thawing which could lead to the formation of an ice crust thus preventing animals from eating grasses and mosses and sometimes even killing the plants. Lemmings, musk ox and reindeer/caribou are all affected. Dramatic population crashes resulting from this phenomenon have been reported increasingly frequently over recent decades.

Mild weather and wet snow lead to collapse of spaces between the frozen ground and the snow where lemmings and voles live and forage. Furthermore, when the surface of the snow melts and re-freezes the resulting ice crust reduces the insulating properties of the snow pack that is vital to the survival of these animals. Declines in their populations can in turn lead to declines in animal population that feed on them, such as snowy owls, skuas, weasels and ermine. When lemming populations are low, more generalist predators, such as the Arctic fox, switch to other prey species such as waders and other birds, increasing pressure on those populations. More...

5.4.2 Caribou (in North America) and reindeer (in Eurasia) are of primary importance to people throughout the Arctic both for food and for cultural reasons. The herds depend on the availability of food and good foraging conditions, especially at the time when calves are born.

Climate-induced changes are expected to reduce the area of tundra and thus the feeding area of these herds. It will also increase the occurrence of freeze-thaw cycles and freezing rain that make it harder for caribou and reindeer populations to find food and raise calves. Future climate change could potentially lead to a decline in caribou and reindeer populations, threatening the way of life for some Arctic communities. More...

Peary Carribou

The Porcupine Caribou Herd

The Gwich'in and the Porcupine Caribou Herd

5.5 What will be the impacts on freshwater ecosystems?

Freshwater ecosystems in the Arctic include inland waters such as rivers, lakes, ponds, wetlands and their surroundings. They are home to a variety of animal life including fish, mammals, waterfowls, and fish-eating birds. These ecosystems act as intermediaries between land and ocean ecosystems. More...

5.5.3 The timing of ice break-up in spring strongly affects supplies of nutrients, sediments, and water that are essential to the health of delta and floodplain ecosystems. Changes in ice cover also affect water temperature, levels of oxygen in the water and the exposure of underwater life forms to ultraviolet rays. In some areas, as a result of later freeze-up and earlier break-up, the ice season is now up to three weeks shorter compared to 100 years ago, and this trend is expected to continue. Evaporation and precipitation are expected to increase and flood patterns are likely to change, as will levels of sediments and nutrients carried by rivers to the Arctic Ocean. More...

5.5.5 Species of freshwater fish that live in the southernmost part of the Arctic are expected to move northward, competing for food and habitat with species that live in northern inland waters, such as the Arctic char and Arctic cisco. Invasive species from the South may introduce new parasites and diseases. As water temperatures rise, the areas where cold-water species can lay their eggs will also shift northward and are likely to diminish. Inland fishing in the far north is likely to be seriously affected by such changes as the most vulnerable species are often the only fishable species present. However, in some areas of the Arctic, new arrivals from the south and increased growth of species already present may also bring new fishing opportunities. More...

5.5.6 The geographic spread of aquatic mammals and waterfowl is likely to expand northward as habitats change with warming. Mammal and bird species moving northward could carry new diseases and parasites, and take over habitats and resources currently used by northern species. These northern species may be reproducing less successfully due to temperature-induced habitat changes, while changes affecting breeding grounds and access to food may cause seasonal migrations to take place earlier in spring and later in autumn. More...

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Many Arctic animals, such as polar bears, seals, walruses, and seabirds, rely on the sea's biological productivity and on the presence of sea ice, both of which are highly dependent on climatic conditions.

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過去數十年，全球氣溫上升有助於促進全球如香蒲 ( Typha latifolia) 等生於湖泊畔的水生植物生長。不過， 最新刊於《自然 - 通訊》的研究發現，未來 50 年這些水生植物的甲烷 (methane, CH ₄) 排放量將會增加一倍，加劇氣候問題。

當水生植物死亡後會沉積在淤泥中，這些有機物會被微生物消耗並產生大量甲烷，亦正因如此湖泊是淡水水體甲烷的主要排放來源，佔總甲烷排放量的 16% ；相比之下，海洋的排放只佔 1% 。相比二氧化碳 (CO ₂) ，甲烷是一種吸熱力更強的溫室氣體。其全球升溫潛能值是 CO ₂ 的 36 倍。

加拿大生態學家 Erik Emilson 的團隊研究就分析源自湖邊森林和水生植物死後產生的甲烷差異。團隊發現，圍繞湖泊的森林實際上有助吸收湖泊產生的碳，減少甲烷排放。

然而，這抵消不到死去的水生植物被微生物消耗並產生的甲烷排放量。數據顯示香蒲於湖中腐爛後產生的甲烷量是同等針葉樹木腐爛後的 400 倍以上，對比同等落葉樹木死亡腐化產生的甲烷量則是近 2,800 倍。

Emilson 在聲明中指：落葉樹木與針葉樹木組成森林包圍了北半球數以百萬計的湖泊，但其生態正受氣候變化威脅。同時，氣候變化對水生植物生長更為有利，形成了惡性循環，促使北半球淡水生態系統釋放出更多甲烷。根據研究所用的模型，於加拿大中至東部的香蒲數量在未來 50 年增加一倍，令該範圍的湖泊產生比現時多 73% 甲烷。

來源：
Yale Environment 360, Scientists Find New Climate 'Feedback Loop' in Lakes, 4 May 2018

報告：
Emilson, E.J.S., Carson, M.A., Yakimovich, K.M. & et al. (2018). Climate-driven shifts in sediment chemistry enhance methane production in northern lakes. Nature Communications volume 9, Article number: 1801 (2018). doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-04236-2

文／Alan Chiu 、審核／Edward Ho

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【惡性循環】溫升致湖泊水生植物更茂盛　甲烷排放量或於未來 50 年大增 73% | 立場報道 | 立場新聞

