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The role of serotonin in depression

The serotonin hypothesis: low levels of serotonin in the brain play a causal role in developing depression

Typical study: if a drug that is known to affect serotonin (for example, an SSRI) leads to a reduction of symptoms in the experimental group, it is concluded that the level of serotonin is the cause of depression

This although, has its limitations:

1. Drugs affect neurotransmitters within minutes, but the behavioural effects do not manifest immediately, sometimes taking weeks. Suggesting that the influence may be indirect or there could exist a longer path where changing levels of serotonin is just one stage.

Taupin, (2006) suggests one theory that increased stress can damage neurons in the hippocampus and so lead to depression, whereas SSRIs restore the damaged neurons gradually alleviating the symptoms

1. Not all patients benefit from drugs. This suggests that there is a link between serotonin and depression is not universal. Whether universal or not, direct or indirect, the link between serotonin and depression is concrete.

Caspi et al (2003): a particular gene (the serotonin transporter gene 5-HTT) has been linked to determining one’s vulnerability to developing depression in response to stressful life events

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Parkinsons is a neurodegenerative disorder that effects the motor systems of the nervous system. It predominantly effects the area of the brain called substantia nigra. It can also effect thinking and behaviour later on in the disease. There is no cure for Parkinsons.

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the formation of personal relationships, Buss (1989)

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the formation of personal relationships, Buss (1989)

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by jasmine
Certain human behaviours have biological and evolutionary explanations, for example hormones and genes in relation to psychological traits. Buss (1989) conducted an experiment that revolved around investigating the importance of gender in relation to gender differences and desirable characteristics in a mate. Researchers acquired 37 samples including over 10,000 participants across 6 continents and 33 countries. Participants were required to fill out questionnaires with three main parts - the first asking for biological info related to age, religion, gender and aspects alike. A second section asked about their desired age of marriage and age preferences, while the third asked participants to rate 18 characteristics about a mate and how important of a role they play in choosing a partner.

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Advances in technology sometimes catapult a society into ethical arenas that are not yet circumscribed by laws and clear moral boundaries. Fetal tissue transplantation is one of these advances. It is a technology that carries the hope of curing a diverse array of severe, often tragic ailments, but it also raises many difficult questions. Tissues from aborted fetuses have been shown in experimental trials to be an excellent source of replacement tissue for patients whose diseases have destroyed their own vital tissues. Diseases that cause regions of the brain to deteriorate, such as Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, and Alzheimer’s diseases, as well as juvenile-onset diabetes mellitus, in which insulin-secreting cells of the pancreas degenerate, theoretically could be cured with suitable tissue replacement.

The study conducted by Freed et al in 2001, focuses on dopamine and the role it has on Parkinson’s disease. This theory comes from the biological approach. This study has many ethical issues attached to it, as Freed et al used the nerve cells in aborted embryos and sham surgery. The use of aborted foetuses was placed in the putamen, in the participant’s brain. Freed et al also drilled four holes into participants, which is an issue, as there is potential harm when drilling holes to place the nerve cells in the putamen. Yet consent forms were given to the participants and mothers about the potential harm and risks associated with the study, which were needed to be signed to continue. This study was nature due to the biological approach of it. It is also determinism due to its genetics and psychological aspects that are involved in the study. Biological approach is essentially a reductionist as dopamine is the only variety than can affect Parkinson’s.

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Method

- Sample was divided into 2 groups

1. Experimental group = transplant of nerve cells which contained dopamine producing neurons which were from the embryos of aborted children

2. Control group = underwent sham surgery

- The nerve cells were transplanted into the patients putamen, which is in the limboc system, which involved movement regulation

-  Each surgery occurred when the patient was awake, there was local anesthesia, and holes were drilled through the frontal bone, where the tissue was transplanted. In the sham surgery, holes were drilled in the skull, but the dura wasn’t penetrated.

- The ethics committee approved it, and the women who donated aborted fetal tissue signed consent forms

- Before and after the surgery PET scans were taken, and every patient was followed up for a year after the study

Results

- Pet scans showed an increase of growth in dopamine producing cells in the putamen

- They found a reduction of systems by 28% in patients in the transplant group

- Was only in those who were younger than 60 there was no difference for those over

Conclusion

- There was some clinical benefit in younger patients

- This could be attributed the lower neuroplasticity abilities in older brains

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Throughout the human brain's evolutionary process, the brain has adapted to act in a way that will improve the chances of the human's survival, as well as the ability to procreate. One important neurotransmitter involved in survival and the ability to procreate is dopamine. Fisher et al hypothesized that when people in love saw images of the person they’re in love with, the dopamine in their brains would increase in areas of the brain associated with motivation. They predicted that romantic love was not an emotion, but rather a motivation system that leads to emotions. They tested their hypothesis by using fMRI scans. The researchers gathered a sample of 17 participants (10 females, 7 males) ages 18 – 26. All the participants were “in love” and the average age of courtship was 7 months. To determine the duration, intensity and nature of the participants’ romantic love, the researchers interviewed each participant using a semi-structured format and the participants also completed a “Passionate Love Scale". The researchers found that using photographs of participants’ beloveds was an effective method for eliciting feelings of romantic passion.
Photos of people they romantically loved caused the participants’ brains to become active in regions rich with dopamine, the so-called feel-good neurotransmitter. Two of the brain regions that showed activity in the fMRI scans were the caudate nucleus, a region associated with reward detection and expectation and the integration of sensory experiences into social behavior, and the ventral tegmental area, which is associated with pleasure, focused attention, and the motivation to pursue and acquire rewards.

