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Conversational AI Platform for Enterprise - Teneo | Artificial Solutions

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What do we do at Artificial Solutions?

We enable you to build Conversational AI solutions faster and spend less time maintaining them.

Our development platform, LUIS^teneo combines two leading technologies in Conversational AI - Teneo and Microsoft LUIS.

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It is delivered as SaaS and provides enterprise ready features like version control, dev-, qa and prod endpoints for multiple solutions per default, scaling based on traffic volumes, auto-test, advanced dialogue management, conversational data analytics and much more. With support for 86 languages, front- and backend connectors, all backed up by our Customer Success team ready to help, Teneo is the only core conversational platform you will ever need.

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The world's most advanced multimodal & end-to-end Conversational AI platform for both development & operations.

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Teneo's core components for chatbot development, optimization and analytics.

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Features such as our unique Hybrid NLU approach, which leverages machine learning models and linguistic conditions for intent and entity recognition.

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Conversational AI Platform for Enterprise - Teneo | Artificial Solutions

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What do we do at Artificial Solutions? We enable you to build Conversational AI solutions faster and spend less time maintaining them. Our development platform, LUIS^teneo combines two leading technologies in Conversational AI - Teneo and Microsoft LUIS. Our customers claim that LUIS^teneo is the most productive development platform and environment for Conversational AI.

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Lisa Larsen, Jade Nipp, Sapphire Pataky and Alexandra Van Zanten.

Why Focus On Primary School Writing?

In any primary school classroom there will be a wide range of skill levels in terms of writing, because each student will be bringing varied experiences and abilities to the class. Some children are encouraged to and/or enjoy reading at home, while others won't pick up a book unless school requires them to. Extracurricular reading can be extremely beneficial to developing children, and could make reading and writing in class at a generic level less challenging for them. Similarly, some children's parents may regularly read to them, helping them become more comfortable with the English Language.
Due to the great diversity in skills between each student, the assessment of K-6 writing can be extremely difficult to gauge. The best work of one student may not come close in comparison to casual work done by another. The grammar, penmanship and vocabulary used by students will vary greatly, and determining who has put more effort into their assignments can be a trying task indeed.

Why Is Writing So Important?

Reason One: Written output is a great way to assess student knowledge.
Reason Two: Writing is an essential skill students need as they enter adult life.
Reason Three: Helping students learn to express themselves with confidence in all subject areas can contribute to improvements in behavior and self-esteem.
Reason Four: Students who write clearly will think clearly. And students who think clearly have a better chance of navigating their way through the obstacles of adolescence.

Yes, there are many ways students can show us what they know. But writing is the simplest, most direct, most cost-effective, and most time-effective way for students to express their knowledge of a given subject. It is a valuable tool for teachers to get a glimpse of the individual thought processes of a large and diverse classroom population.
Writing can also act as a great emotional and clarifying outlet, facilitating the de-cluttering of ideas and proper deliberation of thoughts that may be causing confusion.
By teaching students how to write well, by showing them how to focus their intellectual energy in this unique and wonderful way, we give them a key that helps them unlock the complicated ideas and complex emotions we expect them to master as they mature.

For more details on these ideas see "Writing Across the Curriculum"

Where Students Begin

General Outcome 1:
Students will listen, speak, read, write, view and represent to explore thoughts, ideas, feelings and experiences.

General Outcome 2:
Students will listen, speak, read, write, view and represent to comprehend and respond personally and critically to oral, print and other media texts.

General Outcome 3:
Students will listen, speak, read, write, view and represent to manage ideas and information.

General Outcome 4:
Students will listen, speak, read, write, view and represent to enhance the clarity and artistry of communication.

General Outcome 5:
Students will listen, speak, read, write, view and represent to respect, support and collaborate with others.

From the Programs of Study @ Alberta Education

Express ideas and develop understanding

Experiment with language and forms

Use phonics and structural analysis

Construct meaning from texts

Appreciate the artistry of texts

Understand forms and genres

Understand techniques and elements

Elaborate on the expression of ideas

Structure texts

Focus attention

Appraise own and others' work

Revise and edit

Enhance legibility

Expand knowledge of language

From the Programs of Study @Alberta Education

Assessment is the gathering of information about student learning that informs our teaching and helps students learn more.