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過去數十年，全球氣溫上升有助於促進全球如香蒲 ( Typha latifolia) 等生於湖泊畔的水生植物生長。不過， 最新刊於《自然 - 通訊》的研究發現，未來 50 年這些水生植物的甲烷 (methane, CH 4) 排放量將會增加一倍，加劇氣候問題。 當水生植物死亡後會沉積在淤泥中，這些有機物會被微生物消耗並產生大量甲烷，亦正因如此湖泊是淡水水體甲烷的主要排放來源，佔總甲烷排放量的 16% ；相比之下，海洋的排放只佔 1% 。相比二氧化碳 (CO 2) ，甲烷是一種吸熱力更強的溫室氣體。其全球升溫潛能值是 CO 2 的 36 倍。 加拿大生態學家 Erik Emilson 的團隊研究就分析源自湖邊森林和水生植物死後產生的甲烷差異。團隊發現，圍繞湖泊的森林實際上有助吸收湖泊產生的碳，減少甲烷排放。 然而，這抵消不到死去的水生植物被微生物消耗並產生的甲烷排放量。數據顯示香蒲於湖中腐爛後產生的甲烷量是同等針葉樹木腐爛後的 400 倍以上，對比同等落葉樹木死亡腐化產生的甲烷量則是近 2,800 倍。 Emilson 在聲明中指：落葉樹木與針葉樹木組成森林包圍了北半球數以百萬計的湖泊，但其生態正受氣候變化威脅。同時，氣候變化對水生植物生長更為有利，形成了惡性循環，促使北半球淡水生態系統釋放出更多甲烷。根據研究所用的模型，於加拿大中至東部的香蒲數量在未來 50 年增加一倍，令該範圍的湖泊產生比現時多 73% 甲烷。 來源： Yale Environment 360, Scientists Find New Climate 'Feedback Loop' in Lakes, 4 May 2018 報告： Emilson, E.J.S., Carson, M.A., Yakimovich, K.M.

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Most plants and animals live in areas with very specific climate conditions, such as temperature and rainfall patterns, that enable them to thrive. Any change in the climate of an area can affect the plants and animals living there, as well as the makeup of the entire ecosystem. Some species are already responding to a warmer climate by moving to cooler locations. For example, some North American animals and plants are moving farther north or to higher elevations to find suitable places to live. Climate change also alters the life cycles of plants and animals. For example, as temperatures get warmer, many plants are starting to grow and bloom earlier in the spring and survive longer into the fall. Some animals are waking from hibernation sooner or migrating at different times, too.

Disappearing Habitats

As the Earth gets warmer, plants and animals that need to live in cold places, like on mountaintops or in the Arctic, might not have a suitable place to live. If the Earth keeps getting warmer, up to one-fourth of all the plants and animals on Earth could become extinct within 100 years. Every plant and animal plays a role in the ecosystem (for example, as a source of food, a predator, a pollinator, a source of shelter), so losing one species can affect many others.

What can people do about it?
Just like people, plants and animals will have to adapt to climate change. Many types of birds in North America are already migrating further north as the temperature warms. People can help these animals adapt by protecting and preserving their habitats.

Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are created in shallow tropical waters by millions of tiny animals called corals. Each coral makes a skeleton for itself, and over time, these skeletons build up to create coral reefs, which provide habitat for lots of fish and other ocean creatures. Warmer water has already caused coral bleaching (a type of damage to corals) in many parts of the world. By 2050, live corals could become rare in tropical and sub-tropical reefs due to the combined effects of warmer water and increased ocean acidity caused by more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The loss of coral reefs will reduce habitats for many other sea creatures, and it will disrupt the food web that connects all the living things in the ocean.

What can people do about it?
To help give coral reefs a better chance of surviving the effects of climate change, swimmers, boaters, and divers should treat these fragile ecosystems with care. People can also support groups working to protect coral reefs.

Learn more

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Most plants and animals live in areas with very specific climate conditions, such as temperature and rainfall patterns, that enable them to thrive. Any change in the climate of an area can affect the plants and animals living there, as well as the makeup of the entire ecosystem.

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The WWF raising awareness for the effects of climate change

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The WWF raising awareness for the effects of climate change

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Learn about the effects of climate change

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The effects of climate change are likely to be some of the biggest environmental challenges our generation has ever faced.

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Editor's note: This story was originally posted in the July 2007 issue, and has been reposted to highlight the long history of Nobelists publishing in Scientific American.

For a scientist studying climate change, "eureka" moments are unusually rare. Instead progress is generally made by a painstaking piecing together of evidence from every new temperature measurement, satellite sounding or climate-model experiment. Data get checked and rechecked, ideas tested over and over again. Do the observations fit the predicted changes? Could there be some alternative explanation? Good climate scientists, like all good scientists, want to ensure that the highest standards of proof apply to everything they discover.

And the evidence of change has mounted as climate records have grown longer, as our understanding of the climate system has improved and as climate models have become ever more reliable. Over the past 20 years, evidence that humans are affecting the climate has accumulated inexorably, and with it has come ever greater certainty across the scientific community in the reality of recent climate change and the potential for much greater change in the future. This increased certainty is starkly reflected in the latest report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the fourth in a series of assessments of the state of knowledge on the topic, written and reviewed by hundreds of scientists worldwide.

The panel released a condensed version of the first part of the report, on the physical science basis of climate change, in February. Called the "Summary for Policymakers," it delivered to policymakers and ordinary people alike an unambiguous message: scientists are more confident than ever that humans have interfered with the climate and that further human-induced climate change is on the way. Although the report finds that some of these further changes are now inevitable, its analysis also confirms that the future, particularly in the longer term, remains largely in our hands-the magnitude of expected change depends on what humans choose to do about greenhouse gas emissions.

The physical science assessment focuses on four topics: drivers of climate change, changes observed in the climate system, understanding cause-and-effect relationships, and projection of future changes. Important advances in research into all these areas have occurred since the IPCC assessment in 2001. In the pages that follow, we lay out the key findings that document the extent of change and that point to the unavoidable conclusion that human activity is driving it.

Drivers of Climate Change
Atmospheric concentrations of many gases-primarily carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and halocarbons (gases once used widely as refrigerants and spray propellants)-have increased because of human activities. Such gases trap thermal energy (heat) within the atmosphere by means of the well-known greenhouse effect, leading to global warming. The atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide remained roughly stable for nearly 10,000 years, before the abrupt and rapidly accelerating increases of the past 200 years. Growth rates for concentrations of carbon dioxide have been faster in the past 10 years than over any 10-year period since continuous atmospheric monitoring began in the 1950s, with concentrations now roughly 35 percent above preindustrial levels (which can be determined from air bubbles trapped in ice cores). Methane levels are roughly two and a half times preindustrial levels, and nitrous oxide levels are around 20 percent higher.

How can we be sure that humans are responsible for these increases? Some greenhouse gases (most of the halocarbons, for example) have no natural source. For other gases, two important observations demonstrate human influence. First, the geographic differences in concentrations reveal that sources occur predominantly over land in the more heavily populated Northern Hemisphere. Second, analysis of isotopes, which can distinguish among sources of emissions, demonstrates that the majority of the increase in carbon dioxide comes from combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas). Methane and nitrous oxide increases derive from agricultural practices and the burning of fossil fuels.