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alternative theory
the study involved 60 couples in new relationships and a control group of 43 single individuals. they are interviewed independently and the as a couple. blood samples were measured. it showed that higher levels of plasma oxytocin correlated with affectionate touching. so oxytocin (one kind of the Hormones) played an important role in social relationships, such as romantic love relationship in this study.

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Features of Parkinsons (Background info)

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Features of Parkinsons (Background info)

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One feature of the Parkinsons disease is the affected individuals ability to climb and descend stairs with ease. This is also the same for cycling. However these same individuals struggle to walk on flat ground. This is because the act of climbing stairs or peddling on a bike is a continuous/rhythemic motion. This is because PD usually affects the Substantion Niagra. Within this compartment of the brain, are dopaminergic neurons (these secrete dopamine). This affects an individuals controlled movement patterns.

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Alternate theory = Can  Parkinsons can be as a result of genetics?

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Alternate theory = Can  Parkinsons can be as a result of genetics?

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We need to look at whether genetics can play a part in genetics It is obviously clear that dopamine does play a part in Parkinsons - but does genetic too?

According to the Michael J Fox Foundation for Parkinsons research, Parkinsons is often not genetic, however recent advances in research has found that only about 10 percent of Parkinson's cases have been linked to a genetic cause, and researchers state that most other cases can be put down to a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

GENE 1:
The genetic mutation is in a gene called SNCA (which encodes alpha-synuclein). Researchers came to this conclusion after finding that mutations in this gene were common in several families with a high prevalence of Parkinson's.

GENE 2:
In 2004 researchers found that Another gene that plays a role in some people's Parkinson's is LRRK2. they found that this gene was the trigger for many families with a prevalence of Parkinsons. Now, It is known that LRRK2 is the most common known genetic contributor to Parkinson's, accounting for one to two percent of all cases.

Although, not everyone who has the mutation of the gene gets Parkinsons, It was only an increased likelihood and no casual link

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Alternative Theory: The Empathy-Altruism Theory Batson

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Alternative Theory: The Empathy-Altruism Theory Batson

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People act to help others out of genuine concern for the well-being of others and empathetic motivations.

Empathetic concern will predict helping behaviour regardless of potential gains

In experimentation, Batson had to be able to distinguish between empathetic altruism and social desirability

Method:

Used the Empathy escape paradigm as an experimental model which relies on the underlying assumption that empathy for a suffering person can be evoked

If the assumption that similarity leads to empathy is accepted then it is possible to set up a condition of high empathy (perceived similarity) or low empathy (perceived dissimilarity)

A second variable, ease of escape, was set up

Experiment used a 2x2 matrix

Hypothesis/Results:

Batson hypothesised that those in high empathy conditions would help in the difficult escape or easy escape condition

If a person was distressed by the situation they would simply escape the situation in order to alleviate personal distress

Hypothesis was confirmed by 25 other studies using the same empathy-escape paradigm as Batson.

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The use of animal models in behaviour
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6172020

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Explain the role of one neurotransmitter on one behaviour

Use Dopamine and Parkinsons
(how does dopamine cause Parkinsons)

Describe what dopamine is
Describe what Parkinsons is

Describe freed et al
Ethics of freed et al

Link back to the question of how dopamine effects parkinsons

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Dopamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Monoamines refer to the particular neurotransmitters dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin.  A neurotransmitter transmits nerve impulses across a synapse which allow us to moderate bodily functions such as heart rate, sleep appetite and fear.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wa8_nLwQIpg

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Why do we crave love so much, even to the point that we would die for it? To learn more about our very real, very physical need for romantic love, Helen Fisher and her research team took MRIs of people in love -- and people who had just been dumped.

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Serotonin decreased while people in love

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Serotonin decreased while people in love

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When we are falling in love, chemicals associated with the reward circuit flood our brain, producing a variety of physical and emotional responses—racing hearts, sweaty palms, flushed cheeks, feelings of passion and anxiety. Levels of the stress hormone cortisol increase during the initial phase of romantic love, marshaling our bodies to cope with the “crisis” at hand. As cortisol levels rise, levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin become depleted. Low levels of serotonin precipitate what Schwartz described as the “intrusive, maddeningly preoccupying thoughts, hopes, terrors of early love”—the obsessive-compulsive behaviors associated with infatuation.