Keys To Quality Classroom Assessment: (according to Classroom Assessment for Student Learning)

1. They are designed to serve the specific information needs of intended user(s).

2. They are based on clearly articulated and appropriate achievement targets.

3. They accurately measure student achievement.

4. They yield results that are effectively communicated to their intended users.

5. They involve students in self-assessment, goal setting, tracking, reflect on, and sharing their learning.

4.1 Formative Assessment

Formative assessment is formal and informal processes teachers and students use to gather evidence for the purposes of improving learning (Classroom Assessment for Student Learning). This is also know as assessment for learning.

Self Assessment:

Some strategies suggest that students assess their own work; these include Self-assessment in an educational setting involves students making judgments about their own work. Assessment decisions can be made by students on their own essays, reports, projects, presentations, performances, dissertations and even exam scripts( peer review and writer's groups (Tompkins: 2011, 141).
Click here for more info). Students also benefit from keeping a portfolio of past work (including that which was listed above), allowing them to look back and see where they have improved and what they have learned (Lenski and Verbruggen: 2010, 146).

Self-assessment checklists are a great way for students to make sure that they are on track and meeting requirements. Teachers can get students to fill these out during assignments to act as a type of formative assessment. For tips to properly administer self-assessments look Tools for self-assessment:
here.

Here is an example of a self-assessment checklist that students can It is important that students can understand what is expected of them in different assignments. Displaying examples of successful work, or providing visual cues that hint at what successful work looks like can be very beneficial for students. Two examples of visual cues that can be used in an elementary classroom can be found use. More examples can be found in "Additional Resources."
here and here.

A writing rubric is a formative (as well as a summative) assessment tool that also clearly demonstrates what is expected of students. Here is an excellent example of a rubric that can be used as a formative assessment tool.

A peer review is an effective way for students to have their work assessed by other students in their class. Students are often given checklists or guidelines of areas that they should focus on, or what they should be looking for in the written work. This process allows students to practice giving and receiving positive feedback with the intent to improve everyone's writing. To gain a better understanding of how peer review works, have a look at the video below that describes what NOT to do!

There are many different kinds of writing portfolios. Portfolios can be used either formatively or summatively. One example of a writing portfolio is a "working portfolio" (Danielson and Abrutyn 1997). A working portfolio contains both "work in progress as well as finished samples of work" (Danielson and Abrutyn 1997).

An additional type of portfolio is a "Display" or "Show" portfolio whereby students can display their best work (Danielson and Abrutyn, 1997). These portfolios should be used to make the students feel good about their learning (Danielson and Abrutyn, 1997). These portfolios can be used for summative assessment or for formative assessment.

Conferences:

Conferences are a great way for teachers to engage with students and parents to discover what problems or difficulties individual students are having with their writing.

In a brief one on one discussion teachers have the opportunity to evaluate where individual students are in terms of the learning outcomes. Additionally, it gives the students the opportunity to reflect on their work and express any difficulties they may be having. The focus of the discussion is for the teacher to provide the student with guiding questions to promote thoughtful responses based on knowledge and concerns. The teacher should not be providing answers but an opportunity for the student to share and reflect.

Parent teacher conferences give teachers the opportunity to communicate with parents informing them of where their child(ren) is in terms of the learning outcomes, any difficulties they may be having and where the student is excelling. These conferences also give the teacher the opportunity to evaluate if there are any discrepancies between the student's learning at home and in the classroom.

Observations:

Observations assist teachers in gathering evidence of student learning to inform planning. This evidence can be recorded and used as feedback for students about their learning.

Questioning:

Questioning strategies provides teachers with insight into the degree and depth of understanding.

4.2 Summative Assessment

Summative assessment is assessment that provides evidence of student achievement for the purpose of making a judgment about student competence or program effectiveness.

According to Lenski and Verbruggen Summative Assessments should: "Focus on product, [be] closed-ended, scoring is objective and writing samples elicit specific forms or content" (137). Some of the assessments they suggest are:

Curriculum-based measurements

Elicitation

Grammatical transformation

Limited-response tasks

Ordering

Spelling Tests

Standardized Tests

Timed Tests

Vocabulary Tests (137)

Rubrics:
Rubrics are very helpful when assessing writing because they clearly describe what writing looks like at each level in different categories. It is important to include the major different components of writing in the rubric, so that students who may score well in neatness, but not in spelling, have accurate and appropriate assessments of their work.