Climate scientists use a concept called radiative forcing to quantify the effect of these increased concentrations on climate. Radiative forcing is the change that is caused in the global energy balance of the earth relative to preindustrial times. (Forcing is usually expressed as watts per square meter.) A positive forcing induces warming; a negative forcing induces cooling. We can determine the radiative forcing associated with the long-lived greenhouse gases fairly precisely, because we know their atmospheric concentrations, their spatial distribution and the physics of their interaction with radiation.

Climate change is not driven just by increased greenhouse gas concentrations; other mechanisms- both natural and human-induced-also play a part. Natural drivers include changes in solar activity and large volcanic eruptions. The report identifies several additional significant human-induced forcing mechanisms-microscopic particles called aerosols, stratospheric and tropospheric ozone, surface albedo (reflectivity) and aircraft contrails-although the influences of these mechanisms are much less certain than those of greenhouse gases.

Investigators are least certain of the climatic influence of something called the aerosol cloud albedo effect, in which aerosols from human origins interact with clouds in complex ways and make the clouds brighter, reflecting sunlight back to space. Another source of uncertainty comes from the direct effect of aerosols from human origins: How much do they reflect and absorb sunlight directly as particles? Overall these aerosol effects promote cooling that could offset the warming effect of long-lived greenhouse gases to some extent. But by how much? Could it overwhelm the warming? Among the advances achieved since the 2001 IPCC report is that scientists have quantified the uncertainties associated with each individual forcing mechanism through a combination of many modeling and observational studies. Consequently, we can now confidently estimate the total human- induced component. Our best estimate is some 10 times larger than the best estimate of the natural radiative forcing caused by changes in solar activity.

This increased certainty of a net positive radiative forcing fits well with the observational evidence of warming discussed next. These forcings can be visualized as a tug-of-war, with positive forcings pulling the earth to a warmer climate and negative ones pulling it to a cooler state. The result is a no contest; we know the strength of the competitors better than ever before. The earth is being pulled to a warmer climate and will be pulled increasingly in this direction as the "anchorman" of greenhouse warming continues to grow stronger and stronger.

Observed Climate Changes
The many new or improved observational data sets that became available in time for the 2007 IPCC report allowed a more comprehensive assessment of changes than was possible in earlier reports. Observational records indicate that 11 of the past 12 years are the warmest since reliable records began around 1850.

he odds of such warm years happening in sequence purely by chance are exceedingly small. Changes in three important quantities-global temperature, sea level and snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere-all show evidence of warming, although the details vary. The previous IPCC assessment reported a warming trend of 0.6 ± 0.2 degree Celsius over the period 1901 to 2000. Because of the strong recent warming, the updated trend over 1906 to 2005 is now 0.74 ± 0.18 degree C. Note that the 1956 to 2005 trend alone is 0.65 ± 0.15 degree C, emphasizing that the majority of 20th-century warming occurred in the past 50 years. The climate, of course, continues to vary around the increased averages, and extremes have changed consistently with these averages-frost days and cold days and nights have become less common, while heat waves and warm days and nights have become more common.

The properties of the climate system include not just familiar concepts of averages of temperature, precipitation, and so on but also the state of the ocean and the cryosphere (sea ice, the great ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica, glaciers, snow, frozen ground, and ice on lakes and rivers). Complex interactions among different parts of the climate system are a fundamental part of climate change-for example, reduction in sea ice increases the absorption of heat by the ocean and the heat flow between the ocean and the atmosphere, which can also affect cloudiness and precipitation.

A large number of additional observations are broadly consistent with the observed warming and reflect a flow of heat from the atmosphere into other components of the climate system. Spring snow cover, which decreases in concert with rising spring temperatures in northern midlatitudes, dropped abruptly around 1988 and has remained low since. This drop is of concern because snow cover is important to soil moisture and water resources in many regions.

In the ocean, we clearly see warming trends, which decrease with depth, as expected. These changes indicate that the ocean has absorbed more than 80 percent of the heat added to the climate system: this heating is a major contributor to sea-level rise. Sea level rises because water expands as it is warmed and because water from melting glaciers and ice sheets is added to the oceans. Since 1993 satellite observations have permitted more precise calculations of global sea-level rise, now estimated to be 3.1 ± 0.7 millimeters per year over the period 1993 to 2003. Some previous decades displayed similarly fast rates, and longer satellite records will be needed to determine unambiguously whether sea-level rise is accelerating. Substantial reductions in the extent of Arctic sea ice since 1978 (2.7 ± 0.6 percent per decade in the annual average, 7.4 ± 2.4 percent per decade for summer), increases in permafrost temperatures and reductions in glacial extent globally and in Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have also been observed in recent decades. Unfortunately, many of these quantities were not well monitored until recent decades, so the starting points of their records vary.

Hydrological changes are broadly consistent with warming as well. Water vapor is the strongest greenhouse gas; unlike other greenhouse gases, it is controlled principally by temperature. It has generally increased since at least the 1980s. Precipitation is very variable locally but has increased in several large regions of the world, including eastern North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia. Drying has been observed in the Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia. Ocean salinity can act as a massive rain gauge. Near-surface waters of the oceans have generally freshened in middle and high latitudes, while they have become saltier in lower latitudes, consistent with changes in large-scale patterns of precipitation.

Reconstructions of past climate-paleoclimate- from tree rings and other proxies provide important additional insights into the workings of the climate system with and without human influence. They indicate that the warmth of the past half a century is unusual in at least the previous 1,300 years. The warmest period between A.D. 700 and 1950 was probably A.D. 950 to 1100, which was several tenths of a degree C cooler than the average temperature since 1980.

Attribution of Observed Changes
Although confidence is high both that human activities have caused a positive radiative forcing and that the climate has actually changed, can we confidently link the two? This is the question of attribution: Are human activities primarily responsible for observed climate changes, or is it possible they result from some other cause, such as some natural forcing or simply spontaneous variability within the climate system? The 2001 IPCC report concluded it was likely (more than 66 percent probable) that most of the warming since the mid-20th century was attributable to humans. The 2007 report goes significantly further, upping this to very likely (more than 90 percent probable).

