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The story of thalidomide, told in this week’s Retro Report video, is one of the most shameful in the history of the modern pharmaceutical industry.

In the 1950s, a German company, Chemie Grünenthal, developed thalidomide, which was marketed in Europe as the first safe sleeping pill and was seen as a highly effective treatment for pregnant women with morning sickness.

The drug enjoyed such widespread success that in some European countries it became almost as popular as aspirin.

But thalidomide was far from safe. Although the cause was not realized until later, the first known victim of thalidomide was a girl born with no ears on Christmas Day in 1956 — a daughter of a Grünenthal employee.

In time, thousands of children around the world whose mothers took the drug while pregnant were born with severe physical disabilities, including flipper-like arms and legs. The archival footage of these children in the Retro video is both horrifying and heartbreaking, as are the stories of the many families who were devastated and unable to cope.

Thalidomide-affected children were in some instances rejected by their parents and institutionalized. Others had their flippers amputated to accommodate prostheses for arms and legs. In one extreme case, a young mother and her doctor were charged with the mercy killing of her deformed infant.

But in the United States things were different, thanks to one of those little known heroes who simply did her job well, and in the process, prevented the drug from being approved.

In September 1960, Dr. Frances Oldham Kelsey, a young pharmacologist who had just started working at the Food and Drug Administration, was asked to review the drug for approval but became alarmed by what she saw as the lack of rigorous scientific research supporting the drug’s safety done by Grünenthal and William S. Merrell, the United States distributor.

Once she examined the research carefully, the case for thalidomide quickly unraveled. She kept asking the company for more data, delaying approval. In late November 1961, long-ignored evidence became public in Germany linking thalidomide to birth defects. Grünenthal, which in a court case years later blamed causes like nuclear fallout or botched home abortions for the children’s deformities, did not apologize to the victims and their families until last year.

Because of Dr. Kelsey’s perseverance, the drug never received F.D.A. approval and in 1962, the drug was banned worldwide. But almost as important, it marked the beginning of a new era for the F.D.A.

Major regulatory reforms were finally forced on the pharmaceutical industry, many of the same federal guidelines that we live under today.

Thalidomide is one principal reason United States drug laws are so strict.

But this was not the end of thalidomide. In the early 1990s, researchers discovered that the same properties of the drug that restrict blood vessel growth and resulted in the stunted limbs, were useful in treating a number of medical disorders, including some cancerous tumors, like multiple myeloma, Crohn’s disease and multiple sclerosis.

While the medication now carries a strict warning that it is not to be taken by pregnant women, in Brazil, where it is used extensively to treat leprosy, a group of researchers report that as many as 100 children have been disabled by thalidomide since 2005.

This week’s Retro Report is the 12th in a documentary series and the one I find the most affecting, a case where the video footage of these children is worth tens of thousands of words.

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Poverty is an ongoing issue affecting millions of Americans every day. Not having the ability to support their families, people who are impoverished live very difficult and stressful lives. In addition to not being able to pay bills, families whom are impoverished also struggle with food security.

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Poverty is an ongoing issue affecting millions of Americans every day. Not having the ability to support their families, people who are impoverished live very difficult and stressful lives. In addition to not being able to pay bills, families whom are impoverished also struggle with food security.

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There are numerous likenesses between Jesus, Blessed Oscar Romero, and Father Boyles. Jesus was the Son of God who came down to spare us from our transgressions. Favored Oscar Romero was a cleric in El Salvador and was the Archbishop there when there was a great deal of debasement and brutality inside the nation. Father Boyles was a minister who helps posse individuals and individuals on the avenues discover God or assist them with recovering financially. The main similitude is among Jesus and Blessed Oscar Romero when Jesus keeps on lecturing the expression of God and perform supernatural occurrences on individuals despite the fact that a few people are beginning dislike Jesus and go demeaning him and Blessed Oscar Ramos returns into the congregation after the officer advised him to leave with every one of his kin behind him to take the Eucharist with him. Despite the fact that a significant number of the individuals inside the city of Jerusalem are against what Jesus is doing, he keeps on doing his works through the individuals. He keeps on recuperating individuals with sicknesses and he keeps on lecturing the expression of the Lord and consider himself the Son of God. Favored Oscar Romero goes into a congregation in a town of El Salvador to remove the Eucharist from the congregation in light of the fact that there were officers positioned inside the congregation. At the point when he is constrained out of the congregation by warriors, he return and has huge numbers of the residents of the town behind him. He strolls into the congregation with all the individuals behind him and they all go in and Blessed Oscar Romero addresses them and states this is their congregation. The warriors can't follow up on this individuals there is such a large number of individuals. This is only one case of how these two figures are comparative. The subsequent closeness is between Jesus, Blessed Oscar Romero, and Father Boyles. The similitude is that all of worked with destitute individuals. Jesus was consistently around individuals who were poor and had scarcely anything. Jesus cherished those individuals so much since they were so consistent with their confidence. Jesus performed numerous wonders on numerous destitute individuals. Jesus likewise helped a ton of needy individuals with any difficulties in their lives. Jesus likewise didn't grow up rich and was somewhat increasingly poor which is the way Jesus identifies with this. Favored Oscar Romero worked with numerous needy individuals in light of the fact that nearly everybody in the towns of El Salvador had practically nothing. Numerous individuals that remained consistent with their confidence and consistently followed Blessed Oscar Ramos was individuals with nothing on the grounds that the main thing that they had was God. Father Boyles worked with numerous destitute individuals. He would go into territories with high posse movement and attempt to help individuals there. He worked with many "homies" to assist them with discovering God in their lives just as assist them with recovering financially and accomplish something incredible with their lives. This is the second likeness between these three men. The third comparability is among Jesus and Blessed Oscar Romero. Jesus continually is compromised by the Roman military in view of his activity and at last is killed by the Romans as a result of his works and what he did with the individuals. Favored Oscar Romero was likewise conflicting with a military type of individuals known as the Guerrillas. The Guerrillas were typical individuals who utilized brutality to leave their message alone caught wind of the administration. Favored Oscar Romero loses many dear companions and individuals because of viciousness done by the Guerrillas. He is continually attempting to lecture the expression of the Lord and help individuals while simultaneously he is likewise in showdowns with Guerrillas. He eventually is murdered by an individual who isn't enamored with his work as well. These two circumstances are fundamentally the same as in light of the fact that it shows that both of these men were battling an outside power when they were attempting to work with the individuals in harmony. They intended no damage to any of the military men or outside individuals yet were attempting to do useful for the individuals of the network. This is the third closeness among Jesus and Blessed Oscar Romero. The fourth closeness is between Jesus, Blessed Oscar Romero, and Father Boyles. This closeness is that every one of them attempted to convey the expression of the Lord. Jesus was continually lecturing the expression of the Lord to his pupils and to the entirety of his supporters. He was likewise lecturing it to the numerous individuals he experienced in a wide range of towns. Favored Oscar Romero lectured the expression of the Lord any place and at whatever point he could. Since the officers were beginning to assume control over towns, mass wasn't possible in places of worship and along these lines was done in some cases in the city. Favored Oscar Romero drove these masses and lectured the individuals. Such huge numbers of individuals accumulated in light of the fact that it was separated of these individuals Sunday schedule to go to mass and when they couldn't go to chapel due to the warriors involved there, they would go where the minister was which happened to be Romero and have mass with him any place. Father Boyles lectured the expression of the master to the homies. A significant number of the homies didn't follow God or were not related to any religion and Father Boyle was there to assist them with managing their way in christianity. These models from these men all show that every one of them lectured the expression of the Lord somehow or another. The fifth and last similitude is among Jesus and Blessed Oscar Romero. This likeness is that the two of them kick the bucket for what they had been lecturing and doing in the network. Jesus is executed in light of the fact that a few people don't care for the possibility that He considers himself the Son of God. In Romeros case, what he was doing was bringing a great deal of expectation and soul back to the individuals and he was slaughtered for that. This is the last case of how these two figures were intently comparable.

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There are numerous likenesses between Jesus, Blessed Oscar Romero, and Father Boyles. Jesus was the Son of God who came down to spare us from our transgressions. Favored Oscar Romero was a cleric in El Salvador and was the Archbishop there when there was a great deal of debasement and brutality inside the nation. Father Boyles was a minister who helps posse individuals and individuals on the avenues discover God or assist them with recovering financially. The main similitude is among Jesus and Blessed Oscar Romero when Jesus keeps on lecturing the expression of God and perform supernatural occurrences on individuals despite the fact that a few people are beginning dislike Jesus and go demeaning him and Blessed Oscar Ramos returns into the congregation after the officer advised him to leave with every one of his kin behind him to take the Eucharist with him. Despite the fact that a significant number of the individuals inside the city of Jerusalem are against what Jesus is doing, he keeps on doing his works through the individuals. He keeps on recuperating individuals with sicknesses and he keeps on lecturing the expression of the Lord and consider himself the Son of God. Favored Oscar Romero goes into a congregation in a town of El Salvador to remove the Eucharist from the congregation in light of the fact that there were officers positioned inside the congregation. At the point when he is constrained out of the congregation by warriors, he return and has huge numbers of the residents of the town behind him. He strolls into the congregation with all the individuals behind him and they all go in and Blessed Oscar Romero addresses them and states this is their congregation. The warriors can't follow up on this individuals there is such a large number of individuals. This is only one case of how these two figures are comparative. The subsequent closeness is between Jesus, Blessed Oscar Romero, and Father Boyles. The similitude is that all of worked with destitute individuals. Jesus was consistently around individuals who were poor and had scarcely anything. Jesus cherished those individuals so much since they were so consistent with their confidence. Jesus performed numerous wonders on numerous destitute individuals. Jesus likewise helped a ton of needy individuals with any difficulties in their lives. Jesus likewise didn't grow up rich and was somewhat increasingly poor which is the way Jesus identifies with this. Favored Oscar Romero worked with numerous needy individuals in light of the fact that nearly everybody in the towns of El Salvador had practically nothing. Numerous individuals that remained consistent with their confidence and consistently followed Blessed Oscar Ramos was individuals with nothing on the grounds that the main thing that they had was God. Father Boyles worked with numerous destitute individuals. He would go into territories with high posse movement and attempt to help individuals there. He worked with many "homies" to assist them with discovering God in their lives just as assist them with recovering financially and accomplish something incredible with their lives. This is the second likeness between these three men. The third comparability is among Jesus and Blessed Oscar Romero. Jesus continually is compromised by the Roman military in view of his activity and at last is killed by the Romans as a result of his works and what he did with the individuals. Favored Oscar Romero was likewise conflicting with a military type of individuals known as the Guerrillas. The Guerrillas were typical individuals who utilized brutality to leave their message alone caught wind of the administration. Favored Oscar Romero loses many dear companions and individuals because of viciousness done by the Guerrillas. He is continually attempting to lecture the expression of the Lord and help individuals while simultaneously he is likewise in showdowns with Guerrillas. He eventually is murdered by an individual who isn't enamored with his work as well. These two circumstances are fundamentally the same as in light of the fact that it shows that both of these men were battling an outside power when they were attempting to work with the individuals in harmony. They intended no damage to any of the military men or outside individuals yet were attempting to do useful for the individuals of the network. This is the third closeness among Jesus and Blessed Oscar Romero. The fourth closeness is between Jesus, Blessed Oscar Romero, and Father Boyles. This closeness is that every one of them attempted to convey the expression of the Lord. Jesus was continually lecturing the expression of the Lord to his pupils and to the entirety of his supporters. He was likewise lecturing it to the numerous individuals he experienced in a wide range of towns. Favored Oscar Romero lectured the expression of the Lord any place and at whatever point he could. Since the officers were beginning to assume control over towns, mass wasn't possible in places of worship and along these lines was done in some cases in the city. Favored Oscar Romero drove these masses and lectured the individuals. Such huge numbers of individuals accumulated in light of the fact that it was separated of these individuals Sunday schedule to go to mass and when they couldn't go to chapel due to the warriors involved there, they would go where the minister was which happened to be Romero and have mass with him any place. Father Boyles lectured the expression of the master to the homies. A significant number of the homies didn't follow God or were not related to any religion and Father Boyle was there to assist them with managing their way in christianity. These models from these men all show that every one of them lectured the expression of the Lord somehow or another. The fifth and last similitude is among Jesus and Blessed Oscar Romero. This likeness is that the two of them kick the bucket for what they had been lecturing and doing in the network. Jesus is executed in light of the fact that a few people don't care for the possibility that He considers himself the Son of God. In Romeros case, what he was doing was bringing a great deal of expectation and soul back to the individuals and he was slaughtered for that. This is the last case of how these two figures were intently comparable.

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The SI base units are the standard units of measurement defined by the International System of Units for the seven base quantities of what is now known as the International System of Quantities: they are notably a basic set from which all other SI units can be derived.

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The SI base units are the standard units of measurement defined by the International System of Units for the seven base quantities of what is now known as the International System of Quantities: they are notably a basic set from which all other SI units can be derived.

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Martin was born in Chicago to Ukrainian Jewish Immigrants.[10][11][12] He graduated from Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) in 1950. After graduating he served as a submarine officer during the Korean War.[1] In 1957, he earned his master's degree from IIT in electrical engineering and in 2004 received an honorary doctorate degree from IIT. He serves on the university's board of trustees.

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The Catholic Church teaches that the fullness of the "means of salvation" exists only in the Catholic Church, but the church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of ecclesial communities separated from itself to "impel towards Catholic unity" and thus bring people to salvation in the Catholic Church

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The speaker in the video is Senator Murray Sinclair speaking on Reconciliation. His views are that First Nations are looked at and treated the way they are because of educational systems,. He mentioned that 7 generations of First Nation children were put into residential schools and taught that they are barbaric and uncivilized, but so were the non First Nations taught that in their schools, giving the world only 1 view of them. If the education was different and had different perspectives First Nations beautiful culture can be admired and focused on preserving, but the government at the time didn’t leave any room for that. Mr. Surray’s political, economic, and social views belong to the belief of equality and justice for Aboriginal peoples. A crucial event that may have constructed his perspective is the residential schools his people were thrown into.The message Mr. Surray is trying to get through is that is important for the Aboriginals and non-Aboriginals to live in peace and harmony together. Mr. Surray believes that the relationship between Aboriginal people and the people in this country will not be quick and easy to achieve, but following the right path, while slowly redeeming their culture, it is possible. We need to look at what we can do today to contribute for the generations of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginals in the future. With everything that the First Nations have been through; (losing their culture and beliefs in residential schools), it is important that we strive to make our relations strong with them and that we accept them for who they are as people along with their culture, beliefs, values, and ideas.The concept of residential schools is used by Mr. Surray to make us more aware of our fellow First Nation brothers and sisters. It is important that we understand the mistreatment and harsh assimilation the Aboriginal children faced in residential schools, and use this to strengthen our relationship with Aboriginal people. Mr. Surray accepts how badly his people were treated, but still has hope that this won’t stop the relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples to strengthen.  The approach of assimilation is used multiple times by Mr. Surray in relation to residential schools to remind us non-Aboriginals today of what has happened to our fellow Aboriginal people in the past.

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The speaker in the video is Senator Murray Sinclair speaking on Reconciliation. His views are that First Nations are looked at and treated the way they are because of educational systems,. He mentioned that 7 generations of First Nation children were put into residential schools and taught that they are barbaric and uncivilized, but so were the non First Nations taught that in their schools, giving the world only 1 view of them. If the education was different and had different perspectives First Nations beautiful culture can be admired and focused on preserving, but the government at the time didn’t leave any room for that. Mr. Surray’s political, economic, and social views belong to the belief of equality and justice for Aboriginal peoples. A crucial event that may have constructed his perspective is the residential schools his people were thrown into.The message Mr. Surray is trying to get through is that is important for the Aboriginals and non-Aboriginals to live in peace and harmony together. Mr. Surray believes that the relationship between Aboriginal people and the people in this country will not be quick and easy to achieve, but following the right path, while slowly redeeming their culture, it is possible. We need to look at what we can do today to contribute for the generations of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginals in the future. With everything that the First Nations have been through; (losing their culture and beliefs in residential schools), it is important that we strive to make our relations strong with them and that we accept them for who they are as people along with their culture, beliefs, values, and ideas.The concept of residential schools is used by Mr. Surray to make us more aware of our fellow First Nation brothers and sisters. It is important that we understand the mistreatment and harsh assimilation the Aboriginal children faced in residential schools, and use this to strengthen our relationship with Aboriginal people. Mr. Surray accepts how badly his people were treated, but still has hope that this won’t stop the relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples to strengthen.  The approach of assimilation is used multiple times by Mr. Surray in relation to residential schools to remind us non-Aboriginals today of what has happened to our fellow Aboriginal people in the past.

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Period 1 (1300-1648) 
Italian Renaissance 
Context:

Geographically and economically: Italy was at the center of the Mediterranean Sea, making it also central for trade...Because of this, many Italian city-states, particularly Florence, was affluent enough to support the Renaissance that began Italy

Socially: Western Europe was recovering from the Black Death, which killed about 40% of the population. Italy often had wealthy elites, often the family blending of aristocrats and wealthy merchants. The family was patriarchal, and marriages were often arranged. Step-parents were the norm and there were often blended families. 

Politically: Italy was a collection of small and large city-states, with no real centralized authority. Religiously, life was centered around life in the Catholic Church, which had withstood the Great Schism in the 14th Century.