Here is one example of a rubrics to assess writing.

Here is a rubric that includes the major focuses of writing: reasoning, communication, organization and conventions. It is for a Grade 1 Assignment.

Here is an example of how a teacher marked a students work with this aforementioned rubric

Source

In addition to end of unit tests, another summative assessment tool that can be used is an end of unit project. These end of unit projects can take many forms, but there should be a direct correlation between the desired learning outcomes and the content and form of the summative assessment (Johnson and Jenkins, 2009).

Finally, portfolios can also be used as a summative assessment tool (Johnson and Jenkins, 2009). This is a very effective summative assessment tool in primary school writing, because it provides a significant amount of information for the teacher to assess. It also can vary in size; a portfolio can be handed in every week, at the end of every unit, monthly, or even by term or year.

Teachers should make sure that they are creating assessment methods that specifically pertain to a learning target.

Teachers can often create activities that include more learning targets than necessary, so it is important if it is a writing assignment to just focus on the writing skills that the students display.

The assessment methods that should be used in writing should have the overall goal of wanting to improve the student's skills.

Assessment methods should focus on what the student can do to improve, rather than highlighting what they did wrong.

Teachers need to make sure that they are creating assessment methods that accurately measure the different components of writing, and not just focus on the overall quality of the piece of work.

Organization, quality, neatness and conventions are some of the categories that should be considered when assessing writing.

Because developing proper writing skills is very important in elementary school, students should be involved in the assessment process.

Students should know what is expected of them and understand what needs to happen for them to be successful.

For information and resources about additional challenges that teachers may face when assessing writing, please check the links below:
From what has been said, it is clear to see that there are many techniques for accurately assessing primary school writing. The younger years are sensitive and vital times in children's lives, and it is important to assist them in cultivating their writing skills so that they will thrive in higher grades. Sufficient writing abilities are important for all subjects, therefore proper assessment methods, both formative and summative, should be implemented to ensure that all students are being evaluated accurately and fairly.

Ontario School Board - Examples of lessons with assessment methods for Grades 1-9

Illustrative Examples and Specific Outcomes For Grade One

BC: Writing Standards for Grade One, with examples

Illustrative Examples and Specific Outcomes for Grade Two

BC: Writing Standards for Grade Two, with examples

Illustrative Examples and Specific Outcomes for Grade Three

BC: Writing Standards for Grade Three, with examples

Illustrative Examples and Specific Outcomes for Grade Four

BC: Writing Standards for Grade Four, with examples

Illustrative Examples and Specific Outcomes for Grade Five

BC: Writing Standards for Grade Five, with examples

Illustrative Examples and Specific Outcomes for Grade Six

BC: Writing Standards for Grade Six, with examples

For links to create rubrics check here and here

Additional Examples:

Chappuis, J., Stiggins, R., Chappuis, S. & Arter, J. (2012).
Classroom assessment for student learning: Doing it right - using it well. Pearson.

Danielson, Charlotte and Leslye Abrutyn. Introduction to Using Teaching Portfolios. Retrieved online October 2, 2012. http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/197171/chapters/The-Types-of-Portfolios.aspx

Davies, A. (2012). Making Classroom Assessment work. Connections Publishing.

Johnson, Evelyn and Joseph Jenkins. (2009) "Formative and Summative Assessment". Education.com. Retrieved online October 2, 2012.
http://www.education.com/reference/article/formative-and-summative-assessment/.

Lenski, Susan and Frances Verbruggen. (2010) Peha, S.(1996) "Writing Across the Curriculum". Writing Instruction and Assessment for English Language Learners K-8. New York: Guilford.
Teaching That Makes Sense. Retrieved online Oct. 2, 2012. From http://www.ttms.org/PDFs/06%20Writing%20Across%20the%20Curriculum%20v001%20(Full).pdf

Tompkins, G. BRithg, R., Pollard M., Winsor, P. (2011). The reading and writing processes. In Language Arts: Content and Teaching Srategies (5th Ed.) (136-148). Toronto, ON: Pearson.

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Lisa Larsen, Jade Nipp, Sapphire Pataky and Alexandra Van Zanten. In any primary school classroom there will be a wide range of skill levels in terms of writing, because each student will be bringing varied experiences and abilities to the class.