The source of the extra confidence comes from a multitude of separate advances. For a start, observational records are now roughly five years longer, and the global temperature increase over this period has been largely consistent with IPCC projections of greenhouse gas-driven warming made in previous reports dating back to 1990. In addition, changes in more aspects of the climate have been considered, such as those in atmospheric circulation or in temperatures within the ocean. Such changes paint a consistent and now broadened picture of human inter-vention. Climate models, which are central to attribution studies, have also improved and are able to represent the current climate and that of the recent past with considerable fidelity. Finally, some important apparent inconsistencies noted in the observational record have been largely resolved since the last report.

The most important of these was an apparent mismatch between the instrumental surface temperature record (which showed significant warming over recent decades, consistent with a human impact) and the balloon and satellite atmospheric records (which showed little of the expected warming). Several new studies of the satellite and balloon data have now largely resolved this discrepancy-with consistent warming found at the surface and in the atmosphere.

An experiment with the real world that duplicated the climate of the 20th century with constant (rather than increasing) greenhouse gases would be the ideal way to test for the cause of climate change, but such an experiment is of course impossible. So scientists do the next best thing: they simulate the past with climate models.

Two important advances since the last IPCC assessment have increased confidence in the use of models for both attribution and projection of climate changes. The first is the development of a comprehensive, closely coordinated ensemble of simulations from 18 modeling groups around the world for the historical and future evolution of the earth's climate. Using many models helps to quantify the effects of uncertainties in various climate processes on the range of model simulations. Although some processes are well understood and well represented by physical equations (the flow of the atmosphere and ocean or the propagation of sunlight and heat, for example), some of the most critical components of the climate system are less well understood, such as clouds, ocean eddies and transpiration by vegetation. Modelers approximate these components using simplified representations called parameterizations. The principal reason to develop a multimodel ensemble for the IPCC assessments is to understand how this lack of certainty affects attribution and prediction of climate change. The ensemble for the latest assessment is unprecedented in the number of models and experiments performed.

The second advance is the incorporation of more realistic representations of climate processes in the models. These processes include the behavior of atmospheric aerosols, the dynamics (movement) of sea ice, and the exchange of water and energy between the land and the atmosphere. More models now include the major types of aerosols and the interactions between aerosols and clouds.

When scientists use climate models for attribution studies, they first run simulations with estimates of only "natural" climate influences over the past 100 years, such as changes in solar output and major volcanic eruptions. They then run models that include human-induced increases in greenhouse gases and aerosols. The results of such experiments are striking. Models using only natural forcings are unable to explain the observed global warming since the mid-20th century, whereas they can do so when they include anthropogenic factors in addition to natural ones. Large-scale patterns of tempera-ture change are also most consistent between models and observations when all forcings are included.

Two patterns provide a fingerprint of human influence. The first is greater warming over land than ocean and greater warming at the surface of the sea than in the deeper layers. This pattern is consistent with greenhouse gas-induced warming by the overlying atmosphere: the ocean warms more slowly because of its large thermal inertia. The warming also indicates that a large amount of heat is being taken up by the ocean, demonstrating that the planet's energy budget has been pushed out of balance.

A second pattern of change is that while the troposphere (the lower region of the atmosphere) has warmed, the stratosphere, just above it, has cooled. If solar changes provided the dominant forcing, warming would be expected in both atmospheric layers. The observed contrast, however, is just that expected from the combination of greenhouse gas increases and stratospheric ozone decreases. This collective evidence, when subjected to careful statistical analyses, provides much of the basis for the increased confidence that human influences are behind the observed global warming. Suggestions that cosmic rays could affect clouds, and thereby climate, have been based on correlations using limited rec-ords; they have generally not stood up when tested with additional data, and their physical mechanisms remain speculative.

What about at smaller scales? As spatial and temporal scales decrease, attribution of climate change becomes more difficult. This problem arises because natural small-scale temperature variations are less "averaged out" and thus more readily mask the change signal. Nevertheless, continued warming means the signal is emerging on smaller scales. The report has found that human activity is likely to have influenced temperature significantly down to the continental scale for all continents except Antarctica.

Human influence is discernible also in some extreme events such as unusually hot and cold nights and the incidence of heat waves. This does not mean, of course, that individual extreme events (such as the 2003 European heat wave) can be said to be simply "caused" by human-induced climate change-usually such events are complex, with many causes. But it does mean that human activities have, more likely than not, affected the chances of such events occurring.

Projections of Future Changes
How will climate change over the 21st century? This critical question is addressed using simulations from climate models based on projections of future emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols. The simulations suggest that, for greenhouse gas emissions at or above current rates, changes in climate will very likely be larger than the changes already observed during the 20th century. Even if emissions were immediately reduced enough to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at current levels, climate change would continue for centuries. This inertia in the climate results from a combination of factors. They include the heat capacity of the world's oceans and the millennial timescales needed for the circulation to mix heat and carbon dioxide throughout the deep ocean and thereby come into equilibrium with the new conditions.

To be more specific, the models project that over the next 20 years, for a range of plausible emissions, the global temperature will increase at an average rate of about 0.2 degree C per decade, close to the observed rate over the past 30 years. About half of this near-term warming represents a "commitment" to future climate change arising from the inertia of the climate system response to current atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases.

The long-term warming over the 21st century, however, is strongly influenced by the future rate of emissions, and the projections cover a wide variety of scenarios, ranging from very rapid to more modest economic growth and from more to less dependence on fossil fuels. The best estimates of the increase in global temperatures range from 1.8 to 4.0 degrees C for the various emission scenarios, with higher emissions leading to higher temperatures. As for regional impacts, projections indicate with more confidence than ever before that these will mirror the patterns of change observed over the past 50 years (greater warming over land than ocean, for example) but that the size of the changes will be larger than they have been so far.

The simulations also suggest that the removal of excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by natural processes on land and in the ocean will become less efficient as the planet warms. This change leads to a higher percentage of emitted carbon dioxide remaining in the atmosphere, which then further accelerates global warming. This is an important positive feedback on the carbon cycle (the exchange of carbon compounds throughout the climate system). Although models agree that carbon-cycle changes represent a positive feedback, the range of their responses remains very large, depending, among other things, on poorly understood changes in vegetation or soil uptake of carbon as the climate warms. Such processes are an important topic of ongoing research.