Intellectually: Cities would attract trade, and along with this ideas and culture would follow. Artists could imitate classical ideas, allowing for the “rebirth” that some historians would argue defines the period.

Wealth and Power:

The Renaissance was a period of commercial, financial, political, and cultural achievement in two phases, from 1050 to 1300 and from 1300 to about 1600

The northern Italian cities led the commercial revival, especially Venice, Genoa, and Milan

Venice had a huge merchant marine: improvements in shipbuilding enhanced trade. These cities became the crossroads between northern Europe and the East

The first artistic and literary flowerings of the Renaissance appeared in Florence. Florentine mercantile families dominated European banking (Medici, first Cosimo and then Lorenzo the Magnificent). The wool industry was the major factor in the city’s financial expansion and population increase.

Northern Italian cities were communes - associations of free men seeking independence from the local lords. 

The nobles, attracted by the opportunities in the cities, often settled there and married members of the mercantile class, forming an urban nobility.

The popolo, or common people, were disenfranchised, heavily-taxed, and excluded from holding political office. The occasional popolo-led republican governments failed, which led to the rule of despots (signori) or oligarchies.

In the 15th century, courts of the rulers were centers of wealth and art and afforded signori and oligarchs the opportunity to display and assert their wealth and power
City-States:

Venice: though it was a republic in name, an oligarchy of merchant-aristocrats ran the city and elected a Doge (Duke) from among themselves

Milan: It was also called a republic but was in fact ruled by the Sforza family

Florence: Though a republic in name, it was ruled by the Medici family

Papal States: It was ruled by the Pope 

Kingdom of Naples: controlled by the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon

The major Italian powers controlled the smaller city-states, such as Siena, Mantua, Ferrara, Urbino, and Modena, and competed furiously among themselves for territory. Led by the Montefeltro family, Urbino quickly became a center of culture and art. The political and economic competition among the city-states prevented centralization of power.

After 1549, a divided Italy became a European battleground. The most famous were the Habsburg-Valois wars between the German house of Habsburg and the French house of Valois. Italy will not achieve political unification until 1870.

Intellectual Change:

The Renaissance was a time when there was a conviction that educated Italians were living in a new era, but that era rested on a deep interest in ancient Greek and Latin literature

Petrarch, the father of humanism, first advocated diving into the classical past and believed he was witnessing a new era where the glory of ancient Rome would be recaptured. The study of the classics would be known as humanism.

A new era, one that would recapture the glory of ancient Greece and Rome was advocated by individuals known as humanists. This was the primary intellectual component of the Renaissance and they advocated that human nature and achievements were worthy of contemplation, downplaying the importance of the church and an afterlife.

Under the patronage of the Medici family, humanists began to explore the ideas in ancient Greek philosophy, reading works from Plato and other philosophers (like Aristotle). Man’s divinely bestowed nature meant that there were no limits to human potential, so religion remained important, but was often viewed as a springboard to greater individual accomplishments.

Humanists believed in the quality of virtu, ability to shape the world to one’s will, and there were different strands of humanism that would eventually be reflected in the art and philosophy of the Renaissance

Secularism is a focus on the present and a turning away from concern about the afterlife. The idea persisted that humans could gain rewards in the present and art would take on an increasing emphasis on human beings apart from God and the afterlife

Individualism dealt with a similar concept, that individuals in the present were important and worthy of study, but also went beyond this to embrace the idea that human concerns were worthy of attention and consideration

Niccolo Machiavelli, one of the most famous figures of the Renaissance, wrote The Prince, a book dedicated to the Medici Family. It served as a model for political behavior. The Prince is often considered the first modern work of political science. “The ends justify the means.” It was cynical.

Baldassare Castiglione wrote The Book of the Courtier, a secular model for individual behavior and a manual for how a “Renaissance Man” should behave. He believed that a man needed to be read in the classics, and how to conduct himself in public, but that subjects such as math and science were reserved for men.

Pico della Mirandola wrote his Oration on the Dignity of Man, which was a classic statement on human potential and a revival of Plato’s philosophy (hermeticism, mysticism).

Art:

Ideals:

During the early Renaissance, works were often commissioned by large urban groups to showcase their power and influence in the community. The commission for the dome on the cathedral of Florence was given to Filippo Brunelleschi by the Florentine cloth merchants.

In the late 15th century, wealthy individuals and rulers began to sponsor art, still seeking to show their status. Merchants and bankers, popes and princes spent vast sums of money on art.

During the Middle Ages, artists were considered craftsmen and much of the art was anonymous. However, in the Renaissance, artists were regarded as creative geniuses and were sought after for commissions based on their reputations.

New techniques and mediums in art emerged during the Renaissance. Oil paints were used and naturalism shown as painters and sculptors emphasized anatomy and movement of the human body. A rediscovery of optics and geometry allowed painters to achieve linear perspective and realistic, three-dimensional works.

Artists:

Leonardo da Vinci: He is regarded as the foremost “Renaissance Man” - someone who is a multi-talented individual. He was known as a painter and a sculptor and was interested in engineering, science, and human anatomy.
He produced hundreds of drawings as a tool for scientific investigation, planning hundreds of inventions that would not be invented for centuries, such as the helicopter, tank, and machine gun.
His most famous portrait, The Mona Lisa, shows a woman with a mysterious smile, the subject for which continues to be debated. Another of his famous paintings, The Last Supper, is a work he considered unfinished.

Michaelangelo: He was also both a painter and a sculptor, and left Florence to travel to Romen in about 1500. Wealthy cardinals and popes wanted art to show the power of the church and Michelangelo was commissioned to paint the ceiling and altar wall for the Sistine Chapel.
The alter wall, with its depiction of The Last Judgement, is done in the style of mannerism, where artists use exaggerated musculature, distorted figures, and heightened color to express depth of emotion and drama.
His sculpture of David shows classical Greek inspiration and showcases the glory of man and the human form.

Raphael: He was the youngest of the great masters, and was also from Florence, but was frequently commissioned to do work in Rome, where the center of new art had shifted in the early 16th century.
Raphael painted hundreds of portraits and devotional images and became highly sought-after for his work. He was commissioned by Pope Julius II to paint The School of Athens, which honors both ancient Greek philosophers and his contemporary artists.
Raphael also painted numerous images of Madonna, the Mother of Jesus.

Northern (Christian) Renaissance
Art:

Art produced in northern Europe was usually more religious than art produced in Italy

Flemish painters such as Jan van Eyck were considered the artistic equals of Italian Renaissance painters. He was one of the earliest artists to use oil paints and his portraits show realism and attention to detail and the human personality.

Northern Renaissance painters also depicted scenes of everyday life which included villages, peasants, agriculture, and customs and traditions that surrounded small communities. Pieter Bruegel the Elder created many scenes of peasant and village life.

Intellectual:

In the late 15th century, students from northern Europe studied in Italy and brought the “new learning” back to their own countries.

These Christian humanists thought that the best elements of classical and Christian cultures should be combined.

Classical ideals of calmness, stoical patience, and broad-mindedness should be joined in human conduct with the Christian virtues of love, faith, and hope.

Thomas More (1478-1535) of England argued that reform of social institutions could reduce or eliminate corruption and war. More’s Utopia (1518) describes a community on an island somewhere beyond Europe where all children receive a good education and adults divide their day by work and intellectual activities. He is famous for being beheaded by Henry VIII due to disagreeing with his Act of Supremacy, and contrary beliefs.

The Dutchman Erasmus (1466-1536) was an expert in the Bible and Greek language who believed that all Christians should read the bible. His long list of publications includes The Education of a Christian Prince (1504) and The Praise of Folly (1509), of which comically and satirically criticized the church.

Printing

Around 1455 in the German city of Mainz, Johan Gutenberg (a metal-smith) and two other men invented the movable type printing press - similar to woodblock printing techniques that originated in China and Korea centuries earlier.

Methods of paper production had reached Europe in the 12th century from China through the Near East.

Printing made government and Church information and propaganda much more practical, and created an invisible “public” of readers, and increased literacy among lay people.

It’s estimated that within 50 years of the publication of Gutenberg’s Bible in 1456, somewhere between 8 million and 20 million books were printed. This number is far greater than the number of books produced in ALL of Western history up to that point.

Printers created professional reference books for lawyers, doctors, and students, and historical romances, biographies, and how-to-manuals for the general public.

Social Hierarchies during the Renaissance

Renaissance Italy was built on the divisions that existed in the Middle Ages that divided nobles and common people, but also these new concepts that would divide race, class, and gender.

Beginning in the 15th century, slavery had been a part of Europe, as Portuguese sailors had brought African slaves to markets in Italy and Spain.

A hierarchy based on wealth was emerging in the 14th and 15th centuries, particularly in the cities where a wealthy merchant class often had more money than tilted nobilities. Nobles remained prominent and many merchants would purchase titles of nobility or marry their children into noble families. 

Toward the end of the 14th century, intellectuals began the querelle des femmes, the debate about women. Though women faced barriers to intellectual pursuits, there were several respected female humanists. Women were generally confined to the domestic sphere and the type of education men could receive was off-limits to them.

New Monarchies
France:

Some scholars have viewed Renaissance kingship as a new form, citing the dependence of the monarch on urban wealth and the ideology of the “strong king.”

France emerged from the Hundred Years War (1337-1453) and the Black Death drastically depopulated, commercially ruined,and agriculturally weak.

Charles VII (r. 1422-1461) created the first permanent royal army, and allowed increased influence in his bureaucracy to lawyers and bankers who established by new taxes on salt (gabelle) and land (taille)

He also asserted his right to appoint bishops in the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges and through later agreements with the papacy south of the Concordat of Bologna

Charles’ son Louis XI (r. 1461-1483) aka the “Spider King,” fostered industry from artisans, taxed it, and used the funds to expand his army. He brought much new territory under direct Crown rule.

Spain:

Although Spain remained a confederation of kingdoms until 1700, the wedding of Isabella of Castille and Ferdinand of Aragon did lead to some centralization.

Similar to France, Ferdinand and Isabella curbed aristocratic power by excluding high nobles from the royal council and recruited lesser nobles onto their royal council, which had full executive, judicial, and legislative powers under the monarchy.

From the Spanish Borgia pope, Alexander VI, they secured the right to appoint bishops in Spain and in the Spanish empire in America, enabling them to establish the equivalent of a national church.

With the revenues from ecclestasical estates, they were able to expand their territories to include the remaining land held by Arabs in southern Spain.

Conversos (those who are newly converted to Christianity - aka New Christians) were often well educated and held prominent positions in government, the church, medicine, law, and business. New christians and Jews in 15th Century Spain exercised influence disproportionate to their numbers - their success bred resentment.

Popular anti-Semitism increased in 14th century Spain. In 1478, Ferdinand and Isabella invited the Inquisition into Spain to search out and punish Jewish converts to Christianity whom they believed secretly continued their previous religious practices.

To persecute converts, Inquisitors and others formulated a racial theory - that conversos and Jews were suspect not because of their beliefs, but because of who they were racially… having “pure Christian blood” became a requirement for noble status.

In 1492, shortly after the conquest of Granada, Isabella and Ferdinand issued an edict expelling all practicing Jews from Spain.

England:

Following the Hundred Years’ War, England entered the War of the Roses, a conflict between two factions, the House of York and the House of Lancaster. The Yorkists had the symbol of the white rose while the Lancastrians had a red rose.

Edward IV defeated the Lancasters and began to reconstruct the monarchy. Together with his brother Richard III and Henry VII, who was a Tudor, worked to crush and control the power of the nobility and used ruthless methods to consolidate power.

Henry VII did call several meetings of Parliament early in his reign, but most nobility were not trusted, and Henry used a council of small landowners as advisors. This council conducted foreign policy and secured the marriage of Henry VII’s eldest son, Arthur, to Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella.

This council had a judicial branch known as the Star Chamber, a royal system of courts outside of Parliament’s control. This court was counter to common-law, but reduced dissent.

Holy Roman Empire:

Its leader was Maximilian I. He was good with marriages, which later united Spain and the Holy Roman Empire by having the exact same leader : Charles (I of Spain, V of Holy Roman Empire).

Technology and Voyages of Discovery
How it happened:

Europeans were not isolated before the voyages of exploration, but because they didn’t produce many goods desired by Eastern traders, Europeans played only a small role in the Indian Ocean trading world.

European expansion had multiple causes. The first was that a revival after the Black Death created demand for luxuries, especially spices, from the East. Another was that religious fervor was another important catalyst for expansion. A third was an eagerness to earn profit certainly stimulated the voyages of discovery. The Renaissance curiosity also served to push for the voyages of discovery among the Europeans. And lastly, voyages were made possible by the growth of government power and advances in technology.

Technological developments in shipbuilding, weaponry, and navigation also paved the way for European expansion.

The galley ship was replaced by the caravel. Great strides in cartography - around 1410 Arab scholars reintroduced Europeans to Ptolemy’s Geography. Other inventions such as the magnetic compass, the astrolabe, gunpowder, the sternpost rudder, and the lateen sail all helped to a more maneuverable ship and allow for better navigation. The caravel could also be fitted with a cannon and because of its maneuverability could dominate larger vessels.

Voyages:

Columbus is a controversial figure in history - glorified by some as a courageous explorer, vilified by others as a cruel exploiter of Native Americans.

Columbus was a deeply religious man who believed he had a responsibility to spread Christianity.

He landed in the Bahamas, which he christened San Salvador in 1492. He thought he had found some small islands off the east coast of Japan.

On Columbus' second voyage he forcibly subjugated the island of Hispaniola and enslaved its indigenous peoples.

The Florentine navigator Amerigo Vespucci realized what Columbus had not. Writing on his discoveries off the coast of Venezuela, he called the areas a “New World,” describing the area which was later named for him - America.

Rivals on the World Stage (Age of Exploration)

Portugal: 

In Portugal, Prince Henry “the Navigator” supported early exploration of the African coast by supporting the study of navigation and geography by founding a school for seafarers.

The Portuguese motives for exploration included military glory, the conversion of Muslims, and a quest to obtain gold, slaves, and an overseas route to the spice markets of India.

In 1487, Bartholomew Diaz rounded the southern tip of Africa, but was forced back due to weather and a potential mutiny.

In 1498, Vasco da Gama made it around the Cape of Good Hope and reached India.

At a later date, Afonso Alburquerque made it to India, and potentially even Malaysia, cutting off the right hands of men and the ears and noses of women that were of Arab descent.

Spain:

Spain established colonies across the Americas, Caribbean, and the Pacific, making it a dominant state in Europe in the 16th Century.

After the voyages of Columbus, to settle competing claims in the Atlantic between Portugal and Spain, Pope Alexander VI negotiated the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. This gave everything west of an imaginary line to Spain and everything east to Portugal.

Hernando Cortez helped establish the Spanish presence in North America by conquering the Aztecs by using horses, cannons, and diplomacy. He used a system of encomienda to force the slaves to do work for him.

Ferdinand Magellan, though Portuguese, sailed under the flag of Spain and successfully circumnavigated the earth by going through the Straits of Magellan, now named for them.

Francisco Pizarro claimed South America by conquering the Incas in 1521 after smallpox had devastated the Inca population. He used a system of mita (basically the encomienda of Peru) to force the slaves to do work for him.

Others:

After the dominance of the Spanish and Portuguese in the 16th century, the Atlantic nations of France, England, and the Netherlands would later compete by establishing their own colonies and trading networks.

France established trading factories in Canada, with Samuel de Champlain founding the first permanent French settlement in Quebec in 1608.

England founded a colony in Roanoke in 1585, followed by Jamestown in 1607, and settlements in New England in 1620 and 1630.

The Dutch East India Company, established in 1602, challenged Portugal’s empire in the Indian Ocean. In 1621, the Dutch West India Company sought open trade with North and South America, challenging the Spanish.

Effects of Age of Exploration
Columbian Exchange:

The travel between the Old and New Worlds led to an exchange of plants, animals, and diseases known as the Columbian Exchange.

This exchange in some cases facilitated European subjugation and the destruction of indigenous peoples, particularly in the Americas. Smallpox, measles, and influenza ravaged native populations.

Europeans brought familiar crops with them and the exchange of foods was a great benefit to both cultures. Europeans returned with crops that would become central elements of European diets, such as the potato and maize. Europeans also brought with them domestic livestock, which allowed for faster travel and facilitated the transport of heavier loads.

From Europe to America: Wheat, cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, smallpox

From America to Europe: tomatoes, potatoes, squash, corn, tobacco, turkeys

The Slave Trade:

Europeans expanded the slave trade in response to a plantation economy in the Americas. Charles V authorized traders to bring enslaved Africans to the Americas in 1518.

The voyage to the Americas was known as the Middle Passage, and before 1700, about 20% of the slaves died due to dysentery from lack of sanitation and contaminated food and water. Slave traders packed hundreds of people onto ships in order to increase profits.

After Spain, the Portuguese, Dutch, and English all began the transport of slaves to the Americas. Most of these initially were to work in the sugar plantations, but by 1875, it is estimated that over 12 million enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas to work in the production of sugar, cotton, rum, tobacco, wheat, and corn.

Commercializing of Agriculture

Open-Field System: the fields were open, and the land was divided into several strips with no hedges or fences. To prevent soil exhaustion, some of the fields were left fallow (either on a two or three year rotation) and crops were rotated

Traditional Village Rights: open meadows were used for hay and animal pasture, poor women would glean grain, and the woodlands were held in common (for firewood, berries, and building materials)

Social Conditions: the state and landlords levied heavy taxes and high rents. The peasants were worse off in eastern Europe where some had to work many days on the lord’s land with no pay and somewhat better off in western Europe where serfs could own land and pass it on to their children.