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ISSUU - The Journal of Saitama City Educators by Journal of Saitama City Educators

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ISSUU - The Journal of Saitama City Educators by Journal of Saitama City Educators

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Jarvis - The Process Writing Method I-TESL-J

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Jarvis - The Process Writing Method I-TESL-J

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The Internet TESL Journal Daniel J. Jarvis
djarvis73 [at] msn.com
Palmquist Elementary School (Oceanside, California, USA)

Six years ago, while beginning my teacher education program, I came across a book called Whole Language Strategies for ESL Students by Gail Heald-Taylor (1994). In her book Heald-Taylor describes an approach to writing called Process Writing. Now that I am getting ready to begin my fifth year teaching, I have realized that I have not only continued to use this approach, but have found it to be one of my most valuable tools to improve the writing of my English as a Second Language (ESL) students. I have used this approach with ESL students in grades 3-5 and beginning, intermediate, and advanced Adult ESL students at the community college level. In this article I am going to summarize Heald-Taylor's Process Writing approach with the addition of illustrations from my own experience at the elementary and community college level. The Process Writing Method would be a valuable tool for any ESL teacher who wants to improve the writing of their students.

Process Writing Method

Heald-Taylor (1986) describes her method in the following way:

"Process Writing is an approach which encourages ESL youngsters to communicate their own written messages while simultaneously developing their literacy skills in speaking and reading rather than delaying involvement in the writing process, as advocated in the past, until students have perfected their abilities in handwriting, reading, phonetics, spelling, grammar, and punctuation. In Process Writing the communication of the message is paramount and therefore the developing, but inaccurate, attempts at handwriting, spelling, and grammar are accepted, know that within the process of regular writing opportunities students will gain control of these sub-skills. These skills are further developed in individual and small group conference interviews."

Getting Started

ESL students are ready to begin writing as soon as they are able to speak in social and classroom situations, especially if they are initiating the conversations. The beginning writer will often use a variety of approaches when writing from illustrations, wiggles, invented spellings, or other representations of words. It is important that the student is able to discuss with the ESL teacher what those representations mean in order for the instructor to help the ESL student develop their writing skills.

Materials

Every student will need a writing dairy notebook, which later will be replaced with a writing folder in which ESL students will keep their completed work and works in progress. Students will also need a daily journal with about 30 pages of lined or unlined paper. Unlined paper is especially useful for the beginning writer, who may communicate their messages using illustrations or wiggles. The daily journal is intended for students to make journal entries on a daily basis. Students are asked to write on one side of the page. The other side is for comments made by the teacher and for translation. Having students write in a daily journal is extremely useful in that you have a daily record of the student's growth. These are very useful to use over the course of a school year. Teachers can pinpoint specific areas that students need assistance in. I have also found these very useful during parent-teacher conferences or problem solving team meeting. This allows the teacher to show what specific areas they have been working on with the student, what strategies they have used, and the results of the work done. At the end of the school year, students often value their journals because they can visually see the growth they have achieved. Journals can also be saved to show growth over multiple years.

Illustrations

Many of the ESL students I have had in my classes have preferred to draw pictures first because they can include many concepts that they would not be able to express verbally. Drawings and illustrations are a very important part of beginning writing. However, not all students will draw first. Many will prefer to write before they draw a picture. Illustrations are a way for ESL students to understand new concepts or vocabulary in a context that makes the new concepts or vocabulary meaningful and more readily internalized by the learner. Illustrations also enable ESL students to link new concepts and vocabulary to prior knowledge by visually showing the connection between different concepts. I have had many students who have had a love and a talent for art, which helped develop their love of writing because they could see the connection between how writing can influence art and how art can influence their writing.

The First Lesson

The very first lesson will be a modeling of how to develop and write a story. Modeling the process helps to ensure that the students grasp the assignment. The class will begin by developing a class story with the students assisting in the development and the writing of the story. The story can be written on the chalkboard, chart paper, or on overhead transparencies. Give the students the option of what to write about and ask them what you should write for the very first sentence. Have the students try to say the sentence out loud and have the author try to write the sentence on the chalkboard, chart paper, or overhead transparencies. The student may only know one of the letters of a word or may not know the work at all. If the student does not know the word or a large portion of a word, have the student write a line or wiggle to represent the word or partial word. Ask the rest of the class to assist in completing the words and sentence. In these beginning stories, grammar and syntax may not always be perfect. Accepting the language a student uses at the time is very important. Over time, as the student has more opportunity to develop language, the student will improve in their language ability. Accepting the varying ability levels of is very important. All students should feel good about wanting to participate and feel successful about the progress they are making in writing. It is also very important that you teach your students to be accepting of the different ability levels in the class, especially for the Adult ESL student. In my experience, adults are much more affected by the criticism of their classmate than young students. Adult students who do not feel good about their writing will not write or want to share their writing. All students need to fell good about the progress they have made.