The models also predict that climate change will affect the physical and chemical characteristics of the ocean. The estimates of the rise in sea level during the 21st century range from about 30 to 40 centimeters, again depending on emissions. More than 60 percent of this rise is caused by the thermal expansion of the ocean. Yet these model-based estimates do not include the possible acceleration of recently observed increases in ice loss from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. Although scientific understanding of such effects is very limited, they could add an additional 10 to 20 centimeters to sea-level rises, and the possibility of significantly larger rises cannot be excluded. The chemistry of the ocean is also affected, as the increased concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide will cause the ocean to become more acidic.

Some of the largest changes are predicted for polar regions. These include significant increases in high-latitude land temperatures and in the depth of thawing in permafrost regions and sharp reductions in the extent of summer sea ice in the Arctic basin. Lower latitudes will likely experience more heat waves, heavier precipitation, and stronger (but perhaps less frequent) hurricanes and typhoons. The extent to which hurricanes and typhoons may strengthen is uncertain and is a subject of much new research.

Some important uncertainties remain, of course. For example, the precise way in which clouds will respond as temperatures increase is a critical factor governing the overall size of the projected warming. The complexity of clouds, however, means that their response has been frustratingly difficult to pin down, and, again, much research remains to be done in this area.

We are now living in an era in which both humans and nature affect the future evolution of the earth and its inhabitants. Unfortunately, the crystal ball provided by our climate models becomes cloudier for predictions out beyond a century or so. Our limited knowledge of the response of both natural systems and human society to the growing impacts of climate change compounds our uncertainty. One result of global warming is certain, however. Plants, animals and humans will be living with the consequences of climate change for at least the next thousand years.

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William Collins, Robert Colman, James Haywood, Martin R. Manning, Philip Mote

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The Physical Science behind Climate Change

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Editor's note: This story was originally posted in the July 2007 issue, and has been reposted to highlight the long history of Nobelists publishing in Scientific American. For a scientist studying climate change, "eureka" moments are unusually rare. Instead progress is generally made by a painstaking piecing together of evidence from every new temperature measurement, satellite sounding or climate-model experiment.

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Physics is a form of Science which focuses on nature and properties of matter and energy. This subject includes mechanics, heat, light and other radiation, sound, electricity, magnetism, and the connection of atoms.

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NASA GISS: Science Briefs: The Physics of Climate Modeling

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The most interesting behavior of the climate system is emergent. That is, the large-scale phenomena are not obvious functions of the small-scale physics but result from the complexity of the system. For instance, no formula describes the Intertropical Convergence Zone of tropical rainfall, which arises through a combination of the seasonal cycle of solar radiation, the properties of moist convection, Earth's rotation, and so on.

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A Tutorial on the Basic Physics of Climate Change

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Causes and Effects of Climate Change | National Geographic

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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Another Expert in Global Warming but not too much into Physics

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Another Expert in Global Warming but not too much into Physics

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Al Gore

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This article is about the former vice president of the United States. For other uses, see Al Gore (disambiguation).

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Climate change is the defining challenge of our time, and it affects each and every one of us. Here you can learn about what climate change is, the ways in which it is occurring in Hong Kong, what the Government is doing to combat the problem, and how you can help too.

What Climate Change is

Climate change refers to the change in climate as a result of human activities that cause a change in the atmospheric composition, in addition to natural climate variability. Human activities cause increases in atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases, mainly through burning of fossil fuels. The greenhouse gases act like a blanket in the atmosphere, trapping heat on Earth and keeping our planet warm. However, the human-induced increases in greenhouse gases have enhanced the greenhouse effect and caused the climate system to warm - a phenomenon commonly called global warming. This general rise in temperature in turn leads to a proliferation of other problems, such as more frequent heat waves and extreme rainfall events, increased global proportion of major tropical cyclones, rise of sea level, reduction in agricultural production, scarcity of water resource in certain regions, spread of disease, loss of ecological and environmental balance, etc.

Temperature trend (℃ per decade) over 1900-1980 (upper) and 1981-2020 (lower) (Image credit: IPCC AR6)
Global Warming Trend

Climate Change in Hong Kong

In line with the global trend, Hong Kong has been warming up in the last century or so. The number of hot nights is increasing while the number of cold days is decreasing. Apart from rising temperature, Hong Kong experiences more frequent heavy rain than before. The sea level is rising in Victoria Harbour.

Information about climate change and the situation in Hong Kong is available through the following links.
Carbon Neutrality and Sustainable Development Website Climate Change Impacts More on climate change Hong Kong's Climate Action Plan 2050 Hong Kong's Climate Action Plan 2030+Hong Kong Climate Change Report 2015 Hong Kong Roadmap on Popularisation of Electric Vehicles Clean Air Plan for Hong Kong 2035 Waste Blueprint for Hong Kong 2035

The Paris Agreement and Hong Kong

The Paris Agreement, which came into force on 4 November 2016, applies to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) as well. As part of China, the HKSAR has the duty to make its contribution in order to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement. The Paris Agreement calls upon the Parties to cooperate with the private sector, civil society, financial institutions, cities and regions in order to mobilise stronger and more ambitious climate actions in the world.

Carbon Emissions and Hong Kong

The Government has set an ambitious carbon intensity target of 65% to 70% by 2030 using 2005 as the base, which is equivalent to 26% to 36% absolute reduction and a reduction to 3.3-3.8 tonnes on a per capita basis. It is observed that Hong Kong's carbon emissions have shown a decreasing trend since 2014.

In 2021, the Government announced Hong Kong's Climate Action Plan 2050, which outlined four major decarbonisation strategies, namely "net-zero electricity generation", "energy saving and green buildings", "green transport" and "waste reduction", that would lead Hong Kong towards the goal of carbon neutrality before 2050. It also sets out a more vigorous interim decarbonisation targets to reduce Hong Kong's carbon emissions by 50% before 2035 as compared to the 2005 level.

Climate Change Initiatives in Hong Kong
Net-zero Electricity Generation
Currently, about two-thirds of Hong Kong's carbon emissions come from electricity generation. To this end, the Government has seen to it that the two power companies use cleaner fuel for electricity generation. While the share of coal in the local fuel mix for electricity generation has dropped significantly from one-half in 2015 to about a quarter currently, the local fuel mix remains heavily reliant on fossil fuels such as coal (about a quarter) and natural gas (about one-half).

As electricity generation accounts for about two-thirds of our carbon emissions, the Government has set net-zero electricity generation as one of the major decarbonisation strategies in the Hong Kong's Climate Action Plan 2050 promulgated in October 2021. The Government will achieve the long-term target of net-zero electricity generation before 2050 by increasing zero-carbon electricity supply through renewable energy (RE) development, and exploring new energy sources for electricity generation and regional cooperation. Details are as follows.