Eliminating the Fallow: This meant alternating grain with nitrogen-restoring crops (peas, beans, turnips, potatoes, clovers, and grasses), which in turn meant better feed for animals, more fodder, hay, and root crops for the winter months, larger herds of cattle and sheep, more meat and better diets, more manure for fertilizer, and more grain for bread.

The Enclosure Movement: - The agricultural innovators (experimental scientists, some governmental officials, and a few big landowners) fenced the individual shares of the common pastureland in order to farm more effectively, at the expense of poor peasants who relied on common fields for farming and pasture

Old and New - Poor, rural people opposed enclosure since their survival was at stake. In some countries, they found allies in the nobility, since they were wary of the financial costs of purchasing and enclosing land. However, the new and old systems stood side by side as late as the nineteenth century in some parts of western Europe.

The Dutch were forced to take the lead in draining marshes since the Low Countries were one of the most densely populated regions in Europe and had a growing urban population.

Agricultural innovation in England - Dutch experts helped drain the extensive fens (marshes) in rainy England. Jethro Tull (1674-1741) was an important English innovator who developed better farming methods (horses, drilling equipment) through empirical research. By 1870, English farmers were producing 300 percent more food than they had produced in 1700.

Market-Driven Estate Agriculture: A tiny minority of English and Scottish landowners held most of the land in England, relying on an even smaller number of landless laborers for their workforce. In no other European country did proletarianization (transformation of large numbers of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners) go so far

Protestant Reformations
Luther:
Context:

In the early 16th century, the Catholic church was the center of life and most people were deeply pious. People of all social classes spent a great deal of their time and money participating in religious activities.

Criticisms of the church at this time included absenteeism and pluralism but those criticisms had not led to any dramatic change.

Martin Luther was an Augustrian monk who, through his study of the New Testament, came to believe that salvation was obtained by faith alone. He believed that the Scriptures reveal God to people, not the traditions of the Catholic church.

During this time, Pope Leo X authorized a special indulgence to finance the building of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. In the German states, these sales were run by a Dominican friar named Johann Tetzel who promised the purchase of this indulgence would bring full forgiveness for one’s sins or the sins of a loved one from purgatory, saying “When a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.

What he Did:

This was deeply troubling to Luther, who wrote his Ninety-five Theses in response, nailing it to the door of the church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. They were quickly printed in both Latin and German and widely disseminated.

Luther continued to write urging reforms in the church. His works were condemned by Romen and he was threatened with excommunication. In 1521, the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, called a diet, or assembly of nobility and clergy in the city of Worms and called Luther to appear. Luther refused to recant.

After the Diet of Worms, religious division in the German states continued. In 1530, Charles V called an imperial diet in Augsburg to stop the spread of Protestantism. This was unsuccessful, and eventually Charles V agreed to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. This recognized Protestantism and allowed the German princes to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism.

The Spread of Protestant Ideas:

Scandinavia: The first area outside of Germany to officially accept the Reformation was the kingdom of Denmark-Norway under King Christian III (r. 1536-1559). While the process of conversion went smoothly in Denmark, it was resisted in Norway and Iceland, though it was gradually imposed. In Sweden, Gustavus Vasa (r. 1523-1560) helped bring Protestantism to the region.

England: Henry VIII and the English Reformation: The Catholic church was vigorous in early 16th century England and there was less of a gap between clergy and educated lay people than elsewhere in Europe. 

In 1534, in order to legitimize his divorce, and subsequent marriage to Anne Boleyn, English King Henry VIII convinced Parliament to approve the Act of Supremacy, making him head of the English Church. Later, Henry seized monasteries and distributed their lands to the upper classes. In 1536, popular opposition in the north due to the religious changes led to the Pilgrimage of Grace, a massive rebellion.

Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603), daughter of Henry VIII, steered a middle course between Catholicism and the “Puritans,” who wanted a “pure” church free of Catholic influences.

Spain: Philip II of Spain learned of a plot by Mary, Queen of Scots, cousin and heir of Elizabeth of England, to assassinate Elizabeth and assume the English throne. She would reestablish Catholicism, and Philip gave the plot his full backing. One reason that Spain was enticed to act was because of Francis Drake, a pirate from England that preyed on Spanish ships overseas.

Philip II used a compromised plan - the Spanish Armada. It would be soundly defeated by the English and the war between England and Spain would drag on for years, but Protestantism remained in England.

Calvinism: It was the most important new form of Protestantism. Proceeding from the idea of God’s absolute sovereignty and his omnipotence, John Calvin, concluded that human beings could do nothing to save themselves. God decided at the beginning of time who would be saved and who would not (predestination, elect/reprobate). 

Calvin and the city government of Geneva attempted to regulate people’s conduct in order to create a godly city on earth. Card playing, dancing, and other forms of recreational activity were banned.

Church in Scotland: James Knox, a minister who studied in Geneva with Calvin, was instrumental in getting the Scottish Parliament to set up a Calvinist church as the official state church of Scotland (Presbyterianism).

Wars of Religion
France (1588):

Religious Riots and Civil War in France: 1559-1598 marked years of violence and civil war in France. 

There were three weak sons of Henry II, but Charles IX succeeded at the age of 10, and his mother is Catherine de Medici, his regent.

The French nobility took advantage, and sought religious reform through Calvinism. Religious reform was especially important to the lower class - riots and acts of violence surrounded the reformers and those trying to keep Catholicism as the authority. St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre was a savage Catholic attack on Calvinists in Paris on August 24, 1572.

The War of the Three Henrys - a civil war sparked by the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre was between Super Catholic Henry of Guise, Protestant Henry of Navarre (Bourbon), and Catholic King Henry III (Intelligent but incompetent, Catherine de Medici was the regent).

The Politiques was a small group who believed that only a strong monarchy could save France from collapse. The death of Catherine de Medici and the assassinations of Henry of Guise and King Henry III paved the way for the accession of Henry of Navarre, a politique, who became Henry IV (he quickly became Catholic). 

30 Years War (1618-1648):

In the first half of the 17th century, the fragile balance of life was violently upturned by the Thirty Years War. The uneasy truce between Catholics and Protestants created by the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 deteriorated as the faiths of various areas shifted.

The Bohemian phase (1618-1629) was characterized by civil war in Bohemia between the Catholic League, led by Ferdinand, and the Protestant Union, headed by Prince Frederick of the Palatinate.

The Danish phase (1625-1629) was led by King Christian IV of Denmark. He was the leader of the Protestant cause, though thoroughly beaten by the Catholic imperial army led by Albert of Wallenstein.

The Swedish Phase (1630-1635) was led by Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus, a devout Luthern. He arrived in Germany and scored several victories before becoming fatally wounded in the battle of Lutzen - the Swedish victories ended Habsburg ambition of uniting all the German states under imperial authority.

French (International) phase (1635-1648) was that French foreign policy had always opposed Habsburg rule because the Independent principalities enhanced France’s international stature - Cardinal Richeleiu declared war on Spain.

The Treaty of Westphalia: It stipulates the Peace of Augsburg. German princes retain independent authority - in effect destroying the Holy Roman Empire. Independence of the United Provinces of the Netherlands is recognized.
Catholic Reformation

The Catholic Church responded to the Protestant Reformation through a drive for internal reform and an external movement aimed at opposing Protestants.

The Council of Trent (called by Pope Paul III) met from 1545-1563, laying a solid basis for spiritual renewal and reform. It reaffirmed doctrine and dealt with matters of discipline regarding absenteeism, pluralism, and simony.

New Religious orders were founded, the most significant of which was the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola. The Jesuits spread the Roman Catholic faith to places like Brazil and India, and also brought much of southern Germany back to Catholicism. The Ursuline order of nuns was also established with the goal of teaching young girls, essentially training future wives and mothers.

The Index of Prohibited Books was a list of forbidden reading including not only Protestant works, but works by humanists such as Erasmus. The Inquisition dealt with dissent swiftly within areas controlled by the Catholic Church.

Period 2 (1648-1815)

Context for State Building

In the context of war and economic depression, 17th century monarchs began to make new demands on their people

France, Spain, central Europe, and Russia attempted to centralize authority through absolutist government

England and the Dutch Republic utilized Constitutional governments to move their societies forward

Both Absolutist and Constitutional governments faced similar obstacles in achieving their goals

Both Absolutist and Constitutional  governments achieved new levels of central control in four areas: greater taxation, growth in armed forces, larger and more efficient bureaucracies, and compelling obedience from subjects

17th Century England

In 1603, Elizabeth I died childless, an immensely popular monarch with no heir. Her throne went to the Stuart family of Scotland, and James I stepped into the role of monarch believing in the divine right of kings, arguing that the power and authority to rule came directly from God.

English Civil War:
Context:

Religion would play a role in the English Civil war, as many Calvinist Puritans were seeking to further the English Reformation by removing elements that remained in the Anglican Church that were still Catholic - such as the hierarchy of bishops. James summed up his policy in the phrase “no bishop, no king” - by which he meant that the enforcement of the bishops’ authority in religion was essential to the maintenance of royal power.

Both James I and his son, Charles I, had bitter disputes with Parliament. Parliament had held the power to tax and Charles avoided hearing grievances against him by simply refusing to call Parliament from 1629-1640. During this time, he levied ship money during peacetime and extended it to the inland counties of England without parliamentary approval. When Scottish Calvinists revolted, he was forced to call Parliament to obtain funds.

The Long Parliament sat from 1640-1660 and enacted legislation to limit the power of the monarch. It passed the Triennial Act, requiring that the monarch call Parliament at least once every three years.

English Civil War/Protectorate:

After a failed attempt to arrest Parliamentary leaders, Charles I left to raise an army. In response, Parliament (Roundheads) formed its own army, called the New Model Army. This army was under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell who was a devout Puritan. The English Civil War (Cavaliers vs Roundheads) ensued and in 1647, the New Model Army captured the king, kicked out members of Parliament that did not support Cromwell, and put the king on trial.

In 1649, the king was tried and found guilty of high treason by the “Rump parliament,” and on January 30, 1649, Charles I was beheaded. After this, monarchy was abolished, and a republican government was established called the Protectorate. This government was essentially a military dictatorship ruled by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector

Reflecting Puritan ideas, Cromwell banned sports, closed theaters, and censored the press. He extended religious toleration to all groups except Catholics and even welcomed the immigration of Jews. Cromwell died in 1658 and by 1660, the English were ready to restore the monarchy.

Glorious Revolution:

The Restoration of the monarch brought back the son of Charles I, Charles II, who had been living in the Netherlands. Both houses of Parliament and the Anglican church were also restored. The Test Act was passed, ensuring that only Anglicans would hold public office and stripping Puritans and Catholics of many rights.

When Parliament refused to give an adequate allowance to him, Charles II formed a secret alliance with the Catholic French King Louis XIV, promising to gradually re-Catholicize England and convert himself.

When Charles II died, his brother James II became king, and he was Catholic.

People became fearful when it was learned that James II would soon have a son, who would inevitably become Catholic. Before this point, because he had no heir, people weren’t actually concerned.

Parliament offered the throne to the Protestant daughter of James II, Mary, and her husband, WIlliam of Orange. James II and his wife and son fled to France, and WIlliam and Mary were crowned as monarchs in December of 1688. This Glorious Revolution was a change in monarchy without bloodshed.

In 1689, the English Bill of Rights ensured the supremacy of Parliament. Laws would be made in Parliament only, which had to be called at least once every three years. Also, an independent judiciary was established, having a standing army was prohibited in peacetime, and only a Protestant could inherit the throne.

Dutch Republic and Golden Age (1575-1675)

Constitutionalism is the limitation of government by law. A nation’s constitution can be written or unwritten. Constitutional government can take a monarchical or republican form.

The Dutch system of government rested on assemblies of wealthy merchants (oligarchy) in each of the seven provinces called “Estates.” A federal assembly, or States General, ran foreign policy, but was responsible to the provincial estates. The States General appointed a representative or stadholder in each province. The cohesion and power of the Dutch Republic ultimately rested on its immense commercial power and prosperity.

The Netherlands was the only realm in early modern Europe with almost complete religious toleration. While there is scattered evidence of anti-Semitism, Jews were accepted and assimilated in Dutch business and general culture. In 1650, the Dutch owned half of the ships in Europe and controlled much of European trade. In the 17th century, the Dutch probably had the highest standard of living in the world.

Baroque Art and Music

Rome and the revitalized Catholic Church of the late 16th century inspired early Baroque art. This art was emotional and was intended to kindle the faith of ordinary people and to form a bond between churchgoer and the new, reformed Catholic Church.

Because of this, baroque style art flourished in Catholic countries. Monarchies, city-states, and the church commissioned these works as a means of promoting their own power. Similarly, the interior of Baroque churches were decorated in lavish decorations and frescoes.

Peter Paul Rubens was one of the most outstanding baroque painters, creating paintings with animated figures and melodramatic contrasts. Gian Bernini created dramatic sculptures under the patronage of the extravagantly wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Borghese. Bernini rapidly rose to prominence as a sculptor and among his early works for the cardinal were decorative pieces for the garden of the Villa Borghese.

In music, the baroque style peaked later, and Johann Sebastian Bach wrote concertos and cantatas meant to capture that same, awe-inspiring emotion that baroque art did. He was valued as an organist, but not fully appreciated during his own lifetime.

Absolutism

The 17th Century is a struggle between absolutism and constitutionalism. In Eastern Europe, absolutism wins the struggle. There, Prussia, Russia, and Austria emerge as absolutist powers that remain powerful until 1918 (the end of WWI). They are created from the Ottoman Empire, Holy Roman Empire, and Poland.

The East (1650): powerful nobility, weak middle class, oppressed peasants/serfs

The West (1650): Limits on power of nobility, strong middle class, peasants generally free
France:
Important information:

Cardinal Richeleiu, the minister of the crown on behalf of Louis XIII, had enacted policies to strengthen and centralize royal control in France. He acted to suppress Protestantism and extended the use of intendants, officials appointed by the monarch. These intendants administered local laws and reported only to the king.

Louis XIV became king at age 4, with his mother Anne acting as regent along with Cardinal Mazarin as chief minister. Mazarin continued Richelieu’s centralizing policies, and his desire to increase royal revenues led to the series of rebellions known as the Fronde.

In 1661, Mazarin died, and Louis assumed the position. Absolutism reached its peak under Louis XIV. Louis believed in the divine right of kings and acquired the title, the Sun King, showing his central role in the divine order. 

Louis never called the Estates General during his reign and in 1685, he revoked the Edict of Nantes (Edict of Fontainebleau). He demanded that Huguenots renounce their faith and called for the destruction of Huguenot churches and closing Huguenot schools. Because of this, over 200,000 Huguenots, many of them skilled artisans fled France.

Versailles:

In 1682, Louis moved his court to the newly renovated Palace of Versailles. The King used the palace to curtail the power of nobility, requiring them to reside at Versailles to compete for his favor.

Louis established an elaborate set of court rituals surrounding all his daily routines, including waking in the morning, dressing, and retiring for bed. These rituals were required for no	bles to have access to him.

Versailles became the center of European politics and French culture grew in international prestige. French replaced Latin as the language of scholarship and learning, as it became the language of diplomacy.

Colbert and Mercantilism:

France’s economy flourished, in large part due to its Minister of Finance: Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who was a financial genius and believed that the economy should serve the state.

Colbert applied mercantilist policies in France. Mercantilism is an economic policy that seeks to have a favorable balance of trade - that a country must export more than it imports to accumulate wealth.

Colbert enacted policies to ensure that France had this favorable balance of trade. During his tenure, France’s industrial output and the French economy grew steadily.

He insisted that France produce items for domestic consumption to limit purchases abroad. He supported industries for exports and created new ones, particularly in textiles. He established manufacturing codes to ensure quality and encouraged the emigration of skilled craftsmen to France. He abolished domestic tariffs and raised tariffs on foreign goods to make French goods affordable and foreign ones expensive.

Spain (Decline):

Spanish absolutism preceded that of the French. In the 1500s, the kingdom of Castille developed the characteristics of an absolute monarchy.

Between 1610 and 1650, Spanish trade with the colonies in the New World fell 60% due to competition, specifically from Dutch and English traders.

Gold and silver from the Americas were the basis for Spanish power. Ultimately, the mines started to run dry. The Crown repeatedly devalued the coinage and declared bankruptcy resulting in the collapse of national credit. The lack of a middle class (due in part to the expulsion of Moors and Jews, Reconquista and Inquisition), agricultural crisis, population decline, and failure to invest in productive enterprises meant that by 1715, Spain was a second-rate power.

Spain extended itself in wars it could not afford in the 1600s, and the monarchy spent far more than it could afford. Conflicts with the French (Franco-Spanish Wars) cost Spain many colonial possessions and peace was finally reached with the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659.

Austria:

The Austrian Habsburgs absolutism develops (Prussia’s absolutism is stronger and more effective). Leaders monopolize powers in three areas: permanent taxes levied without consent, permanent standing armies, and they conduct relations with foreign powers as they please.

There is consolidation of Habsburg control over three regions (areas still retain some local control: There’s the Kingdom of Bohemia, which was crushed during the Thirty Years War. The Habsburg stamp out Protestantism, take nobles’ land, and serfdom worsens. There’s Upper and Lower Austria (hereditary provinces). And there’s the Kingdom of Hungary (less integrated); battle against Ottoman Turks for control (Siege of Vienna 1683). Nobles are still rebellious.