On Their Own

Everyday ESL students need to be encouraged to work on writing their own stories and making entries in their diaries. Students need to know that they must practice writing every day. They need to understand that it is okay to make mistakes in their stories and journal and not to get stuck on worrying whether or not their writing is perfect. In my class, I explain to my students that writing like anything else they want to get better at requires practice. Having a pencil on paper is the only way that students will improve their writing. This is also an area where teachers have a problem. Many teachers see more writing as more work they have to grade and correct. If students write stories and dairy entries daily, at the end of the week this may seem like a lot of grading for the teacher to do. Teachers need to be okay with not having to grade and correct every piece of writing a student creates. Students and parents also need to understand that not every piece of writing will be corrected and graded. Here is an example of how to relate this to other aspects of life. If your student is involved in a sport, they will attend practice all week long, however, the wins and losses that occur during practice are not recorded. Practice is a time to make mistakes and get better. Game days are the only event that really "counts" on the win/loss column. It is the same way with writing. Students need the opportunity to practice, to make mistakes and get better. Then they take what they have learned and apply it on "Game Day" or in education "Test Day." Using this approach a teacher will not become overwhelmed by grading a never-ending stack of paper.

Translation

When students complete their stories many of them will have lines, wiggles, invented spelling, and other representations for words. Take this opportunity to have the student "read" their stories to you. While the student in reading their story, use the blank side of the paper to write the translation of their story in the proper form. Go over the translation of the story with the student pointing out what they did correctly. Knowing what they did correctly allows students to feel good about what they are doing right and shows them what they need to work on without focusing on the negative.

"What Should I Write About?"

In the beginning, many students will have a difficult time deciding on a topic to write about. At first, the teacher may need to provide students with topics based upon learning experiences they have had in the classroom, experiences at home, or experiences they have had in the world. It is important to develop topics with which the students have had some experience. This allows the student to draw upon prior knowledge to connect with the writing topic. This will expand the base of vocabulary that a student has to draw from in the development of their story. Students need to "see" the connection between writing and other subjects. By developing an understanding of the connection between subjects, students will not only progress in the development of their writing but also in the other subject areas.

Student-Teacher Writing Conferences

Teachers need to set up individual conference interview with their ESL students to support their writing development. Heald-Taylor states,

"In conference interviews students are invited to further develop their stories, to add more information, to include descriptive language, to order information, and to develop skills in phonetics, spelling, grammar, and punctuation."

Heald-Taylor describes two types of conferences, the content conference and the skill conference. In the content conference, the teacher asks the student for more information about their story. Some students will respond verbally and some will add additional information to the story. It is important not to push students in to the drafting and revising process. They will do this on their own when they are ready. It is also important for the teacher not to revise or edit their work for them. When a teacher does this the writing is no longer the students writing. It has become the teacher's creation. During the skill conference, the student and teacher will focus on writing skills such as phonetics, spelling, grammar, and punctuation. It is important that the teacher only focuses on one skill at a time until that skill is learned. Allow the students to guide the direction of skill focus by allowing them to incorporate knowledge they have already learned. Students are more likely to internalize new skills if they can make connections to prior knowledge.

Why Process Writing Works

As any ESL teacher will tell you, ESL students of the same age and grade level will have varying abilities in writing. Process Writing will assist ESL students, whatever their ability level, improve their writing. Once an ESL student understands the process and trust that the teacher will accept and approve of their invented symbols and spelling, the ability to write improves dramatically. The key to learning to write is feeling confident in your abilities. Many students do not enjoy writing because they feel that if they cannot do it correctly the first time then they will never get it. Learning to write like learning to do many things requires practice and time. All students are capable to becoming excellent writers given enough practice and time. The Process Writing method values the talents and growth of individual writers and makes them want to continue writing because they feel good about their abilities. The Process Writing method is an approach that has help me developed many youngsters and adults into wonderful writers.