The Government has pledged to cease using coal for daily electricity generation by 2035 and will only keep it for providing backup support. Coal will be replaced by natural gas and zero-carbon energy (such as RE) for electricity generation.

The Government will strive to grapple with Hong Kong's geographical and environmental constraints in driving the development of RE by taking the lead in installing RE systems at various buildings and facilities, and developing more advanced waste-to-energy facilities. The Government is further considering measures to facilitate the development of RE by the private sector and reviewing with the two power companies their proposals to develop offshore wind farms. These measures will help to meet our target to increase the share of RE in the fuel mix for electricity generation from less than 1% at present to 7.5% to 10% by 2035, and further increase it to 15% subsequently through facilitating local projects, regional cooperation and joint ventures, etc.

Moreover, the Government will explore and try out the use of different types of zero-carbon energy for electricity generation with a view to adopting them in Hong Kong when the technologies become relatively mature. The Government will also explore ways to enhance regional cooperation to increase the supply of zero-carbon energy. The target is to increase the share of zero-carbon energy in the fuel mix for electricity generation to around 60% to 70% before 2035, and to achieve net-zero electricity generation in Hong Kong before 2050 with the support of continuous technological advancement in using zero-carbon energy for electricity generation.
Reducing Our "Carbon Footprint"
The most direct and effective method of reducing our "carbon footprint", or the extent to which our activities produce greenhouse gases, is to enhance the overall energy efficiency of our society.
Promoting Energy Saving
Being an international financial and commercial centre, the majority of Hong Kong citizens' daily activities take place in skyscrapers. The resulting use of air-conditioners, lifts, lighting and various electrical appliances consumes a large amount of energy. Buildings account for about 90% of Hong Kong's total electricity consumption, and over 60% of our carbon emissions is attributable to generating electricity for our buildings.

The Buildings Energy Efficiency Ordinance (Cap. 610) requires four major building services installations of new buildings as well as existing buildings undergoing major retrofitting (i.e. air-conditioning, electrical, lift and escalator, and lighting installations) to comply with the energy efficiency standards and requirements specified in the Building Energy Code.

The Government also promotes various green building and energy saving measures. An example is retro-commissioning, which systematically assesses a building's energy performance with a view to identifying improvements in operations for energy saving.

To further facilitate the public in choosing energy efficient appliances and raise public awareness on energy saving, the Government has introduced the Mandatory Energy Efficiency Labelling Scheme (MEELS) in 2008 through the Energy Efficiency (Labelling of Products) Ordinance, Cap. 598. Under the MEELS, energy labels are required to be shown on the prescribed products for supply in Hong Kong, China, to inform consumers of their energy efficiency performance.

Currently, the MEELS covers 11 prescribed products including room air conditioners, refrigerating appliances, compact fluorescent lamps, washing machines, dehumidifiers, televisions, storage type electric water heaters, induction cookers, LED lamps, gas cookers and gas instantaneous water heaters. The Government reviews the scope of MEELS and the grading standards from time to time.

To tie in with the sustainable and environmentally-friendly development of the Kai Tak Development (KTD), the Government is implementing a district cooling system (DCS) to serve the non-domestic facilities at the area. The DCS has commenced operation in phases since 2013. It is an energy-efficient air-conditioning system as it consumes 35% and 20% less electricity as compared with traditional air-cooled air-conditioning systems and individual water-cooled air-conditioning systems using cooling towers respectively. Due to better energy efficiency, the implementation of DCS at KTD will achieve estimated annual saving of 85 million kilowatt-hour (kWh) in electricity consumption, with a corresponding reduction of 59,500 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per annum. Other than this, the Government is building an additional DCS at KTD to cater for the projected increase in cooling demand. Also, the DCS projects in Kwu Tung North New Development Area and Tung Chung New Town Extension (East) are also underway. The Government will study the feasibility of incorporating DCS in more new development and redevelopment areas, so as to promote energy efficiency and mitigate the heat island effect in the areas.

In 2008, the Government launched a set of carbon audit guidelines for buildings. Users and managers of buildings can use the guidelines to assess the carbon emissions from their buildings, to explore room for improvement and to develop emission reduction measures so that their buildings can leave a smaller carbon footprint with less operating expenses through improving energy efficiency and waste reduction. The Government has been promoting carbon audit and taking the lead to conduct carbon audits for government buildings and public facilities. From 2017-18, bureaux and departments have started conducting regular carbon audits on major government buildings and will disclose their audit results. The Government also continues to work with the Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing Limited to introduce and promote the website on carbon footprint repository for listed companies in Hong Kong which was launched by the Government in December 2014. As of August 2023, more than 80 listed companies participated in this carbon disclosure initiative by disclosing their carbon management information through the website. More information related to carbon audit is available through the following links.
Carbon Footprint Repository for Listed Companies in Hong Kong Practical Guide on Carbon Audit and Management Excel Template for "Paper Approach" Carbon Audit

Using Energy-efficient Transport and Cleaner Vehicles
In terms of transportation, the Government is aware that the use of our extensive and energy-efficient public transport system and the use of cleaner vehicles can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It is committed to further expanding and upgrading our public transport infrastructure with an emphasis on railways, and encouraging the use of cleaner vehicles. Going forward, we will facilitate walking as well as continue to provide a safe, efficient, reliable and environment-friendly transport system with multi-modal choices that meets the community's needs.

In recent years, the Government has been focusing on promoting new energy vehicles, as well as establishing ancillary facilities to accelerate the development of green transport in pursuit of zero-carbon transportation. The New Energy Transport Fund (NET Fund, formerly named Pilot Green Transport Fund) was set up by the Government in March 2011 to provide subsidies for transport operators and charitable / non-profit making organisations to test green innovative transport technologies. The scope was expanded in 2020 to support direct purchase of products of the technologies that have been proven relatively mature and suitable for local adoption. The NET Fund allocation is HK$1,100 million. The trials for electric commercial vehicles approved under the NET Fund include light goods vehicles, single-deck buses, double-deck buses, light buses, taxis, medium goods vehicles and motor cycles. In addition, they also include electric vessels and hybrid commercial vehicles, etc.