Charles VI implements the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which keeps the Austrian Habsburg land united.

Prussia:

Brandenburg-Prussia (which would later be just Prussia) rose to power in the 17th century despite its small population because of its powerful leadership in the Hohenzollern family, its efficient use of limited resources, and its intense military tradition. The military was closely tied with its power and prestige.

Frederick WIlliam, who came to be known as The Great Elector, took power in 1640, and was determined to unify his territory. To gain support of the Junkers, or nobility, he granted them high positions in the army and power over their serfs. Because of this, they agreed to a tax to fund the military.

King Frederick William I truly consolidated absolutism in Prussia. He was known as “the Soldiers’ King” as he always wore an army uniform. He ruled with incredible efficiency and austerity, often using state funds to fund the military rather than his own household estate.

Under his austere economic policies, economic development flourished, and the army grew into one of the best in Europe. He also introduced merit advancement in government service, allowing the middle class to be promoted, but continued to allow the nobles to be in positions of command.

Russia:

The Romanov Dynasty Begins: In 1613, the nobles elected Ivan’s 16-year-old grandnephew, Michael Romanov, as the new hereditary Tsar. His election proved to be a restoration of a Tsarist autocracy.

Peter the Great (1682-1725):

Due to his territorial expansion, Peter would only know one year of peace in his 36 years of rule (80-85% of the state revenue went to this)

After early defeats against Sweden in the Great Northern War, Peter reformed the military gaining victories at Poltava (Ukraine) and a conclusive victory in 1721, gaining Estonia and Latvia.

A consequence of all of Peter’s war-making was the influx of Western ideas into Russia. A new class of educated Russians began to emerge. This was also, in part, due to Peter’s trips to the West, where he had the inspiration to mimic.

Peter created the construction of a city on the Baltic Sea to rival the great cities of Europe, this known as St. Petersburg.

Many reforms were detested by the nobles, as peasants saw significant increases in their bonds of serfdom (flaw).

Peter’s reforms created a more modern army and a state that was introduced to Western civilization. This would pave the way to move Russia closer to the European mainstream during the Enlightenment and the reign of Catherine the Great.

Scientific Revolution
Context:

Scientific thought in the early 1500s was based on ancient and medieval ideas. The term science as we use it today came into use beginning in the 19th century.

One of the most important disciplines was natural philosophy, which focused on fundamental questions about the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned.

European notions about the universe were based on Aristotelian principles. Medieval theologians such as Thomas Aquinas brought Aristotelian philosophy into harmony with Christian, a chief feature of this view being the belief in a motionless, static earth at the center of the universe.

The development of universities accorded philosophy a place alongside law, medicine, and theology, and philosophers acquired a limited independence from theologians and a sense of free inquiry. Medieval universities drew on rich traditions of Islamic learning. Additionally, the Renaissance also stimulated scientific progress.

The Copernican Hypothesis:

Nicolas Copernicus was a Polish cleric who theorized that the stars and planets, including the earth, revolved around a fixed sun. We call this the heliocentric theory of the Copernican hypothesis, the idea that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe.

He published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres in 1543, the year of his death. The implications of his theory were widespread. By contradicting Ptolemy and Aristotle, he contradicted not only that the earth was in the center of the universe, but also that heaven and earth were separate and that there were no crystal spheres moving the stars around the earth.

Religious leaders were divided in their responses to Copernicus, but most Catholics paid little attention, as the Catholic Church had not held to literal interpretations of the Bible. His work was declared as false in 1616.

Confirming the Copernican hypothesis was Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. The King of Denmark provided funds for Brahe to build a sophisticated observatory, where he compiled an enormous amount of data. He believed that all the planets except the earth revolved around the sun, but it would be his assistant that made more sense out of all the data and would abandon Ptolemy’s view of the world.

Johannes Kepler developed three revolutionary laws of planetary motion. He came up with the idea of planets moving in elliptical orbits and realized that they were moving at different speeds around the sun. He also realized that the farther away from the sun a planet was, the longer it took to make the journey around its orbit.

Galileo Galilei challenged Aristotle’s ideas about motion on earth. He devised a mathematical formula to explain the law of accelerating bodies: 32 ft/sec/sec. He also improved a telescope and used it to look at the heavens and wrote The Starry Messenger, with depictions of the moon as imperfect with craters. This contradicted the idea of perfect, heavenly bodies. After publishing an endorsement of the heliocentric theory, he was tried by the Inquisition and placed on house arrest.

Newtonian Synthesis:

Isaac Newton was born into the lower English gentry in 1642 and enrolled in Cambridge in 1661.

Newton united the experimental and theoretical mathematical sides of science. He arrived at some of his most basic ideas about physics between 1664 and 1666, during a break from studies at Cambridge caused by an outbreak of the plague. During this period, he discovered his law of universal gravitation as well as the concepts of centripetal force and acceleration.

After spending some time studying optics, in 1664, Newton returned to physics and three years later, published Principia Mathematica. It integrated the astronomy of Copernicus, as corrected by Kepler’s laws, with the physics of Galileo and his predecessors. Newton put forward three laws of motion and mechanics - the complexity of this thinking would take scientists and engineers 200 years to work out the implications.

The key feature of Newton’s synthesis was the law of universal gravitation - every body in the universe attracts every other body in a precise mathematical relationship.

The Scientific Method:

Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes both articulated versions of the scientific method. Bacon argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical research and he formalized the general theory of inductive reasoning (empiricism). He began with systematic observations and experimentation and made generalizations from this knowledge. He believed that science should be useful and make people’s lives longer and more comfortable. In 1800, followers of Bacon created the Royal Society to discuss the findings of scholars all over Europe.

Rene Descartes was a brilliant mathematician who argued for a deductive approach to knowledge, one that moved from general principles to more particular cases through steps of reason in his Discourse on Method in 1637. He is also known for his idea of dualism, the idea that nature is made up of both a tangible substance that takes up space (matter), and an intangible substance (mind). His coordinate system (cartesian plane: x and y graph) was useful for architecture and engineering. “I think, therefore I am” (He must exist because he can think). 

Medicine, the body, and chemistry:

For centuries, (Greek) Galen's explanation of the body carried the same authority as Aristotle’s account of the universe. According to Galen, the body contained four “humors” and illness was believed to result from an imbalance of humors, which is why doctors frequently prescribed bloodletting to expel “excess blood.”

Paracelsus was an early proponent of the experimental method in medicine - pioneering the use of chemicals and drugs rather than relying on “bloodletting.”

Andreas Vesalius dissected human bodies and published On the Structure of the Human Body (anatomy).

William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood through the veins and arteries in 1628 and was the first to explain that the heart worked like a pump and he was the first to explain the function of its muscles and valves.

Robert Boyle helped found the modern science of chemistry and discovered Boyle’s Law (1662), which states that the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume.

The Enlightenment:
Context:

The Scientific Revolution contributed to a series of debates in the 18th century known as the Enlightenment, where intellectuals began to apply many of the principles of the Scientific Revolution to society and human institutions.

In the 17th century, the groundwork for the Enlightenment was laid by individuals such as John Locke and Thomas Hobbes, who both had philosophies based on natural law and ideas regarding a social contract.

Thomas Hobbes was negative about the nature of man and believed that humans would compete violently for power and wealth if left to themselves. In his work, Levithan, he outlined a social contract in which all members of a society were ruled by an absolute monarch who would maintain peace. He had a cynical view of the world due to his life during the English Civil War (violence).

John Locke disagreed with Hobbes’ negative view of man, believing instead that man is basically rational, and that man’s natural rights of life, liberty, equality, and property come prior to the development of society. His Second Treatise on Government explains the social contract he believes in: one where the government should provide order and arbitrate disputes but can be removed if it becomes abusive to those natural rights. Locke also wrote an Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1690, where he argued that humans learn from experience and are a tabula rasa, or blank state, rather than being born with innate ideas. His view of the world was positive, due to his life during the Glorious Revolution (peaceful).

France:

The philosophes were a group of intellectuals in France who claimed to be bringing the light of reason to their fellow human beings. France, particularly Paris, was the center of the Enlightenment, and the philosophes wanted to reach a larger audience of elites.

Montesquieu wrote his most important work, The Spirit of Laws, in 1748. Here, he expressed his favor for governments like Britain, which had a separation of powers and had checks and balances on the major political interests.

Voltaire was perhaps the most famous philosophe and his sarcastic wit and commitment to intellectual freedom created both admiration and resentment. He was a fierce proponent for religious toleration, shown in his famous cry “crush the infamous thing!” He also popularized deism, saying that God was once here to create the universe, but now watches over without doing anything.

Denis Diderot was the one of the editors of the Encyclopedia, a 17 volume work that quite ambitiously tried to arrange the sum of human knowledge alphabetically. He also popularized the idea of materialism (more secular).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau gained significant renown later in the Enlightenment. He also glorified the idea of the noble savage, exemplified by American Indians, who used instinct and emotion rather than reason. He wrote the Social Contract, where he described and argued that the General Will needed to be realized through the pursuit of the common good.

Elsewhere:

Outside of France, there were many strains of Enlightenment - Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish - of which sought to reconcile reason with faith

Davide Hume, John Locke, and Adam Smith led the Scottish Enlightenment. David Hume emphasized civic morality and religious skepticism, while Adam Smith wrote Wealth of Nations where he argued against laws and regulations that prevented commerce from reaching its full capacity.

The American Enlightenment was heavily influenced by John Locke and Montesquieu. John Locke’s thinking about the social contract and Montesquieu’s arguments for checks and balances in government heavily influenced Americans such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson.

After 1760 Enlightenment ideas were debated in German-speaking states, often with Christian theology. Immanuel Kant was a professor in East Prussia who published the pamphlet What is Enlightenment? He answered “dare to know.” He also constructed incorrected ideas about race which had long-lasting consequences (anti-Semitism and WW2).

Role of Women:

Salons disseminated Enlightenment culture, and the women who ran them attracted speakers to stimulate conversation on a wide variety of topics, such as philosophy and politics.

Madame de Geoffrin ran one of the most famous of these salons and hosted intellectuals and acted as a patroness

Despite the principles of equality espoused by the Enlightenment, Rousseau offered controversial arguments for the exclusion of women from political life. He argued that men and women were radically different by nature and should play roles in life limited to the domestic sphere.

In response to this, Mary Wollstonecraft rejected Rousseau’s view, writing Thoughts on the Education of Daughters. Later, during the French Revolution, she wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women, arguing that only physical strength separated the sexes and it was the inequity in educational opportunities that was the real difference in the sexes.

Enlightened Absolutism

Many philosophes believed that the “enlightened” reform would come by way of “enlightened” monarchs. The philosophes believed that a benevolent absolutism offered the best chance for improving society, as they distrusted the masses, and felt that change had to come from above.

Frederick the Great of Prussia: He used the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) to expand Prussia into a great power by seizing Silesia. The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763, French-Indian War) saw an attempt by Maria Theresa (Austria) with the help of France and Russia, to regain Silesia, but it failed. Frederick allowed religious freedom and promoted education, legal reform, and economic growth, but never tried to change Prussia’s social structure.

Catherine the Great of Russia: She imported Western culture, supported the philosophes, and began a program of domestic reform. The Pugachev uprising in 1773 led her to reverse the trend toward reform of serfdom. She also engaged in a policy of territorial expansion and, with Prussia and Austria, carved up Poland (Partitions of Poland).

Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780) was a monarch that was more concerned with traditional power politics than Enlightenment ideals, but she did introduce reforms to make her state stronger and more efficient. She strengthened the state’s central bureaucracy and began taxing the nobles who had previously been exempt from taxation. It would be her son that would take her reforms further and show concrete Enlightenment policies in his rule.

Joseph II (r. 1780-1790) was one of the Enlightened despots that best brought Enlightenment principles to life during his reign. He was concerned with the plight of the lower classes, so he abolished serfdom and decreed that peasants could pay their landlords in cash rather than labor. Through his Edict on Toleration, he granted religious toleration to minorities in 1781.

He granted liberty of the press and introduced equality before the law. Lastly, education was made compulsory for all boys and girls and higher education was made slightly more accessible. Scholarships for poor students were made and schools for Jews were allowed.

Growth of Rural Industry:
Context (Population Explosion):

Prior to 1700, the population growth was slow and irregular, with periods of growth frequently followed by decline. By the 18th century, population growth was steady, though uneven, and between 1700 and 1835, the population of Europe doubled in size.

Overall, this was caused by a decline in mortality. The waves of bubonic plague had ceased after the 1720s when the plague that had recurred disappeared from Europe. Public health improved through improvements in water, supply, and sewage.

Famine became rarer and nutrition improved due to a wider variety of food. The Agricultural and Commercial Revolutions had increased the food supply and brought new foods rich in nutrients to Europe, such as the potato.

Infrastructure such as canal and road building meant that local crop failures and famines could be helped with emergency supplies to avoid starvation. And while medical knowledge and improvements did little to increase the population, the inoculation against smallpox was slowly being implemented

How it Happened:

The increase in the number of landless rural workers led to the development of industry in rural areas. Cottage industry: A stage of industrial development in which rural workers used hand tools in their homes to manufacture goods on a large scale for sale in a market.

The eighteenth-century system of rural industry in which a merchant loaned, or put-out raw materials to cottage workers meant that the cottage workers processed them and returned the finished products to the merchant

Division of production was that production could be broken into stages, as one group of workers would spin the raw wool into thread, another would bleach it, another would dye it, and another would weave it into cloth. This happened as industries grew in scale and complexity.

The advantages were an abundance of underemployed laborers (landless and poor peasants) allowed industries to develop rapidly. Production was unregulated in the countryside and did not need to meet guild standards. As a result, by 1700, English industry was more rural than urban.

18th Century Economy
Economic Liberalism:

Adam Smith (1723-1790) was a professor of philosophy and a leading figure of the Scottish Enlightenment. He wrote Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) in which he criticized guilds and their restrictions while championing free competition which he believed would benefit all citizens.

Economic Liberalism - Smith sought to place limits on governments; the government should only: provide defense against foreign invasion, maintain civil order with courts and police protection, and should sponsor certain indispensable public works and institutions that could never adequately profit private investors.

This developed into economic liberalism, a belief in free trade and competition that would benefit all individuals, rich and poor. Such views led to economic deregulation and attempts to end economic monopolies.

The Atlantic Economy:
Britain Comes to Power:

The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network and the growth of trade encouraged both economic development and military conflict in the Atlantic basin, as European powers vied for Atlantic influence throughout the 18th century.

Britain’s commercial leadership had its origins in mercantilism and the Navigation Acts. These laws gave British merchants and shipowners a monopoly on trade with the British colonies.

The Navigation Acts (restrictions on colonial trade) were a form of economic warfare, particularly against the Dutch, and by the late 17th century, after 3 Anglo-Dutch wars, the Dutch Republic was falling behind England in shipping, trade, and colonies.

This left France as England’s most serious rival, and from 1701-1763, the two countries fought a series of wars seeking to become the leading maritime power and claim the profits of overseas expansion.

Conflicts between the French and the British included the Seven Years’ War and French support for the Americans in the American Revolution.

Triangle Trade:

Commercial exchange in the Atlantic is often referred to as “triangle trade,” explaining a three-way transport of goods. European commodities such as guns and textiles are sent to Africa. Enslaved Africans are sent to the colonies in the New World. Raw materials and goods from the colonies such as cotton, sugar, and tobacco sent back to Europe.

Many of these products required processing and contributed to new manufacturing jobs in England and in the 18th century, stimulated by trade, London became the wealthiest city in the West.

Besides the triangle model, there was also a thriving intercolonial trade, with Caribbean slave colonies importing foodstuffs like rice from the south and fish and livestock from the north.

French Revolution
Social Context:

The Old Regime of France had Three Estates, and in 1789, the population was around 25 million

First Estate: The Clergy (.05%); They own 10% of the land, they collect an annual tithe from parishioners and have heavy influence in society, and they are exempt from taxes, though they provide a “donation” to the crown every 5 years.

Second Estate: The Nobility (1.5%); They are the Nobility of the Sword, and Nobility of the Robe (newer, often wealthier), they own 20-25% of the land, they are exempt from taxes, and they dominate positions in government (block attempts at tax reform).

Third Estate: Everyone Else (24.5 million, 98%)

Bourgeoisie: 4%, they own 20% of the land, and the hold some positions in government

Working Class/Wage Earners: 8%, the prices since 1730 have risen over 65%, and the wages over the same time have ony risen 22%

Peasants and Farmers: 86%, they own 40% of the land, and they are resentful of “seigniorial privileges”

Economic Context:

The economic situation in France had reached a critical state by 1765, where debt from wars, particularly French aid in the American Revolution, had bankrupted France.

To make matters worse, poor grain harvests had led to very high prices for bread, causing outrage and riots in the street, and as the demand for goods collapsed, hundreds of thousands of artisans and traders were out of work.

Because of the depressed economy, Louis XVI’s finance minister brought forward a proposal to impose taxes on all property. He called an assembly of mostly aristocracy and high-ranking clergy, who declared that approval for such tax changes would need to be made by the Estate General, the legislative body representing all three estates that had not met since 1614.

The Third Estate wanted both more deputies and to vote by head rather than by estate, as the privileged first and second estates could outvote them. Deadlocked over the issue of voting procedures, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly on June 17, 1789.