Reference

Heald-Taylor, Gail. Whole Language Strategies for ESL Students. Carlsbad: Dominie Press, Inc., 1994.

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VIII, No. 7, July 2002
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Jarvis-Writing.html

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The Internet TESL Journal Daniel J. Jarvisdjarvis73 [at] msn.comPalmquist Elementary School (Oceanside, California, USA) Six years ago, while beginning my teacher education program, I came across a book called Whole Language Strategies for ESL Students by Gail Heald-Taylor (1994). In her book Heald-Taylor describes an approach to writing called Process Writing.

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Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts

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Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts

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Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts

Abstract

Academic writing requires conscious effort and much practice in composing, developing, and analyzing ideas. Students writing in a second language are also faced with social and cognitive challenges related to second language acquisition. L1 models of writing instruction and research on composing processes have been the theoretical basis for using the process approach in L2 writing pedagogy. However, language proficiency and competence underlies the ability to write in the L2 in a fundamental way. Therefore, L2 writing instructors should take into account both strategy development and language skill development when working with students. This paper explores error in writing in relation to particular aspects of second language acquisition and theories of the writing process in L1 and L2. It can be argued that a focus on the writing process as a pedagogical tool is only appropriate for second language learners if attention is given to linguistic development, and if learners are able to get sufficient and effective feedback with regard to their errors in writing.

Introduction

The ability to write well is not a naturally acquired skill; it is usually learned or culturally transmitted as a set of practices in formal instructional settings or other environments. Writing skills must be practiced and learned through experience. Writing also involves composing, which implies the ability either to tell or retell pieces of information in the form of narratives or description, or to transform information into new texts, as in expository or argumentative writing. Perhaps it is best viewed as a continuum of activities that range from the more mechanical or formal aspects of "writing down" on the one end, to the more complex act of composing on the other end (Omaggio Hadley, 1993). It is undoubtedly the act of composing, though, which can create problems for students, especially for those writing in a second language (L2) in academic contexts. Formulating new ideas can be difficult because it involves transforming or reworking information, which is much more complex than writing as telling. By putting together concepts and solving problems, the writer engages in "a two-way interaction between continuously developing knowledge and continuously developing text" (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987, p. 12). Indeed, academic writing requires conscious effort and practice in composing, developing, and analyzing ideas. Compared to students writing in their native language (L1), however, students writing in their L2 have to also acquire proficiency in the use of the language as well as writing strategies, techniques and skills. They might also have to deal with instructors and later, faculty members, who may or may not get beyond their language problems when evaluating their work. Although a certain amount of consciousness-raising on the part of the readers may be warranted, students want to write close to error-free texts and they enter language courses with the expectations of becoming more proficient writers in the L2. [-1-]

This paper explores error in writing in relation to particular aspects of second language acquisition and theories of the writing process in L1 and L2. I argue that the process approach to instruction, with its emphasis on the writing process, meaning making, invention and multiple drafts (Raimes, 1991), is only appropriate for second language learners if they are both able to get sufficient feedback with regard to their errors in writing, and are proficient enough in the language to implement revision strategies.

A brief survey of the nature of L2 writing and L1 models of the writing process illustrates why it is difficult to apply L1 research to a model for second language writing. Further, certain social and cognitive factors related to second language acquisition show that strategies involved in the language learning process also affect L2 writing. With a discussion of these factors, fundamental questions about error in writing and L2 proficiency are raised. It should then become apparent that the process approach to writing instruction can only be effective if these two components are taken into consideration.

Models of L1 and L2 Writing

Most ESL students studying in post-secondary institutions have writing skills. However, their purposes for writing are sometimes not the kind valued by Western academic communities. The nature of academic literacy often confuses and disorients students, "particularly those who bring with them a set of conventions that are at odds with those of the academic world they are entering" (Kutz, Groden & Zamel, 1993, p. 30). In addition, the culture-specific nature of schemata-abstract mental structures representing our knowledge of things, events, and situations-can lead to difficulties when students write texts in L2. Knowing how to write a "summary" or "analysis" in Mandarin or Spanish does not necessarily mean that students will be able to do these things in English (Kern, 2000). As a result, any appropriate instruction must take into consideration the influence from various educational, social, and cultural experiences that students have in their native language. These include textual issues, such as rhetorical and cultural preferences for organizing information and structuring arguments, commonly referred to as contrastive rhetoric (Cai, 1999; Connor, 1997; Kaplan, 1987; Kobayashi & Rinnert, 1996; Leki, 1993; 1997; Matalene, 1985), knowledge of appropriate genres (Johns, 1995; Swales, 1990), familiarity with writing topics (Shen, 1989), and distinct cultural and instructional socialization (Coleman, 1996; Holliday, 1997; Valdes, 1995). In addition to instructional and cultural factors, L2 writers have varying commands of the target language, which affect the way structural errors are treated from both social and cognitive points of view.