The Government in March 2021 announced the Hong Kong Roadmap on Popularisation of Electric Vehicles (the Roadmap). The Roadmap will guide Hong Kong's future direction to attain zero vehicular emissions before 2050, and forges ahead with the vision of 'Zero Carbon Emissions ‧ Clean Air ‧ Smart City'.
Adapting to Climate Change
While Hong Kong has a strong foundation in climate adaptation, we are improving the internal knowledge-sharing and coordination framework to strengthen public sector infrastructure and works programmes. We will strengthen the urban fabric and slope safety. We will also integrate drainage and flood management projects with good landscaping so as to upgrade their amenity and biodiversity value. Furthermore, by reclaiming water, recycling grey water and harvesting rainwater plus implementing desalination, Hong Kong will increase its sources of water. We will implement suitable improvement works and formulate management measures for some coastal low-lying or windy locations in order of priority to cope with sea level rise, taking into account the latest development of climate change.
Climate Change and Ecosystems
The Paris Agreement recognises the critical importance of forests as carbon sinks and specifically calls for protection of forests, as well as maintenance of ecosystems. Enhancing ecosystems and appropriate landscaping in urban areas can help to deal with climate change. We will continue to protect and enhance the country parks, and have formulated a long-term programme to promote urban forestry and ecology, which will also help to cool the city as temperature rises as a result of climate change.
Joint Hands in Combating Climate Change
The impacts of climate change and the efforts to combat climate change touch on every part of our lives. The issue of climate change can only be sufficiently addressed with wide participation from the government, different sectors of the community and individuals. To align with our country's commitment to achieve carbon neutrality before 2060, the Chief Executive announced in the 2020 Policy Address that Hong Kong would strive to achieve carbon neutrality before 2050. The Government has set up an inter-departmental Steering Committee on Climate Change and Carbon Neutrality under the chairmanship of the Chief Executive to formulate the overall strategy and oversee the coordination of various actions.

Greenhouse gas emissions make no distinction between local, national or regional boundaries, and the fight against climate change requires concerted global action. Hong Kong has always taken its international responsibilities very seriously. Hong Kong is a Steering Committee member of the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group. This coalition of cities from different corners of the world has pledged to work hand-in-hand towards enhancing energy efficiency and reducing carbon emissions, with a view to combating climate change.

Assess My Carbon Emissions

The Government has launched the "Low Carbon Living Calculator" to help the public assess and learn how to reduce their carbon emissions in respect of clothing, food, living and commuting, thereby promoting behavioural change towards low-carbon living.

How You can Help Combat Climate Change

We believe that we do not have to think big to make a big impact. In Hong Kong, much can be done in our civic infrastructure and the way we live our lives to help combat climate change.

Here are some simple acts everyone can do to make a difference:

Switch to compact fluorescent lamps or LED lights;

Use energy efficient appliances (such as those with Grade 1 energy labels);

Turn off appliances when they are not in use;

Maintain temperature setting of air-conditioner at 24-26°C;

Use public transportation;

Recycle waste material as far as possible; and

Install a low-flow shower-head and take shorter showers.

The following links will take you to tips on what you can do to combat climate change and reduce your own "carbon footprint" at home, in the office and when you are travelling.
Tips on low-carbon living Tips on saving energy Tips on green office management Tips on greener transportation

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This feature article provided by the Hong Kong Government is about what climate change is, the ways in which it is occurring in Hong Kong, what the Government is doing to combat the problem, and how you can help too.

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Overcoming the World's Challenges - The Global Goals

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The climate crisis. Ensuring no one goes hungry. Human rights abuses. Extreme poverty. Problems of this scale can be overwhelming, but the Global Goals(also known as the Sustainable Development Goals or SDGs) are the solution to tackling them.

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Brian Cox
Website About Him

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Brian Edward Cox (born 3 March 1968) is an English physicist and musician who is a professor of particle physics in the School of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Manchester and The Royal Society Professor for Public Engagement in Science. He is best known to the public as the presenter of science programmes, especially BBC Radio 4's The Infinite Monkey Cage and the Wonders of... series and for popular science books, such as Why Does E=mc²? and The Quantum Universe.

Cox has been described as the natural successor for the BBC's scientific programming by both David Attenborough and Patrick Moore.[not verified in body ] Before his academic career, Cox was a keyboard player for the British bands Dare and D:Ream.

Cox was born on 3 March 1968 in the Royal Oldham Hospital, later living in nearby Chadderton from 1971. He has a younger sister. His parents worked for Yorkshire Bank, his mother as a cashier and his father as a middle-manager in the same branch. He recalls a happy childhood in Oldham that included pursuits such as dance, gymnastics, and plane and bus spotting. He attended the private Hulme Grammar School in Oldham from 1979 to 1986.

He has stated in many interviews and in an episode of Wonders of the Universe that when he was 12, the book by Carl Sagan was a key factor in inspiring him to become a physicist. He said on The Jonathan Ross Show that he performed poorly on his maths A-level exam: "I got a D ... I was really not very good ... I found out you need to practise."

In the 1980s and early 1990s, Cox was a keyboard player with the rock band Dare. Dare released two albums with Cox - Out of the Silence in 1988 and Blood from Stone in 1991. He subsequently joined dance act D:Ream, a group that had several hits in the UK charts, including the number one " Things Can Only Get Better", later used as a New Labour election anthem, although he did not play on the track. Cox wrote the foreword of the official Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark biography, OMD: Pretending to See the Future (2018), having been an "obsessive" fan of the band in his youth. He said of their songs, "They shaped my character and inspired me to make music."

Cox continues to perform sporadically. In 2015, he appeared as a guest keyboardist during a performance of the song " Your Silent Face" by New Order. He played a live rendition of OMD's " Enola Gay", alongside frontman Andy McCluskey, in 2022.

Cox studied physics at the University of Manchester during his music career. In 1991, he earned a Bachelor of Science degree with first-class honours in physics. After D:Ream disbanded in 1997, he completed his Doctor of Philosophy degree in high-energy particle physics at the University of Manchester in 1998. His thesis, Double Diffraction Dissociation at Large Momentum Transfer, was supervised by Robin Marshall and based on research he did on the H1 experiment at the Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage (HERA) particle accelerator at the DESY laboratory in Hamburg, Germany.