Revolution 1789-1791:

Three days later, the National Assembly found themselves locked out of their meeting place and gathered at a nearby tennis court, pledge that they will keep meeting and not disband until they have written a constitution for France. This event is known as the Tennis Court Oath.

The king’s response to this proved disastrous, as he began assembling troops signaling the possibility of trying to disperse the National Assembly by force. As knowledge of this spread, on July 14, 1789, hundreds of people stormed the Bastille prison to obtain weapons.

The king is forced to recognize the National Assembly, but rumors spread in the countryside and peasants began to revolt against their lords, burning feudal documents and ransacking manors. This chaos, called the Great Fear ended with the National Assembly abolishing feudal privileges of the nobility and doing away with the tithe to the church.

On August 27,1789, the National Assembly issued the Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen, calling for Enlightenment principles such as equality before the law, individual freedoms, judicial rights, and a representative government.

October 5, 1789: about 7000 women march to Versailles and break into the queen’s chamber, killing several of the guards and bringing the royal family by force back to Paris

The next day, the National Assembly followed the King to Paris and by June of 1790, the King swore to uphold a constitution and become a constitutional monarchy, with all lawmaking power residing in the National Assembly, which consisted of French male property owners.

At this point, the King and Queen attempted to flee France and were caught in the city of Varennes, arrested, and returned to Paris.

Having already brought the Catholic Church under control of the state, in July 1790, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy required priests to swear an oath to the revolution (ended papal authority over the French church).

In September of 1791, the National Assembly passed the Constitution of 1791, and while it broadened rights for women such as legalizing divorce and allowing them to inherit property, it excluded them from political life. In response to this, Olympe de Gouges publishes her Declaration of the Rights of Women, in September of 1791

War and Republican France 1791-1799:

Prussia and Austria issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, promising to restore order and the monarch in France, and in April 1792, France declared war on Austria, which the King supports believing France will lose.

In July, with the war going badly for France, Austria and Prussia issued the Brunswick Manifesto, threatening to destroy Paris if any harm came to the monarchs. This backfired and in August, a crowd attacked the palace. A new, more radical National Convention was declared. By September, the National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a Republic, dating from 1792 as year I.

On January 21, 1793, the king was placed on trial for treason and was found guilty by the Convention. He is executed and France enters the Reign of Terror.

In April of 1793, the Convention formed the Committee of Public Safety, a 12-person executive body led by Maximilian Robespierre and Georges Danton, both Jacobins, who held dictatorial powers.

He (Robespierre) collaborated with the sans-culottes (working-class people) and enforced compliance, putting more than 40,000 French men and women on trial for political crimes, who were executed or died in prison. Terror was a weapon against all suspected of opposing the revolutionary government.

In July of 1794 (also the 9th of Thermidor), Robespierre himself was guillotined and many of his supporters, educated and middle-class members of the Third Estate, reasserted their authority during this time called the Thermidorian Reaction.

The National Convention wrote a new constitution and granted executive power to a five-man body called the Directory which ruled France for four years. After years of corrupt and ineffective rule, Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup d’etat and replaced a weak dictatorship with a strong one in 1799.

Napoleonic Era
Political:

Napoleon Bonaparte appealed to many like the abbe’ Sieyes, who looked for a strong military leader to end the country’s upheaval. Sieyes’ new motto was Confidence from below, authority from above.

Napoleon was named First Consul of the Republic in 1799 after ousting the Directors and disbanding the legislature at bayonet point. He maintained order and worked out important compromises.

His Civil Code of 1804 granted the middle class equality under the law and safeguarded their right to own property. He confirmed the gains of the peasants. He centralized the government, strengthened the bureaucracy, and granted amnesty (forgiveness) to nobles. He signed the Concordat of 1801, which guaranteed freedom of worship for Catholics.

Napoleon brought order and stability to France but betrayed the ideals of the Revolution by violating the rights of free speech and press and free elections.

Women had no political rights; they lost many gains they had made, and the Napoleonic Code re-established the power of the male in the family.

Wars (+ a little political):

Napoleon’s wars and foreign policy - he defeated Austria (1801) and made peace with Britain (1802), the two remaining members of the Second Coalition.

Another war (against the Third Coalition - Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Britain) resulted in British naval dominance at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).

Napoleon used the fear of a conspiracy of a Bourbon return to power in order to proclaim himself Emperor in 1804.

The Third Coalition collapsed at Austerlitz (1805), and Napoleon reorganized the German states into the Confederation of the Rhine.

In 1806, Napoleon defeated the Prussians at Jena and Auerstadt. In the Treaty of Tilsit (1807), half of Prussia’s population was now under French rule, while Russia accepted Napoleon’s reorganization of western and central Europe.

Napoleon’s Grand Empire in Europe meant French control of continental Europe by 1807, Napoleon introduced many French laws, abolishing feudal dues and serfdom in the process while levying heavy taxes.

The End of Napoleon:

The beginning of the end for Napoleon came with the Spanish revolt (1808) and the British blockade.

The French invasion of Russia in 1812 was a disaster for Napoleon.

Napoleon was defeated by the Fourth Coalition (Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain), and abdicated his throne in 1814. The Bourbon dynasty was restored (by the Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe) to be Louis XVIII.

Napoleon escaped from Elba and reignited his wars of expansion, but he was defeated at Waterloo in 1815.

Napoleon’s final exile was on the island of Saint Helena off the coast of West Africa.
The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)


After the defeat of Napoleon, representatives from Russia, Prussia, Great Britain, and Austria (Quadruple Alliance), along with a representative of the Bourbon monarchy from September 1814 to June of 1815 met to restore the balance of power and contain the danger of revolutionary or nationalistic upheavals in the future.

It was guided by four main principles as they redrew the map and returned France to the boundaries it had in 1792:

Legitimacy: Monarchy was restored to nations that had experienced revolutions, such as the Bourbons in France. The power in many countries reverted to the monarch, the church, and the aristocracy

Balance of Power: The allies wanted to restore an international equilibrium that would discourage aggression by a combination of states or by a single state. They created a series of buffer states to surround France should there be another revolution. The Kingdom of the Netherlands combined from the Austrian Netherlands and the Dutch Republic. Piedmont-Sardinia was strengthened on France’s southern border, and Prussia was granted territory on the Rhine

Compensation: The victors agreed that each of them should receive compensation in the form of territory for their victory over the French. An example of this is in Austria, which lost the Netherlands, but gained the provinces of Venetia and Lombardy.

Collective Security: The great powers agreed to meet periodically to ensure peace and stability and this Concert of Europe would provide a degree of security through the first half of the 19th century

Holy Alliance: An alliance between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, to enforce conservatism

Continuity and Change (1648-1815)

Social:

During: Enclosure Acts in England, serfdom worsens in Eastern Europe, serfdom abolished in France, women’s roles relatively unchanged, number of children born out of wed-lock increases

Change or continuity?: Continuity

Political:

During: Absolutism on the rise, Constitutionalism in England and Netherlands, Enlightened monarchs attempt reforms, France is briefly a Republic but gives way to an Emperor, Haiti throws off colonial rule becoming independent

Change or Continuity?: No big shift, so slightly more continuity

Religion:

During: Peace of Westphalia allows religious pluralism, James II attempts to restore Catholicism in England and fails, Napoleon’s Concordat with the Catholic Church reestablishes authority, Jews experience tolerance in Netherlands

Change or Continuity?: Continuity

Intellectual:

During: Enlightenment, Social Contract theory, Montesquieu’s Spirit of Laws, Smith’s Wealth of Nations, Wollstonecraft’s Vindication of the Rights of Women, music from Mozart and Beethoven, Diderot’s Encyclopedia

Change or Continuity?: Change

Technology:

During: Jethro Tull’s innovations, scientific method (experiments), Hargreave’s spinning jenny, Jenner’s smallpox vaccine, construction of baroque palaces and cities, Watt’s steam engine developments

Change or Continuity?: Change

Economics:

During: Dutch and British East India Companies, new methods of bookkeeping, height of mercantilism, commercial agriculture, birth of free-market capitalism, inequitable taxation

Change or Continuity?: Change

Period 3 (1815-1914)

Concert of Europe (1815):

In the 19th Century, conservatives developed an ideology in support of traditional political and religious authorities. They feared power in the hands of common people and believed that power should be in the hands of the upper classes.

Klemens von Metternich blamed liberal middle-class revolutionaries for instigating the lower classes and believed that authoritarian, aristocratic government was necessary to protect society from elements of human nature. He was very alarmed by both the French Revolution and Napoleon's rise to power

Conservatives re established control in many European states after Napoleon and attempted to suppress movements for change and, in some areas, to strengthen adherence to religious authorities

They did this through the Concert of Europe, also called the Congress System, which sought to maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservativism

While the Congress of Vienna reestablished conservative control generally, it did not resolve all differences, and leaders tried to combat liberalism and nationalism in their own states

Metternich: “When France sneezes, all of Europe catches its cold”

Romanticism (1790-1840)

Rejected order and structure (Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution)

Intellectual Aspect:

Followers of the new Romantic Movement which reached its height from about 1790 to the 1840’s, revolted against the emphasis on rationality, order and restraint that characterized the Enlightenment and the controlled style of classicism

Romantics championed emotional exuberance, unrestrained imagination, and spontaneity in both art and personal life; in their works, they explored the power of emotions such as love, desire, and despair

Romantics valued intuition and nostalgia over the scientific method and progress sought the inspiration of religious ecstasy instead of secularization, and turned inward and went into the supernatural instead of engaging in public life and civic affairs

The Romantics were enchanted by nature and most saw modern industry as an ugly, brutal attack on their beloved nature and venerable traditions

Romantic sought escape and believed that history held the key to a universe they perceived to be organic and dynamic, not mechanical and static as the Enlightenment thinkers had believed

Historians influenced by romanticism, such as Jules Michelet, who wrote books on the history of France, promoted the growth of national aspirations and encouraged the French people to search the past for their special national destiny

Romanticism was also a lifestyle, and many early-nineteenth century romantics lived lives of emotional intensity that included obsessive love affairs, duels, madness, illnesses, and suicide

Great individualists, the romantics believed that the full development of one’s unique potential was the supreme purpose of life (repudiation of Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution, correlation with Renaissance)

Art:

THough he died at the age of just 32, Theodore Gericault (1791-1824) had a huge impact on the history of French painting, and France went on to dominate the world of western art in the 19th century. Gericault’s preference for contemporary subjects: his attraction to the dark side of human psychology; his radical style and his compassion for the weaker sections of society: all set the path for Romanticism’s emphasis on emotion and subjectivity

Notable romantic English painters included Joseph M W Turner (1775-1851), who often depicted nature’s power and terror, and John Constable (1776-1837), who painted humans living peacefully amid rural landscapes

Literature and Music:

Romantic poetry had its foundation in the German “Storm and Stress” movement at the end of the 18th century, but the first romantic poets were English. William Blake, William Wordsworth, and Sir Walter Scott were all published by 1800. Lord Byron (poster boy for Romantic literature) was a British Romantic poet and satirist whose poetry and personally captured the imagination of Europe

Romantic novels often showcased fantastic characters and exotic settings. Victor Hugo’s The Hunchback of Notre Dame and Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein are both examples of this

In central and eastern europe, Romantics studied and transcribed folk tales and proverbs. The most well-known examples of this are the Grimm Brothers’ fairy tales.

In music, musicians and composers abandoned well-defined musical structure to evoke powerful emotions. The range and intensity gave musicians a public profile and prestige. Ludwig von Beethoven helped establish the Romantic movement in music with his nine symphonies.

Industrial Revolution (1780-1850)

Britain:

Context:

Origins of the British Industrial Revolution - the industrial changes that occurred between 1780-1850 grew out of a long process of development

The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment fostered a new worldview that embraced progress and the role of research and experimentation in understanding and mastering the natural world

Britain’s vibrant scientific and Enlightenment culture, which included the British Royal Society of Arts and its sponsorship of prizes for innovation in machinery, allowed British industrialists to exploit the latest findings of scientists and technicians from other countries

By the 18th century, the expanding Atlantic economy and trade with india and China served Britain remarkably well

The mercantilist colonial empire Britain aggressively built, buttressed by a strong position in Latin America and the Africa slave trade, provided raw materials such as cotton and a growing market for British manufactured goods

English farmers were continually adopting new methods of farming, and increasing productivity meant a period of bountiful crops and low food prices (people now have money to spend)

Industry:

European society like others continued to rely mainly on wood for energy, and human beings and animals continued to perform most work, so the world remained poor in energy and power sources

Because it was an island country, it was running out of wood. Britain looked towards coal as an alternative. A breakthrough occurred when industrialists began to use coal to produce mechanical energy and to power machinery

Thomas Severy in 1698 and Thomas Newcomen in 1705 invented the first primitive steam engines to pump water out of coal mines

After a series of observations, James Watt added a separate condenser to the Newcomen engine that greatly increased the efficiency of the steam engine

The coal-burning steam engine was the Industrial Revolution’s most fundamental advance in Technology

With the production of iron increasing from 17,000 tons in 1740 to 3 million tons in 1844, iron, once expensive, became the cheap and indispensable building block of the economy

Richard Trevithick built the first steam locomotive, and in 1829, George Stephenson’s Rocket sped down the track of the just-completed Liverpool and Manchester Railway.

The railroad dramatically reduced the cost and uncertainty of shipping freight over land, and markets became larger and even nationwide

Larger markets encouraged larger factories with more sophisticated machinery in a growing number of industries, creating a strong demand unskilled labor and contributing to the growth of a class of urban workers

In 1851 London hosted an industrial fair called the Great Exhibition in the newly built Crystal Palace, a gigantic new exhibition hall made entirely of glass and iron that helped draw millions of visitors from all over Europe

In 1860 Britain, the self proclaimed “workshop of the world,” produced a remarkable 20% of the entire world’s output of industrial goods whereas it had produced only about 2 percent of the world total in 1750

Rest of Europe:

Strong, independent governments in Western Europe wanted to mimic Britain’s industrial successes and the power of the state often promoted industrialization. Many countries implemented tariff protection in order to support their own economies and industries

Most continental businesses adopted factory technology slowly. In France, the demand for handmade luxury items actually grew during the 19th century. Lacking reserves of iron ore and coal, it had fewer and smaller industrial cities and less of the social effects suffered by Great Britain

In the German states, the Zollverein, or customs union was led by Prussia and would eliminate tariffs between member states and enact a single tariff to outside nations. By 1834, Prussia’s rich coal and iron deposits allowed it to be the first German state to industrialize. The Ruhr Valley became a center of iron production and by 1850, Prussia was mining over 6 million tons of coal per year to support its railroads and manufacturing

By the mid-19th century, much of Western Europe had industrialized. However, some areas lagged behind. For example, in Spain, life remained relatively unchanged and industry would come slowly in the 20th century. In Russia, continued reliance on serfdom meant its economy remained mostly agricultural. However, it did industrialize later in the century and built railroads such as the Trans-Siberian Railroad between Moscow and the Pacific Ocean. Its coal, iron, and steel industries developed at the beginning of the 20th century.

Second Wave Industrialization (1870):

After 1870, the Industrial Revolution entered a new phase, where new sources of power were developed - mechanized industries expanded, new industries appeared, and industry spread geographically

The Bessemer Process was introduced leading to the manufacture of steel. A similar process had been in place in China since the 11th Century, this new process could be done on a mass scale.

Improvements were made to the steam engine, but electricity was beginning to come into use. Also, the invention of gasoline engine and the diesel engine gave the world automobiles, airplanes, and new methods of shipping in the decades before 1914

The Trans-Atlantic telegraph cable made communication possible between North America and Europe

Oil became a coveted natural resource and new chemical industries emerged. Industrial research laboratories were replacing the individual inventor

Social Effects:

Initial working conditions in factories were deplorable for workers. People worked long hours often up to 18 hours per day and in conditions where there was poor light and ventilation.

Women and children were preferred because children had smaller hands that could reach into machinery and women would work for significantly lower wages than men. Some children developed permanent spine deformation from having to walk stooped over constantly. Explosions or cave-ins were an ever-present fear

Laborers became sick and developed breathing and lung diseases from exposure to toxic substances and were sometimes injured, mutilated, and killed by machinery.

In their homes, conditions for workers were not much better. Cities had become incredibly overcrowded, and the housing and sewage disposal could not keep up with the population growth. Diseases such as cholera and dysentery, along with air and water pollution, drastically reduced life expectancy.

Social problems such as alcoholism, prostitution, crime, and sanitation problems defined life in industrial cities.

Not all groups faced the negative consequences of industrialization. The Industrial Revolution did encourage the growth of a middle class who were able to buy homes and luxury items such as china, furniture, and art.

Reforms and Revolutions (1848)

In the late 1840s, Europe entered a period of tense political and economic crisis that led to revolts and insurrections all across Europe

France: 

1830 French Revolution is Background: 

When there were new elections for Charles X, the elections produced another victory for the French Liberals. Then Charles X (conservative) seized the initiative. 

Charles X did this by issuing a set of Edicts known as the July Ordinances, that had rigid censorship on the press, dissolved the legislative assembly (general will), and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections (reduced importance of elections), there was an immediate rebellion called the July Revolution. Barricades went up in Paris, as a provisional government was led by a group of moderate liberals, who appealed to Louis-Phillipe. This was a win for the bourgeoisie.