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what is dopamine and how do you define romantic love?
is love universal or just a physical response?
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that helps control the brain's reward and pleasure centers. Dopaminealso helps regulate movement and emotional responses, and it enables us not only to see rewards, but to take action to move toward them.

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This theory is very reductionist as it attributes only one element (serotonin) to depression, however there are other factors such as genetics, environment. Caspi et al addresses genetics and serotonin levels as reasons for depression.

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Crockett et al (2010) conducted a study that involved a sample of 30 healthy subjects. The participants were all volunteers and the experiment used a repeated measures design with two conditions. Participants in condition 1 were given a dose of citalopram, which is a chemical that blocks reuptake of serotonin, resulting in a higher concentration of the neurotransmitter. In the second condition (the control group), the participants were given a placebo. This was a double-blind studyAfter taking the drug, participants were given a series of moral dilemmas in which they had to choose between a utilitarian outcome and aversive harmful actions. For example, killing one person in order to save five lives. There were two types of aversive harmful actions in the scenarios: impersonal (for example, pressing a button to divert a train off a track where it would hit five people to a track where it will only hit one), or personal (for example, pushing a man off a bridge to stop a train that will hit five people). The results showed that the drug didn't have any affect on the responses in the impersonal version. However, the participants who received a does of citalopram were less likely to push a man off the bridge in the personal scenario than those who received the placebo. From this, researchers concluded that serotonin reduces the acceptability of personal and harm, therefore promoting prosocial behaviour. The neurotransmitter modulates reactions of the brain to emotionally salient situations so that inflicting harm on other people is judged as less acceptable. 

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Crockett et al (2010) conducted a study that involved a sample of 30 healthy subjects. The participants were all volunteers and the experiment used a repeated measures design with two conditions. Participants in condition 1 were given a dose of citalopram, which is a chemical that blocks reuptake of serotonin, resulting in a higher concentration of the neurotransmitter. In the second condition (the control group), the participants were given a placebo. This was a double-blind studyAfter taking the drug, participants were given a series of moral dilemmas in which they had to choose between a utilitarian outcome and aversive harmful actions. For example, killing one person in order to save five lives. There were two types of aversive harmful actions in the scenarios: impersonal (for example, pressing a button to divert a train off a track where it would hit five people to a track where it will only hit one), or personal (for example, pushing a man off a bridge to stop a train that will hit five people). The results showed that the drug didn't have any affect on the responses in the impersonal version. However, the participants who received a does of citalopram were less likely to push a man off the bridge in the personal scenario than those who received the placebo. From this, researchers concluded that serotonin reduces the acceptability of personal and harm, therefore promoting prosocial behaviour. The neurotransmitter modulates reactions of the brain to emotionally salient situations so that inflicting harm on other people is judged as less acceptable. 

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Explain the role of a neurotransmitter in relation to a behaviour.

P -
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that has suggested to have a role in depression.

E -
Explain background information of serotonin and how they could be related to depression.
Mention SSRI's

E -
Caspi et al (2003)
Taupin (2006)

L -
Link these studies and their conclusions to the topic and their relevance.

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SEROTONIN - a monoamine neurotransmitter responsible for regulating sleep and mood, appetite and digestion and memory.
- Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is a chemical found in the human body. It carries signals along and between nerves – a neurotransmitter. It is mainly found in the brain, bowels and blood platelets. Serotonin is thought to be especially active in constricting smooth muscles, transmitting impulses between nerve cells, regulating cyclic body processes and contributing to wellbeing and happiness. Serotonin is regarded by some researchers as a chemical that is responsible for maintaining mood balance, and that a deficit of serotonin leads to depression. Here are some key points about serotonin.

Serotonin is an important chemical neurotransmitter in the human body.

It is commonly regarded as a chemical that is responsible for maintaining mood balance.

Serotonin is created by a biochemical conversion process.

Serotonin is manufactured in the brain and the intestines. The majority of the body’s serotonin, between 80-90%, can be found in the gastrointestinal tract.

Serotonin that is used inside the brain must be produced within it.

It is thought that serotonin can affect mood and social behavior, appetite and digestion, sleep, memory and sexual desire and function.

An association has been made between depression and serotonin. Scientists remain unsure whether decreased levels of serotonin contribute to depression or depression causes a decrease in serotonin levels.

Drugs that alter serotonin levels have important clinical uses such as in the treatment of depression, nausea and migraine.

Medical research continues to evaluate the role of serotonin in obesity and Parkinson’s disease.

Other ways to increase body serotonin levels include mood induction, light, exercise and diet.

PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR: any behaviour that helps a person or a group of people e.g. being a surrogate or giving blood.

INTRODUCTORY VIDEO:

https://www.ted.com/talks/adam_grant_are_you_a_giver_or_a_taker/footnotes?nolanguage=enlesbian

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Discuss the role of neurotransmission on human behaviour

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Discuss the role of neurotransmission on human behaviour

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https://play.kahoot.it/#/k/3a163db8-cff9-4d01-bffa-1e3ad30c6dc3