Brian Cox at Science Foo Camp in 2008

Cox has appeared in many science programmes for BBC radio and television, including In Einstein's Shadow, the BBC series, ("The Six Billion Dollar Experiment", "What on Earth is Wrong with Gravity?", "Do You Know What Time It Is?", and "Can we Make a Star on Earth?") and as a voice-over for the BBC's revision programmes. He presented the five-part BBC Two television series Wonders of the Solar System in early 2010 and a follow-up four-part series, Wonders of the Universe, which began on 6 March 2011. Wonders of Life, which he describes as "a physicist's take on life/natural history", was broadcast in 2013. He co-presents Space Hoppers and has also featured in Dani's House on CBBC.

Cox also presented a three-part BBC series called Science Britannica which sees him explore the contribution of British scientists over the last 350 years, as well as the relationship between British science and the public perception thereof.

BBC Two commissioned Cox to copresent Stargazing Live, a three-day live astronomy series in January 2011 - co-presented with physicist-turned-comedian Dara Ó Briain and featuring chat show host Jonathan Ross - linked to events across the United Kingdom. A second and a third series featuring a variety of guests ran in January 2012 and January 2013.

Since November 2009 Cox has co-presented a BBC Radio 4 "comedy science magazine programme", The Infinite Monkey Cage with comedian Robin Ince. Guests have included comedians Tim Minchin, Alexei Sayle, Dara Ó Briain, and scientists including Alice Roberts of the BBC show The Incredible Human Journey, and astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson. Cox also appeared in Ince's Nine Lessons and Carols for Godless People. He was a regular contributor to the BBC 6 Music Breakfast Show (and the Afternoon Show since 2019) with Shaun Keaveny, with a weekly feature, and an annual Christmas special with Keaveny and Brian Eno. He appeared on 24 July 2009 episode of Robert Llewellyn's podcast series.

Cox has also appeared numerous times at TED, giving talks on the LHC and particle physics. In 2009 he appeared in People magazine's Sexiest Men Alive. In 2010 he was featured in The Case for Mars by Symphony of Science. In November 2010 he made a promotional appearance in the Covent Garden Apple Store, talking about his new e-book set to accompany his new television series as well as answering audience questions.

Cox gave the Royal Television Society's 2010 Huw Wheldon Memorial Lecture on "Science, a Challenge to TV Orthodoxy", in which he examined problems in media coverage of science and news about science. It was subsequently broadcast on BBC Two. On 4 March, a talk entitled "Frankenstein's Science" at the National Theatre featured Cox in discussion with biographer Richard Holmes on Mary Shelley's exploration of humanity's desire to bring life to an inanimate object and whether the notion is possible, in both the 19th century and today.

On 6 March 2011, Cox appeared as a guest at Patrick Moore's 700th episode anniversary of The Sky at Night. He has said that he is a lifelong fan of the programme, and that it helped inspire him to become a physicist. On 10 March 2011, he gave the Ninth Douglas Adams Memorial Lecture.

Cox was the science advisor for the science fiction film . On the DVD release, he provides an audio commentary where he discusses scientific accuracies (and inaccuracies) depicted in the film. He also was featured on the Discovery Channel special Megaworld: Switzerland. In 2013, he presented another series of Wonders of Life.

On 14 November 2013, BBC Two broadcast The Science of Doctor Who in celebration of 's 50th anniversary, in which Cox tackles the mysteries of time travel. The lecture was recorded at the Royal Institution Faraday Lecture Theatre. The BBC subsequently broadcast Human Universe and Forces of Nature also presented by Cox.

A longtime fan of the Monty Python comedy troupe, in July 2014 Cox appeared on stage on the final night of their 10-date live show, Monty Python Live (Mostly). He also appears on the documentary telefilm Monty Python: The Meaning of Live.

In 2017, Cox appeared in the children's television programme Postman Pat, voicing space expert Professor Ryan Farrow.

Cox has received many awards for his efforts to popularize science. In 2002 he was elected an International Fellow of The Explorers Club and in 2006 he received the British Association's Lord Kelvin Award for this work. He held a prestigious Royal Society University Research Fellowship (an early-career Research Fellowship scheme) from 2006 to 2013. A frequent lecturer, he was keynote speaker at the Australian Science Festival in 2006, and in 2010 won the Institute of Physics Kelvin Medal and Prize for his work in communicating the appeal and excitement of physics to the general public.

He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2010 Birthday Honours for services to science and promoted to Commander of the same Order (CBE) in the 2020 Birthday Honours for services to the promotion of science.

On 15 March 2011, he won Best Presenter and Best Science/Natural History programme by the Royal Television Society for Wonders of the Universe. On 25 March 2011, he won twice at the Broadcasting Press Guild Awards for 'Best Performer' in a non-acting role, while Wonders of the Solar System was named best documentary series of 2010.

In July 2012, Cox was conferred the honorary award of Doctor of the University (Hon DUniv) from the University of Huddersfield, presented by Sir Patrick Stewart. Later that year, he was awarded the Institute of Physics President's medal by Sir Peter Knight, following which he gave a speech on the value of education in science and the need to invest more in future generations of scientists. On 5 October 2012, Cox was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of the University (DUniv) by the Open University for his "Exceptional contribution to Education and Culture". In 2012 he also was awarded the Michael Faraday Prize of the Royal Society "for his excellent work in science communication." He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2016. In 2022, he was awarded The Hawking Fellowship by the Cambridge Union in the University of Cambridge.

Cox has voiced his concerns about Brexit saying he feels it is a "weakening of our interaction with our neighbouring countries" and that "it cannot be the right trajectory." On 23 June 2018, the People's Vote march was held in London to mark the second anniversary of the referendum to leave the European Union. Cox tweeted, "if [a people's vote were] held on known exit terms and leave commanded majority, I'd back it as settled, informed decision. That's my argument for having one." Cox has called for the term "the British people" to be banned from political discourse, calling the term's usage by government officials "inflammatory and divisive".

In 2003, Cox married American television presenter and writer Gia Milinovich in Duluth, Minnesota. They have a son, born in 2009, and Milinovich has a son from a previous relationship. They currently live in Battersea, London.

Despite lacking a belief in deities, Cox has rejected the label " atheist" and has instead preferred to describe himself as having "no personal faith". In 2009, he contributed to the charity book The Atheist's Guide to Christmas. He is a humanist, and is a Distinguished Supporter of Humanists UK. In June 2019, Cox explained that he cannot be sure there is no God and that science cannot answer every question.

Cox is a supporter of the football club Oldham Athletic and has held a season ticket at the club.

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Brian Edward Cox (born 3 March 1968) is an English physicist and musician who is a professor of particle physics in the School of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Manchester and The Royal Society Professor for Public Engagement in Science.

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