For eighteen years Louis Phillippe’s bourgeois monarchy, characterized by stubborn inaction and complacency, had served the selfish interest of the middle class and failed to enact social legislation or electoral reform

The government’s failures, combined with a severe depression and crop failures in 1846-1847, united a diverse group of opponents and eventually touched off a popular revolt in Paris on Feb 22, 1848, where workers and students, armed with guns behind makeshift fortresses, demanded a new government

When Louis Philippe refused to call in the army and then abdicated, the revolutionaries proclaimed a provisional republic, headed by a ten-man executive committee, and immediately began drafting a democratic republican constitution for France’s Second Republic

They gave the right to vote to every adult male, freed all slaves in French colonies abolished the death penalty and guaranteed workplace reforms.

Profound differences within the revolutionary coalition reached a head in 1848 in the face of worsening depression and rising unemployment.

Louis Blanc pressed for recognition of a socialist right to work, urging the creation of permanent government-sponsored cooperative workshops that would be an alternative to capitalist employment and a step toward a new, noncompetitive social order.

Moderate republicans were willing to provide only temporary relief, however, and the resulting compromise set up national workshops, which were soon to become little more than a vast program of pick and shovel public works (not everyone gets picked) that satisfied no one.

As the workshops continued to fill and grow more radical, the fearful but powerful propertied classes in the Assembly dissolved the national workshops in Paris, giving workers the choice of joining the army or going to workshops in the provinces. This resulted in a spontaneous and violent uprising: barricades sprang up again in the narrow streets of Paris, and a terrible class war began

After three terrible “June Days” of street fighting and the death or injury of more than 10,000 people, the republican army under General Louis Cavalgnac stood triumphant in a sea of working-class blood and hatred

In place of a generous democratic republic, the Constituent Assembly issued a constitution featuring a strong executive: Louis Napoleon. Nephew of Bonaparte, he won the election in December 1848, fulfilling the desire of the propertied classes for order at any cost and producing a semi-authoritarian regime.

Austria:

Austria’s government struggled to maintain control of its multi-ethnic empire. Nationalities such as Hungarians, Czechs, Serbs, and Poles sough self-rule

March 13, 1848, upon receiving news of the Paris uprising, crowds of people, mostly students and members of liberal clubs, demonstrated in Vienna for basic freedoms and a liberalization of the regime. These people were inspired by some of the more liberal and social ideas promoted in France, like the establishment of workshops to guarantee more employment

Revolution in the Austrian empire began the same month in Hungary, with nationalistic Hungarians who demanded universal suffrage, full civil liberties, and national autonomy. This was followed by the Czechs who wanted self-rule and Italians who wanted to be a part of the Italian Confederation in Northern Italy

Austria’s Habsburg monarchy, with Russian assistance, put down the revolt in Hungary, subdued the Czechs, and installed a conservative monarchy under Francis Joseph, who ruled until 1916. By removing Metternich, the conservative symbol of Austria is gone.

Prussia: 

Inspired by the revolutionary uprisings in France, demonstrators in Prussia and the German states demanded civil liberties and reformed constitutions.

The King of Prussia, Frederick William IV, responded with force, killing hundreds by the middle of March 1848. However, the king did promise to create a constitutional monarchy.

At the Frankfurt Assembly, delegates from each German state were sent to create a constitution and work towards unification. This process was slow-going and the constitution that the National Assembly had drafted called for a federal union headed by a hereditary emperor with powers limited by a popularly elected legislature.

However, in Berlin, the monarchy regained control by crushing protestors and then refused to accept the constitution that came out of Frankfurt (seed for German unification)

Liberal Reform in Great Britain

18th Century Britain had been very stable, as Britain had avoided revolutionary upheaval, but liberalism shifted from laissez-faire economic policies to responses to the challenges of industrialization

Parliament passed the Reform Act of 1832, which extended suffrage to twice as many males as before but continued to require property ownership for voting. It also gave industrial cities representation for the first time.

The British empire abolished slavery in 1833 and the Factory Act was also passed, banning children under nine from working and limiting the hours of older children. It also mandated that children receive at least two hours of schooling every day.

The Poor Laws were passed in 1834, but these laws punished the poor by making relief in government workhouses more unpleasant than actual employment

The Anti-Corn Law League was founded in 1839. The League argued that it was necessary to repeal the Corn Laws to lower the price of food and create more jobs. The Corn Laws were repealed in 1846 after the Irish Potato Famine and then allowed free import of much less expensive foreign grain.

The Mines Act banned women and children from mines and the Ten Hours Act of 1847 limited the workday for women and young people in factories to ten hours. 

Socialism

Foundation of Socialism:

Early socialist thinkers believed the political revolution in France, industrialization in Britain, and the rise of laissez faire formented a selfish individualism that encouraged inequality and split the community into isolated fragments

With an intense desire to help the poor, socialists preached economic equality and advocated economic planning and the regulation of private property by the government, or its abolition and replacement with state or community ownership

Count Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) optimistically proclaimed that the key to progress was proper social organization in which leading scientists, engineers, and industrialists would carefully plan the economy and guide it forward by undertaking vast public works projects

Charles Fourier (1772-1837) envisaged a socialist utopia of mathematically precise, self-sufficient communities and advocated the total emancipation of women

Robert Owen (British), an early proponent of labor unions, also called for society to be organized into model industrial-agricultural communities

Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Owen, who became known as the “utopian socialists,” all had followers who tried to implement their ideas; their attempts collapsed by the 1850s, although they inspired future reformers and revolutionaries

In What is Property? (1840), Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) argued that property was profit that was stolen from the worker, who was the source of all wealth

Louis Blanc (1811-1882) focused on practical reforms, and in his Organization of Work (1839), he urged workers to agitate for universal voting rights and to take control of the state peacefully

As industrialization spread, the socialist message was embraced by French urban workers, who had become violently opposed to laissez-faire laws that denied workers the right to organize in guilds and unions.

Thus, the aspirations of workers and radical theorists reinforced each other, giving rise to a socialist movement in Paris in the 1830s and 1840s

Birth of Socialism: 

The German intellectual Karl Marx (1818-1883) wove the diffuse strands of socialist thought into a distinctly modern ideology, Marxist socialism - or Marxism.

Marx studied philosophy in Berlin before turning to journalism, and then, forced to flee Prussia in 1843, he traveled Europe to promote socialism, often relying on his friend and colleague, Friedrich Engels, for financial support

After the Revolutions of 1848, Marx settled in London, where he spent the rest of his life as an advocate of the working-class revolution. Das Kapital, his magnum opus, appeared in 1867.

Marx synthesized sociology, economics, philosophy, and history, and he drew on the ideas of utopian socialists, though the criticized them for their fanciful utopian schemes and claimed that his version of scientific socialism was rooted in historic law

Building on the German philosopher, Georg Hegel (1770-1831), Marx came to believe that history had patterns and purpose and moved forward in stages toward an ultimate goal.

Marx argued that class struggle over economic wealth produced change in human history; one class had always exploited the other, and with the advent of modern industry, society was split between the upper class - and the bourgeoisie - the working class - the proletariat

He further argued that the ever-growing, ever-poorer proletariat would develop a revolutionary class-consciousness that would lead them to overthrow the bourgeoisie in a violent revolution.

Marx posited the idea of “surplus value,” the difference between the value of goods and the wages workers received to produce them, which the bourgeoisie pocketed in the form of profits.

To Marx, capitalism was immensely productive but highly exploitative, as the bourgeoisie, in a never-ending search for profit, squeezed workers dry and expanded across the globe.

When Marx and Engels published the Communist Manifesto in 1848, the Communist movement was in its infancy, but by the time of Marx’s death in 1883, Marxism had profoundly reshaped left-wing radicalism.

Public Health Movement

Reforms transformed unhealthy and overcrowded cities by modernizing infrastructure, regulating public health, reforming prisons, and establishing modern police forces. The reforms were enacted by governments motivated by such forces as public opinion, prominent individuals, and charity organizations.

Social reformers addressed the need for public housing by providing increased regulation and raising minimum standards, as well as encouraging municipal and private charitable efforts.

Sewers and treatment plants were built to limit the dumping of raw waste into local rivers, lakes, and seas

A breakthrough in understanding how bad drinking water and filth made people sick after Louis Pasteur developed the germ theory of disease. This brought about dramatic improvements in hospitals and operating rooms, as not only wounds, but equipment and hands and clothing were sterilized.

More effective urban planning improved the quality of life by designing new streets with open spaces and parks

The development of mass public transportation enhanced living conditions, particularly at the end of the 19th century when streetcars began to run on electricity

Comparative Contextualization (Mainly politics of 1848)

France: 

Experienced revolutions in 1848, changed to the 2nd republic, It is a nation, Liberal (2nd republic has universal male suffrage), #2 economic power in Europe (behind Russia because of agriculture)

Germany:

Experienced revolutions in 1848, no change in government, It is not a nation (1871), Liberal (Indirect three class franchise for men over the age of 24 could vote for an elector), #3 economic power in Europe (level of industry has increased), behind Austria-Hungary

Italy:

Experienced revolutions in 1848, no change in government, It is not a nation (1870), Conservative (Only .5 million out of 22 million had the right to vote, #5 economic power in Europe

Nationalism in France (1848-1869)

Louis Napoleon was elected as president in France in December 1848. He was elected both because of his shared name with his uncle and because middle-class and even peasant landowners feared socialism at the time. They wanted a strong ruler to protect private property and provide stability after the Revolution of 1848.

Louis Napoleon represented a vision of national unity and social progress in France, and he believed that France needed a strong authoritarian leader who could stimulate the economy, provide jobs, and serve all people, not just special interest groups

Louis Napoleon had been elected to a four-year term, but he was forced to share power with the National Assembly, which was dominated by conservatives. These conservatives sponsored legislation that limited voting rights and increased the role of the Catholic Church in education.

After the Assembly refused to change the constitution so he could run for a second term, Louis Napoleon conspired with the military and staged a coup d’etat on December 2, 1851. He dismissed the legislature and crushed resistance with the army and then, after restoring universal male suffrage, had a vote to legalize his coup. He was elected with 92 percent of the vote to a term of ten years. In a plebiscite the next year, he was made Emperor of France (Napoleon III)

Emperor Napoleon III ruled France from 1852-1870. During this time, he experienced both successes and failures as a ruler.

His policies led to widespread economic growth in the 1850s, where his government invested in banks and railroad construction. It promoted public works programs, including rebuilding Paris. This improved the economy, with rising wages and declining employment.

Louis Napoleon enjoyed widespread support from urban workers and in the 1860s, he granted workers the right to form unions and to strike. He also released press censorship and pursued free trade with Britain.

Louis Napoleon restricted the National Assembly and encouraged individuals who had opposed the regime to run as government-backed candidates to widen his base of support. However, by 1869, his opposition made up about 45% of the vote, and Louis Napoleon granted France a new constitution.

However, his reforms could not outshine his foreign policy failures, and he was captured by the Prussian army during the Franco-Prussian War.

Crimean War (1853-1856)

Causes: As the Ottoman Empire was becoming weaker, Russia wanted to take it over for their own personal gain. As Britain and France saw this, they (but especially Britain), conspired to provoke Russia into war, and then swoop in and defeat them.

During: The Battle of Sevastopol was a bloody war, and the most famous of the war. Though nobody fought well during this war, Britain ended up winning the war.

Effects: By the end of the war, Austria and Russia, members of the Holy Alliance, now hated each other. This proved that many elements of conservatism had to not be in play during the war, and at the end it created a power vacuum. This is a huge context for the unifications that began a decade later.
Unifications (1861-1871)

Germany:

Domestic:

When Wilhelm I inherited the Prussian throne in 1861, he set out to reestablish Prussia’s power and introduced reforms in the army. He called for expansion of the army through military draft and introduced modernized weapons.

As Germany industrialized the power of the middle-class Liberal Party grew in Prussia and they were resentful of the conservative influence of the army and the Junker class, both who opposed the reforms of the king. This created a deadlock and a constitutional crisis over military spending, and to solve it, Wilhelm I looked to Otto von Bismarck.

Bismarck was made prime minister in 1862 and came into the position with widespread diplomatic experience. He declared that Wilhelm’s government would rule without parliamentary consent.

Addressing the opposition, Bismarck used the expression, “Blood and Iron,” or more accurately, “Eisen and Blut,” to describe how the great moments in history are decided through conflict and warfare. Bismarck’s phrase was meant to assert that wars decide the major events of history, and it was delivered as an appeal to the Prussian Parliament to increase defense spending.

Bismarck went on collecting taxes even though the budget had not been approved and he reorganized the army. He then waged three separate wars to unify Germany.

Foreign:

Bismarck was a master of Realpolitik, taking advantage of opportunities as they presented themselves. In 1864, Denmark incorporated Schleswig and Holstein into the Danish kingdom, provoking a joint war with Prussia and Austria, which was short and successful against Denmark.

Afterwards, the joint occupation of this territory created conflict, as Bismarck wanted Prussia to control this territory. Prussia went to war against Austria in 1866 and the Prussians defeated the Austrians, forcing them out of German affairs.

Prussia annexed the states of north German and created the Northern Germanic Confederation. While the southern Catholic German states were not included here, Bismarck convinced them into an alliance if there was a war against France.

In 1870, Bismarck manipulated a war against France, easily defeating France in the Franco-Prussian war and taking the French provinces of Alsace-Lorraine.

In 1871, the German Empire was declared with William I as its Kaiser, or emperor.

Italy:

Northern:


Sardinia’s brilliant statesman Count Camillo Benso di Cavour had limited and realistic national goals, seeking unity only for the states of northern and perhaps central Italy in an expanded kingdom of Sardinia.

In the 1850s Cavour worked to consolidate Sardinia as a liberal constitutional state capable of leading Northern Italy; he successfully built support for Sardinia through a program of highways and railroads, civil liberties, and opposition to clerical privilege.

Cavour realized that Sardinia could not drive Austria out of Northern italy without a powerful ally, and so in 1858, he established a secret alliance with Napoleon III against Austria.

When Cavour goaded Austria into attacking Sardinia in 1859, Napoleon III came to Sardinia’s defense and Austria was defeated.

Napoleon III then did an about-face, abandoning Cavour and making a compromise peace with the Austrians in July 1859 that required Austria to give up only Lombard to Sardinia.

Cavour resigned in a rage, but his plans for Italian unification were salvaged by the skillful maneuvers of his allies in the moderate nationalist movement.

Cavour returned to power in early 1860, and gained Napoleon III’s support by ceding Savoy to Nice, and achieved his original goal of a northern Italian state when the people of central ITaly voted to join a greatly enlarged kingdom of Sardinia under Victor Emmanuel.

Southern:

Garibaldi, the son of a poor sailor, personified romantic, revolutionary nationalism and republicanism.

In 1860, Garibaldi’s guerrilla band of a thousand Red Shirts landed in Sicily, capturing the imagination of the peasantry, which revolted against their landlords, and outwitting the royal army to win battles, gain volunteers, and take Palermo.

When Garibaldi and his men crossed to the mainland and prepared to attack Rome, the wily Cavour quickly sent Sardinian forces to occupy most of the Papal States (but not Rome) and to intercept Garibaldi

They meet:

Cavour feared Garibaldi’s radicalism and popular appeal so he immediately organized a plebiscite (direct vote to change the Constitution) in the conquered territories that went unopposed by patriotic Garibaldi, and the people of the south voted to join the kingdom of Sardinia.

When Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel rode together through Naples to cheering crowds, they symbolically sealed the union of north and south, of monarch and nation-state

The parliamentary monarchy under Victor Emmanuel II was neither radical nor demoncratic and although it was politically unified, a growing social and cultural gap separated the progressive, industrializing north from the stagnant, agrarian south.

Artistic Movements in the 1800s

Realism (1840s-1870s):
It’s representations of people - particularly the working class - and everyday life naturalistically and objectively.

Realists rejected the long standing tradition of idealizing or glorifying subjects, which they thought ignored the reality of everyday life. Realism began after the French Revolution of 1848, as democratic reform and socialist philosophies emerged.

They did this through observed subjects, not using biblical or mythological themes. They underrepresented social classes. It was rural, city streets, and cafe scenes. There were gritty details - torn clothes, strained backs, and dirty feet. It was often outdoors. There was political commentary, and naturalistic colors. Famous artists include Millet and Courbert, while famous novelists include Tolstoy’s, “War and Peace,” and Flaubert’s, “Madame Bovary.”



Impressionism (1860s-1880s):

Impressionism spontaneously depicted scenes of nature and everyday life with an emphasis on bright color and the play of natural light.

Impressionism was an intentionally radical departure from academic art and the traditional rules of technique, color, and subject matter. French impressionist artists organized their own exhibitions after the Paris Salon, an annual and government-sponsored exhibition, repeatedly refused their work.

There was an emphasis on lighting and atmospheric conditions, short, visible marks and brushstrokes, it was sketch-like, there were few meticulous details, it was painted outdoors, bright colors, and modern like subjects.

The famous Claude Monet was impressionist in his painting, “Impression, sunrise.” And women could now become professional painters, the first being Morisot.

Post-Impressionism (1880s-1900s):

Varied, independent experiments with color, form, and abstraction to express person emotion, often informed by the natural world

Pushing the progressive discoveries of Impressionism even further, these experiments emerged after the final Impressionist group exhibition in 1886. English art critic Roger Fry coined the term in 1910.

It used real or imagined subject matter, optical effects on color, short, visible marks or brushstrokes, patterns with color, bright, unnatural colors, use of symbolism, and textured surfaces. Famous artists include Paul Cezanne and Vincent van Gogh, the painter of “Starry Night.”

Modernism (1900s-1940s):

Writers and artists self-consciously rejected the traditional literary and artistic styles. It includes the era of impressionism and post-impressionism, where there was an evident use of nature and symbolism. In music, famous composers include Grieg (Norwegian nationalism), and Igor Stravinsky (Rite of Spring, musical primitivism).

Darwinism
Origins:

Charles Darwin served as the official naturalist on a five-year scientific cruise to Latin America and the South Pacific starting in 1831, where he collected specimens of animals he encountered. After returning to England, he came to doubt the belief in the divine creation of each species

His theory of evolution and rather that all life had evolved from a common ancestral origin which resulted in a struggle for survival. He published his work, On the Origin of Species by the Means of Natural Selection in 1859.

Darwin was influenced by Malthus, who believed that populations naturally grow more rapidly than the supply of food available to them. Because of this, Darwin believed that chance differences among the individual members of a species would help some survive while others die. The variations that prove useful in the struggle for survival are selected naturally and would gradually be spread to the entire species through reproduction.

Uses:

English Philosopher, Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) applied Darwin’s theory to human affairs, claiming that the human race was driven forward to ever-greater specialization and progress by a brutal economic struggle that determined the “survival of the fittest” 

This incorrect view of the poor as ill-fated and weak and the prosperous as the chosen strong gained adherents among nationalists and among imperialists who used Social Darwinist ideas to justify the rule of the “advanced” West over colonial subjects and territories

The crudest distortions of the incorrect socially constructed theory would be used in the 20th century to manipulate and exploit racial conflict. Racist anti-Semitism became popular with the extreme right in European politics.

The Modern University and Social Sciences (Late 1800s)

By the 1880s, Europe’s major universities had been modernized and professionalized, education emphasized controlled research projects, and faculty devoted to newly instituted human or social science took their place alongside the hard sciences.

Sociology, the official analysis of contemporary or historical social groups, emerged as a leading social science.

German sociologist, Max Weber, (1864-1920) argued in the Protestant Ethnic and the “Spirit” of Capitalism (1890) that the rise of capitalism in northern Europe was directly linked to Protestant values of hard work, saving, and investing - the foundations for capitalist development. This success was a sign of God’s approval. This argument challenged the basic ideas of Marxism….to Weber, these ideas were just as important as economics or class struggle in the rise of capitalism. IDEA OF SOCIALISM v CAPITALISM

French sociologist David Emlie Durkheim (1858-1917) earned an international reputation for the Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912), a study of the psychic and social basis of religion, and Suicide (1897), a pioneering work of quantitative sociology that concluded that growing suicide rates were caused by widespread feelings of “anomie” - the disappearance of norms and values

The German Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936) argued that industrialization had transformed European civilization from a “community” to a “society,” replacing traditional values with rationalized self-interest and leading to intensified alienation

In The Crowd (1895), French sociologist Gustav Le Bon (1841-1931) wrote that the alienated masses were prone to gathering in mass crowds, in which individuals lost control of their emotions and actions that could be easily manipulated by a charismatic leader.

The new sociologists acknowledged some benefits of urban industrial society, such as rationalization and modernization, but they bemoaned the loss of community and tradition.

In some ways, the diagnosis of the modern individual as an “isolated atom” seeking human connection was chillingly prescient: the powerful Communist and Fascist movements after WWI seemed to win popular support by offering people a renewed sense of belonging.

Imperialism (1890-1914)
Context:

Economic motives played an important role in the extension of political empires, especially in the British Empire, which was losing its early economic lead and facing increasing competition in foreign markets

Each leading European power saw colonies as crucial to national security and military power. For example, safeguarding the Suez Canal played an important role in the British occupation of Egypt

Many people were convinced that colonies were essential to great nations, an attitude that reflects both the increasing aggressiveness of European nationalism and Social Darwinian theories of brutal competition among races

Another enormous factor was the industrial world’s unprecedented technological and military superiority, as evidenced by the rapidly firing Maxim machine gun, the use of quinine in controlling malaria, and the steamship and the International telegraph

Conservative political leaders manipulated colonial issues in order to divert popular attention from the class-struggle at home and to create a false sense of unity

Imperialists developed additional arguments in order to satisfy their consciences and answer their critics. A favorite idea was that Europeans could and should civilize more primitive nonwhite peoples.

Criticisms:

Following the unpopular South African War, radical English economist J A Hobson (1858-1940) wrote Imperialism (1902), a forceful attack on the expansion of empire. He contended that the economic needs of unregulated capitalism motivated the rush to acquire colonies. Yet, imperial possessions did not pay off economically for the colonizing country as a whole; only unscrupulous special-interest groups profited, at the expense of both European taxpayers and natives

Future Russian revolutionary leader, Vladamir Lenin concluded that imperialism represented the “highest stage” of advanced monopoly capitalism and predicted that its onset signaled the coming decay and collapse of capitalist society

In the Heart of Darkness (1902), Polish-born novelist Joseph Conrad (1857-1924) castigated the “pure selfishness” of Europeans in supposedly civilizing Africa.

Critics charged Europeans with applying a degrading double standard and failing to live up to their own noble ideals. At home, Europeans had won or were winning representative government, individual liberties, and a certain equality of opportunity. But in their empires, Europeans imposed military dictatorships on Africans and Asians, forced them to work involuntarily, and discriminated against them shamelessly

Imperialism in Africa:

Imperialism in Africa began with the International Congo Association in 1878 by Leopold II of Belgium. He formed a financial syndicate under his personal control and sent Henry M Stanley to the Congo, where he established trading stations and signed unfair treaties with African chiefs.

After Leopold’s intrusion into the Congo, tensions mounted among European nations as industrialized countries wanted to share the valuable natural resources in Africa. To keep the peace during this “Scramble for Africa,” Otto von Bismarck arranged the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885

The conference recognized Leopold’s personal rule over a neutral Congo Free State and agreed to work towards stopping the slave trade in Africa. European powers then pushed into the interior of Africa so that no single power would be able to claim the continent.

Britain: The British already possessed the largest empire in the world and had acquired valuable territory including Egypt and South Africa. The completion of the Suez canal in 1869 had made Egypt vitally important to the British because it shortened the route to india. To protect Egypt, Britain also had advanced into Sudan.

France: France solidified its claims on much of West Africa and acquired large portions of North Africa with vital natural resources such as iron ore and petroleum. By 1882, they were in full control of Algeria and had taken over Tunisia to prevent it falling into Italian hands

Germany: Bismarck had little interest in colonies but pursued an imperial policy to improve Germany’s diplomatic position. Germany had acquired territory in central Africa in 1890, where it established a lucrative mining industry. This location in central Africa also blocked Great Britain’s hopes of creating a railroad from Cape Town to Cairo.

Imperialism in Asia:

The Dutch, who in 1815 ruled little more than the island of Java in the East Indies, gradually brought almost all of the three-thousand-mile Malay Archipelago under their political authority

In the 1880s the French took Indochina and India, Japan, and China also experienced a profound imperialist impact

Russia conquered Muslim areas to the south in the Caucasus and in Central Asia and in the 1890s proceeded to nibble greedily on China’s outlying provinces

The United States’ great conquest was the Philippines, taken from Spain in 1898 through the Spanish-American War.

Context for World War I
Germany:

Geographically: After waging three wars, Otto von Bismarck was successful in unifying Prussia and 25 smaller states into the Powerful German empire

Socially: Under Bismarck, Germany began social welfare programs such as social security, national sickness insurance, old-age pensions, and retirement benefits

Politically: While Prussia and the other states each had a separate legislature, Germany had a strong national government and, until his dismissal in 1890, a strong chancellor in Bismarck. The King of Prussia became the emperor, or Kaiser, of the Empire

Religiously: Germany was a combination of mostly Prussian Protestants and a mix of Protestant and southern Catholic states. Bismarck’s attack on the Catholic Church, Kulturkampf, was ultimately unsuccessful. German Jews (Marx, Einstein, for example) also played an important role and while they made important intellectual contributions, they also provoked anti-Semitism.

Intellectually: Elementary and secondary schools were expanded and open to all classes. Also, new ideas in physics and philosophy will emerge at this time through the work of individuals such as Plank, Einstein, and Nietsche

Technology: After unification, Germany became a modern, industrial state with an increased infrastructure of railroads and a telephone network in Berlin

Economically: The German economy grew with a massive growth in industrialization, including huge increases in steel and iron production, surpassing even Great Britain. High tariffs protected Germany manufacturers

Russia:

Geographically: Russia is the largest country on earth spanning 11 time zones

Socially: at the turn of the century, Russia’s social classes are experiencing changes associated with the move from an agrarian to industrial economy. Serfdom ended in 1861. Women played significant roles in agricultural life

Politically: The Romanov family has ruled Russia for over 300 years. The Russian empire is multi-ethnic. The Duma (popularly elected parliament) has little influence on the Tsar at this time. Russian Revolution of 1905 paved the way for unrest, and the eventual overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II (1917, period 4)

Religiously: the vast majority of subjects in the empire follow Christian eastern Orthodox, aka Russian orthodox practices. Other religious groups include muslims and Buddhists. Jews expereinced anti-Semitism and a series of “progroms” beginning in the 1880s.

Intellectually: the vast majority of Russians are not formally educated at this time although the growing middle class is becoming more intellectual. Dissidents such as Vladamir Lenin are becoming more vocal about the old regime as Marxist ideas become attractive to workers.

Technology: beginning in 1892, Sergei Witte, “used the West, to catch up with the West.” A movement to try to improve Russia’s industrial backwardness (late industrial revolution). He invites industrialists and capitalists into the country to try to modernize Russia’s backward economy.

Economically: Russia’s agrarian economy and lack of industry have placed the country behind other European powers. Witte moved the country to the gold standard to strengthen Russian finances. The country at this time is resource rich but technology poor.

France:

Geographically: France had a series of fortifications along their border with Germany. French colonial holdings in Africa in the late 1800s resulted in minor disputes with European powers

Socially: After 1871, the French government created free compulsory elementary schooling for boys and girls leading to more secular republican education

Politically: after their defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, France declares its Third Republic, and begins to restore national unity and stability. Socialism is on the rise

Religiously: the vast majority of French citizens are Catholic, although the Dreyfus affair created distrust and led to a severing of ties between Church and state. Dreyfus is falsely accused of selling secrets, and it’s an effort by the Catholic Church. This led to Catholic schools losing a third of their students to the state’s secular schools. 

Intellectually: the people of France are well educated with many literary and artistic contributions through the Realists and Impressionists movements.

Technology: France has industrialized in the traditional sense and also expanded some of its artisan industries in luxury goods. The French military purchased designs from the Wright brothers for airplanes, as did the Germans and Italians.

Economically: France’s economy is strong and mixed with agriculture, industry, and luxury goods. Commercial competition existed with other European powers, but not on the scale of Great Britain and Germany.

Great Britain:

Geographically: At the beginning of the 20th century, Great Britain had the world’s largest empire, including strategic territory in South Africa, Egypt, and India

Socially: Reform bills had extended suffrage to almost all adult males, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Parliament had enacted reforms that established free elementary schools for all children and created national old age pensions. In the early 20th century, Emmeline Pankhurst and the Women’s Social and Political Union were organizing to promote women’s suffrage

Politically: Queen Victoria reigned from 1837 until 1901. Britain was a Parliamentary democracy with two competing political parties, the Conservatives and the Liberals.

Religiously: Predominantly Anglican, except for catholic Ireland, which was demanding home rule. This would be implemented after WWI

Intellectually: British sociologist Herbert Spencer uses Darwin’s idea regarding “survival of the fittest” and applies it to society’s inequities of class and race. Rudyard Kipling’s poem, “The White Man’s Burden,” was published in 1899 (sarcastically condemns imperialism)

Technology: Of particular importance to Britain was technology that revolutionized transportation and communications. Steam power and the telegraph allowed Great Britain to communicate with its Asian and African colonies. The maxim gun was widely used in colonial conflicts.

Economically: In the second half of the 19th century, Britain was the world’s largest trader of raw materials, agricultural products, and finished goods.

Austria-Hungary:

Geographically: The dual monarchy of Austria and Hungary was formed after the Austro-Prussian War in 1867 as a multi-ethnic empire

Socially: Rising nationalism is the latter part of the 19th-century created greater tension in the region

Politically: the empire was ruled by the long standing House of Habsburg. While there was some local government control, the government functioned along monarchical models. The multi-ehtnic tensions and desire for identity are significant at the time. Dual monarchy formed after the Austro-Prussian war

Religiously: while the majority of people in the empire were Catholic, Protestants, Jews, Muslims, and Eastern Orthodox faiths had significant population (many religions)

Intellectually: free schooling existed throughout the empire in the child’s native language, however great disparities existed in areas with economic hardship. The intellectual contributions through music, literature, and art came through cities such as Vienna, Prague, and Krakow.

Technology: The empire was highly industrialized, especially in Austria, Bohemia, and the areas around Budapest.

Economically: The second industrial revolution helped to accelerate the already strong economy with significant increases in the eastern part of the empire

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Feminists or not feminists

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Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. Lead(2+) is a lead cation, a divalent metal cation and a monatomic dication.  2 properties that are similar to lead are “lead (II) nitrate” and “lead (II) oxide.”  The two characteristics of gold and platinum are different because of their higher density. 2 properties that are similar to (Pb^2+) are(Pb4+) and Sn2+.  Lead (Pb2+) produces toxic effects in the bones of humans and experimental animals.Ion channels regulate a diversity of physiological functions such as neuronal signalling, cardiac excitability and immune cell response.  An effect that occurs from lead(II) in the body is “lead poisoning.”  Even if you survive lead poisoning you can have serious health and brain issues.  Some symptoms of lead poisoning include:  Developmental delays, abdominal pain and irritability. At very high levels, it can be fatal. Developmental delays can mean a delay of growth in the brain, etc.  Abdominal pain can occur in your lower stomach and irritability means annoyance or frustration.Treatments for lead poisoning always involves avoiding further exposure to lead or lead-based products and may include medications too.  When your body has too much of anything, it is not healthy.  For example, although water is very good for the human body, too much of it can also lead to fatalities.  Just like water, you should not have too much lead in your system or your body could fail.  The goal of the treatment is to prevent any further damage and to help the body heal.  From staying away from lead, hopefully, your body can heal and gain full health.  Another goal of the treatment is to stop any illnesses that have creeped up on the body.  This way, you can prevent any sudden tragedies. Just like lead(II), Ca^2+ is not meant to be taken advantage of.  If a body consumes too much of this, it will become sick, just like lead(II).             Chelation therapy is a medical procedure that involves the administration of chelating agents to remove heavy metals from the body. Chelating drugs can bind to and remove some metals your body needs, like calcium, copper, and zinc. This can lead to a deficiency in these important substances. Some people who've had chelation therapy also have low calcium levels in the blood and kidney damage.        Once the drug has attached to the metal, your body removes them both through your pee. Metals that can be removed with chelation therapy include lead, mercury, and arsenic. Before you get this treatment, your doctor will do a blood test to make sure you have metal poisoning. This treatment is only approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat metal poisoning.        In conclusion, lead poisoning can potentially be very dangerous and cause great harm.  Although it may seem innocent, it can be quite fatal.  Pb2+, and Ca2+ explain the poisonous effects of Pb2+ and the curative effects of Ca2+ because they are revealed as being bad for the body, especially if there is too much in take of the chemical. Chelation is argued about whether it is good or bad for the body, but doctors have confirmed that it is a treatment approved to be taken when having lead poisoning.  Although there is always risk within health care, a treatment is worth the risk, especially when having lead poisoning.  

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Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. Lead(2+) is a lead cation, a divalent metal cation and a monatomic dication.  2 properties that are similar to lead are “lead (II) nitrate” and “lead (II) oxide.”  The two characteristics of gold and platinum are different because of their higher density. 2 properties that are similar to (Pb^2+) are(Pb4+) and Sn2+.  Lead (Pb2+) produces toxic effects in the bones of humans and experimental animals.Ion channels regulate a diversity of physiological functions such as neuronal signalling, cardiac excitability and immune cell response.  An effect that occurs from lead(II) in the body is “lead poisoning.”  Even if you survive lead poisoning you can have serious health and brain issues.  Some symptoms of lead poisoning include:  Developmental delays, abdominal pain and irritability. At very high levels, it can be fatal. Developmental delays can mean a delay of growth in the brain, etc.  Abdominal pain can occur in your lower stomach and irritability means annoyance or frustration.Treatments for lead poisoning always involves avoiding further exposure to lead or lead-based products and may include medications too.  When your body has too much of anything, it is not healthy.  For example, although water is very good for the human body, too much of it can also lead to fatalities.  Just like water, you should not have too much lead in your system or your body could fail.  The goal of the treatment is to prevent any further damage and to help the body heal.  From staying away from lead, hopefully, your body can heal and gain full health.  Another goal of the treatment is to stop any illnesses that have creeped up on the body.  This way, you can prevent any sudden tragedies. Just like lead(II), Ca^2+ is not meant to be taken advantage of.  If a body consumes too much of this, it will become sick, just like lead(II).             Chelation therapy is a medical procedure that involves the administration of chelating agents to remove heavy metals from the body. Chelating drugs can bind to and remove some metals your body needs, like calcium, copper, and zinc. This can lead to a deficiency in these important substances. Some people who've had chelation therapy also have low calcium levels in the blood and kidney damage.        Once the drug has attached to the metal, your body removes them both through your pee. Metals that can be removed with chelation therapy include lead, mercury, and arsenic. Before you get this treatment, your doctor will do a blood test to make sure you have metal poisoning. This treatment is only approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat metal poisoning.        In conclusion, lead poisoning can potentially be very dangerous and cause great harm.  Although it may seem innocent, it can be quite fatal.  Pb2+, and Ca2+ explain the poisonous effects of Pb2+ and the curative effects of Ca2+ because they are revealed as being bad for the body, especially if there is too much in take of the chemical. Chelation is argued about whether it is good or bad for the body, but doctors have confirmed that it is a treatment approved to be taken when having lead poisoning.  Although there is always risk within health care, a treatment is worth the risk, especially when having lead poisoning.  

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Initially, it was decided to monitor about 50 houses spread across the six Local Network Operator regions to obtain a balanced sample distribution to represent the Auckland region. Each region was weighted according to the number of connected houses, the population and water volumes used. After the sample was weighted the number was set to 51 houses, which were distributed over the regions as shown in Table 1. The overall response rate to the mailing was 34%, of which 40% were positive. In every region, there were enough positive responses to draw the sample using the original order of the random drawing, plus some practical criteria to get to the final numbers needed for the study

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Introduction:

Swift came of an English family which settled Dublin of Ireland. He was born in Dublin on the 30th November, 1667. He was left in the care of an uncle of his by his mother who returned to England. His uncle gave him the best education available in Ireland. At college, swift was often at war with the authorities, and he was not of a very studious turn of mind, but he got success in getting his degree in 1685. He was dominated by pessimism. He is the master of the concrete world, he knows how to utilize the concrete world. The concrete facts of experience as well as the ideas, the sentiments, and the shades of meaning find expression in the most simple vigorous and straight forward prose. A great variety of tone is achieved. The language is flexible to the theme. Gulliver’s Travels is the famous of all the works of swift. The full title of swift’s famous work is:

“Travels into Several Remote of the world in four parts by Lemuel Gulliver, First a surgeon, and then a captain of several ships.”

Gulliver’s Travel’s was the culmination of swift’s literary achievement his magnum opus. It was begun in 1720 and finally published in 1726. It is at once a delightful, fantastic story of adventure for children, a political allegory and a serious satire on human nature, on contemporary politics, social institutions, religious controversies and on the manners and morals of the age. The book is written in the form of a travelogue. The hero and narrator of the story is Lemuel Gulliver, an English Physician who opts to travel as a ship’s surgeon when he is unable to take care of his family on his meager income. Gulliver is endowed with a keen, almost journalistic sense of reportage, and a desire to travel. The book is made up of four parts, each dealing with the persona’s experiences in a different fantasy land.

The travelogue, a popular genre of writing in the eighteenth century, chronicles the experiences and adventures of a traveler. It is generally written from the first person point of view giving immediacy to the experiences narrated. It is also a literary genre which the author manipulates to suit his purposes in the text. Gulliver’s Travels is a fictional travelogue containing factual elements related to travel by sea.

The term ‘utopia’ has come to be synonymous with an ideal world or an ideal society. ‘Dystopia’ was conceived of as the opposite of utopia and obviously describing an unpleasant, nightmarish world.

Gulliver’s Travels can be read from the perspective of Utopian / dystopian fiction as Lemuel Gulliver journeys from one imaginary island community to another. He examines the social and political structures in Lilliput, Brobdingnag, Laputa and in the land of the Houyhnhnms. It serves swift’s satirical purpose that the communities are far from idea and given to excesses of every kind. The land of the Houyhnhnms seems almost utopian but here again, swift exposes a world where Reason prevails in its perfection but is devoid of individuality of personal identity and therefore leaves much to be desired.

Characters are central to the plot of any story, and especially longer fiction. They are influenced by the events in the story just as the events are structured by characters. Characterization is defined as the art of creating characters which seem close to real life and have a role to play in the development of the novel.

A ‘Flat character’ is often a type, a static, two - dimensional character, without much individuality, or even development. A ‘round character’ on the other hand is dynamic, three - dimensional and exhibits a certain degree of complexity.

It is a little difficult to talk of Gulliver as a full-fledged character in Gulliver’s Travels. He is closer to being Swift’s mouthpiece or the ‘persona’ refers to a first person narrator, the ‘I’ of the narrative. It is Gulliver who narrates his experiences throughout the four parts of the novel.

Gulliver informs the reader that after each voyage he found his wife and children in good health. He does not give us any other details concerning his personal life in England. Gulliver’s disgust with England and its government extends to the entire human race it is in part-IV that the reader is convinced that Gulliver is Swift’s mouthpiece.

At the end of the novel, it is difficult to say if Gulliver is an eighteenth century allegorical figure or a rounded and complex character. His growth and development in the course of the narrative is restricted to the change in his attitude towards his fellow human beings although he arrives at some kind of self-awareness towards the end of the text, the awareness being that he is a yahoo. Gulliver might also be an allegorical representation of humanity in general.

●       Four Voyages in Brief:

The book is divided into four parts which describes Gulliver’s Voyage to different countries.

PART-I     :         Describes Gulliver’s voyage to a country
known as Lilliput and his experiences in
that country.

PART-II    :         Describes his voyage to Brobdingnay and
his experience.

PART-III  :         Deals with his voyage to some countries
like Laputa, Balnibarbi, Glubdubrib,
Luggnagg, and Japan.

PART-IV  :         Tells about his voyage to the country of
Houyhnhnms and the yahoos.

●       The Voyage to Lilliput in Part-I:

In this part, religious and political divisions are humorously mingled. The foolish is exposed with the help of quarrels between the High-Heels and the Low-Heels and between the Big-Endians and the Little-Endians. Where blood of thousands of people has been shed. When the emperor’s heels are described as lower than those of anybody else at the court, the reference is to the preference shown by king George-I to the Whigs. Many other illusions may also be traced. In addition to all this, some of Gulliver’s remarks on the institutions of Lilliput serve as useful comments upon the legal policy of his own country, England, for instance, when he mentions that the Lilliputians treated fraud as a great crime then stealing and alludes to their policy in rewarding merits as well as punishing vice.

●       The Voyage to Brobdingnag in Part-II:

In this part of the novel, swift shows us the people of immense stature. These people are gifted with a sound and cool judgement, look at the principles and politics of Europe. Here, satire has general nature. Some particular references to political events: and no circumstances are mentioned. Which are not applicable to all places, while Lilliput was a land inhabited by pigmies or dwarfs, Brobdingnag is the land of giants or of persons of an immense stature.

●       The Voyage to Laputa in Part-III:

In this part, the abuses of science are the aim of satire. Swift’s target here are the projects – who leaving their common sense behind them, wander into the vast regions of speculative philosophy. It is noticeable here that the satire is not aimed at true science but its hazards.

●       The Voyage to the land of the Houyhnhnms and the yahoos in Part-IV:

In this part the satire is intense. This voyage represents mankind in a satire is too exaggerated. The author succeeded in portraying the disgusting yahoos. The Houyhnhnms are devoid of all those tender passions and affections without which life become a burden. The Houyhnhnms do not appeal to us as models of perfection.

Every satirist is a reformer, as satire always aims at correcting human follies and human vices. Swift had focused attention upon the follies and vices of all mankind of his time. Being pessimist Gulliver could not boar the vices in mankind. With the help of fictional illusion he decided to expose the vices of mankind without leaving a single vice untouched. He presents almost all the vices prevailing in the mankind satirically. Gulliver’s Travels is a great satirical masterpiece up to today.

Gulliver’s Travels is one of the greatest works of satire which is in the form of Travel book. On one hand it’s just a comic book or travelogue for children but on the other hand it satirizes human vices. In those days this book became very popular. People enjoyed his adventurous journey to different lands. Swift’s real purpose, however, in writing the novel seems to rebuke mankind for its follies, absurdities and evil ways.

●       Swift – a master of satire:

A satire many roughly and briefly be defined as a humorous or witty exposure. A satire can be defined as a means by which the author can expose the reality of individuals communities, or all mankind by employing irony, mockery, ridicule, sarcasm, and even invective as the weapon’s of attack. Swift uses all the above means to succeed in satirizing. He uses irony in double way. He is a master or corrosive as well as comic satire. His comic satire makes us laugh. Corrosive satire is serious and creates hatred. This corrosive type of satire is fully developed in book-IV of Gulliver’s Travels. The first part is rich in comic fictional illusion.

●       Satire used for Moral Purpose:

Satire of all types always aims to reform. Swift aims at amending a correcting his readers but he is doubtful whether he would reach his goal or not. Swift in his ‘Letter to Alexander Pope’ wrote that his purpose in writing, the book was to vox the world rather than divert it! Actually he desired to shock his readers into a realization of their faults and failings. According to swift “man is not a ‘rational animal’ though man is certainly capable of becoming rational.” In this way one can say that the author’s object in writing the book is to make people realize their irrationality and to encourage them to develop their rational faculty and guide by it. Thus, it can be said that swift had a moral or ethical aim in writing this fiction.

●       The satire full of Allegories:

In an allegory a person or institution is not attacked directly but they are attacked indirectly. ‘Animal Farm’ of George Orwell is one of the best examples of effective writing. In this book in part-I the character of Flimnap, the Treasurer in Lilliput, is a satirical portrayal of Sir Robert Walpole who was the Prime Minister of England from 1715 to 1716 and again from 1721 to 1742. Dancing on a tightly tied rope allegorized Walpole’s skill in parliamentary tactics and political intrigue. Same way, Reldresal represents Lord Carteret who was appointed by Walpole to the office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Further ‘One of the king’s cushions’ talks about of king’s George’s mistresses who helped to restore Walpole to favor after his full in 1717. The conflict between High-Heels and Law-Heels represents the conflict between the two main parties of England i.e. Whig and Tory. The quarrel between Big-Endians and the Little-Endians symbolizes the quarrels between the Roman Catholics and the Protestants. The incidents of extinguishing a fire in queen’s apartment and the queens reaction is an example of Queen Anne’s description of annoyance with swift for writing ‘A Tale of a Tube’, another book which attacked religious abuses but the queen misinterpreted it as an attack on religion. The pigmies of Lilliput and the giants of Brobdingnag depict human beings. First reduced to a small scale, as if seen through a magnifying glass. Symbols of animals are given in part-IV. In this part, yahoos symbolize mankind without any good qualities, while the Houyhnhnms [the horses] show human beings with their good qualities. They were perfect and had no bad qualities at all.

●       Conclusion:

Gulliver’s Travels has been an outstanding book by the author. This novel interweaves many aspects. It is political Allegory as it deals with many political allegories. It is the novel Adventurous novel. The novel deals with travel. From beginning to end it is travelogue. The novel depicts funny or comic elements and thus can be called comic novel. The novel satirizes on human vices so it can be called satirical work of art. It short, the novel is quiet successful in presenting what the author wanted. A reader can enjoy the novel reading even from any one angle.

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I would recommend this book to everyone that any interest in money or how to make money. The book’s purpose is to help the reader, specifically teens, learn the importance of work and money. It really makes the reader think about the many ways that they can make money. Since it is targeted at teens, the book is an even better read for younger people. There is even a whole chapter dedicated to what teens can not and can do for work giving such examples as “Be a tutor” and “Wash cars”. The book does a great job of relating to a teen’s perspective of different jobs and the value of money. It is very interesting and informative.  In the intro to the book, the author explains that he has other books similar to this one, and they might be a good book too if you still want more information about money and overall getting rich. There are also activities spread throughout the book giving it an interactive feel and allowing you the ability to take a break from reading, which is a necessity for teens. The activities are not even necessary to do especially if it is your first time through reading the book, they are perfect for a second read through which I highly recommend. The best part of the book was when the narrator, author, described his first job and asks you to think about your inner thoughts an reasons for doing or not doing a specific thing. It really tries to get any reader thinking about committing and being responsible for their actions. The book does its purpose well. It makes you, the reader, think deeper about money and what exactly can you do to make money as a teen. Everything is a catalyst to make the reader think about the importance, impact, and value of money. The thing that best helps convey that point is actually the side questions and activities. One of the activities asks to describe what others are good at, and at first, that might sound confusing and a waste of time but it is a good brain exercise about what skills can people use for a job in the future. There are tons and tons of different activities similar to this one and they are what makes the book so interesting for a second, third, or even a fourth read through. I am very happy that this book was given to me to read and that I did not need to look through libraries and the internet for it. The book is very relatable to teens and me personally I recommend it to all young teens to help them think of money and importance. I would like to see it put more in school libraries and classrooms because of the important message and interesting purpose. It is very useful in an economic or business class as well as a financial class. There are many different uses for the book that I think there is something in this book for everyone. I learned that there are lots and lots of different ways to become rich, such as you do not need to be an expensive lawyer to become rich you can become an entrepreneur and buy and fix business. That is where the value of the lies. The greatest thing about this book is the fact that it teaches you how to be rich. It gives you a good idea about how to start making money as a teen, and throughout the book there are tips and ideas that it tries to teach the readers about how to make more and more money. One idea is that if you keep control of your assets, liabilities, and expenses then you can become rich. There are lots of ideas such as this one and the book does an amazing job of keeping it simple so that anyone can follow through without needing any type of special knowledge. All teaching of business, economics, and finance is kept simple which is another good point of this book. It is perfect. Overall this book is amazing. It is an understandable book about the importance of money and is perfect for any type of person. No matter your interests or likes, this book can teach you about something that everyone loves, and that is money. If you dream of becoming rich, then this is the perfect book for you.

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Vietnam War summary: Summary of the Vietnam War: The Vietnam War is the commonly used name for the Second Indochina War, 1954–1975. Usually it refers to the period when the United States and other members of the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) joined the forces with the Republic of South Vietnam to contest communist forces, comprised of South Vietnamese guerrillas and regular-force units, generally known as Viet Cong (VC), and the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). The U.S., possessing the largest foreign military presence, essentially directed the war from 1965 to 1968. For this reason, in Vietnam today it is known as the American War. It was a direct result of the First Indochina War (1946–1954) between France, which claimed Vietnam as a colony, and the communist forces then known as Viet Minh. In 1973 a “third” Vietnam war began—a continuation, actually—between North and South Vietnam but without significant U.S. involvement. It ended with communist victory in April 1975.The Vietnam War was the longest in U.S. history until the Afghanistan War (2002-2014). The war was extremely divisive in the U.S., Europe, Australia, and elsewhere. Because the U.S. failed to achieve a military victory and the Republic of South Vietnam was ultimately taken over by North Vietnam, the Vietnam experience became known as “the only war America ever lost.” It remains a very controversial topic that continues to affect political and military decisions today.

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Vietnam War summary: Summary of the Vietnam War: The Vietnam War is the commonly used name for the Second Indochina War, 1954–1975. Usually it refers to the period when the United States and other members of the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) joined the forces with the Republic of South Vietnam to contest communist forces, comprised of South Vietnamese guerrillas and regular-force units, generally known as Viet Cong (VC), and the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). The U.S., possessing the largest foreign military presence, essentially directed the war from 1965 to 1968. For this reason, in Vietnam today it is known as the American War. It was a direct result of the First Indochina War (1946–1954) between France, which claimed Vietnam as a colony, and the communist forces then known as Viet Minh. In 1973 a “third” Vietnam war began—a continuation, actually—between North and South Vietnam but without significant U.S. involvement. It ended with communist victory in April 1975.The Vietnam War was the longest in U.S. history until the Afghanistan War (2002-2014). The war was extremely divisive in the U.S., Europe, Australia, and elsewhere. Because the U.S. failed to achieve a military victory and the Republic of South Vietnam was ultimately taken over by North Vietnam, the Vietnam experience became known as “the only war America ever lost.” It remains a very controversial topic that continues to affect political and military decisions today.

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During the 1960s, to achieve Mexican-American empowerment, the Chicano Movement was born. Rodolfo Gonzalez became a leader in this movement and made exceptional progress by finding the Crusade of Justice, leading a group in the Poor People’s March in Washington, and so forth. Throughout his life, Gonzales channeled his activism through Literature. In 1967 he published his epic poem I am Joaquin. The poem follows Joaquin, who travels through history, beginning as an Aztec, then as a Mexican, and finally as a Chicano in the United States.
The triumphant Lines mentioned in the question suggests the rise of identity as social unification. In the path of the epic poem the protagonist, Joaquin is subject to an internal quest, challenging the borders that make up his Chicano identity. While normally mestizaje is known to suggest that the purity of blood is the result of both Aztec and European heritage, Gonzalez challenges this notion by formalizing the ‘’Mestizo’’ where the figures of the Colonist self and the Colonized other intersect. Although this is an important notion to be established, what Gonzales is trying to highlight exceeds this. Mestizo agency is also about the process of self-inscription and collective identity. The symbolic borders in I am Joaquin represent a wide range of cultural and historic tropes in one whole identity: Latinidad. The process of identification (Rata, Mejicano, Espanol, and so forth) goes beyond Chicanismo and contributes to the understanding of diversity in Mexican Culture by deconstructing the classification systems that suggest one background is superior to the other.

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Having a solid information architecture is an important prerequisite for realizing a well-maintained and well-performing portal. Designing the optimal structure requires good planning. Even with a good plan, information architecture is a continuous process. Over time, organizations change, people change, and projects change.

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Having a solid information architecture is an important prerequisite for realizing a well-maintained and well-performing portal. Designing the optimal structure requires good planning. Even with a good plan, information architecture is a continuous process. Over time, organizations change, people change, and projects change.

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