Much of the research on L2 writing has been closely dependent on L1 research. Although L2 writing is strategically, rhetorically, and linguistically different in many ways from L1 writing (Silva, 1993), L1 models have had a significant influence on L2 writing instruction and the development of a theory of L2 writing. However, a look at two popular L1 models will give us some insight into the problem of developing a distinct construct of L2 writing. [-2-]

The Flower and Hayes (1980, 1981) model focuses on what writers do when they compose. It examines the rhetorical problem in order to determine the potential difficulties a writer could experience during the composing process. The "problem-solving activity" is divided into two major components: the rhetorical situation (audience, topic, assignment), and the writer's own goals (involving the reader, the writer's persona, the construction of meaning, and the production of the formal text). By comparing skilled and less-skilled writers, the emphasis here is placed on "students' strategic knowledge and the ability of students to transform information . . . to meet rhetorically constrained purposes" (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996, p. 116). However, the social dimension is important too. Indeed, writing "should not be viewed solely as an individually-oriented, inner-directed cognitive process, but as much as an acquired response to the discourse conventions . . . within particular communities" (Swales, 1990, p. 4).

In more recent studies that examine the goals students set for themselves, the strategies they use to develop their organizing of ideas and the metacognitive awareness they bring to both these acts, Flower and her colleagues (1990) analyze the academic task of reading-to-write to establish the interaction of context and cognition in performing a particular writing task.

One of the problems they note is the transition students are required to make when entering the academic discourse community (a peculiar, socially constructed convention in itself), where students need to learn how to operate successfully in an academic conversation that implies knowledge of the textual conventions, expectations, and formulaic expressions particular to the discourse. According to the researchers, "conceptualizing this transition as a social/cognitive act of entering a discourse emphasizes both the problem-solving effort of a student learning to negotiate a new situation and the role the situation will play in what is learned" (p. 222). The view that writing is typically a socially situated, communicative act is later incorporated into Flower's (1994) socio-cognitive theory of writing. In the social cognitive curriculum students are taught as apprentices in negotiating an academic community, and in the process develop strategic knowledge. Writing skills are acquired and used through negotiated interaction with real audience expectations, such as in peer group responses. Instruction should, then, afford students the opportunity to participate in transactions with their own texts and the texts of others (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996). By guiding students toward a conscious awareness of how an audience will interpret their work, learners then learn to write with a "readerly" sensitivity (Kern, 2000).

Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) also propose a model that suggests reasons for differences in writing ability between skilled and less-skilled writers. The basic difference is revealed in their two models of writing: the knowledge-telling model, whose basic structure depends on the processes of retrieving content from memory with regard to topical and genre cues, and the knowledge-transforming model, which involves more reflective problem-solving analysis and goal-setting. The latter model is important because it opens up the idea of multiple processing, which is revealed through writing tasks that vary in processing complexity. The authors discuss the notion of mental representation as a writing strategy. From their research with graduate students, they observe that the students "generated goals for their compositions and engaged in problem solving involving structure and gist as well as verbatim representations" (p. 354). The knowledge-transforming or intentional writing model is different from knowledge telling in that it involves setting of goals that are to be achieved through the composing process, and the purposeful achievement of those goals. The composing process does not depend on memories and emotions and on external (teacher) assistance for its direction. In fact, Bereiter and Scardamalia criticize formal schooling that encourages the more passive kind of cognition by "continually telling students what to do," rather than encouraging them "to follow their spontaneous interests and impulses . . . and assume responsibility for what becomes of their minds" (p. 361). They also argue that the ability to wrestle with and resolve both content and rhetorical problems calls upon a dialectical process for reflection. If students rarely practice the kinds of writing tasks that develop knowledge-transforming skills, they are not likely to be able to perform those skills easily. [-3-]

Both the Flower and Hayes, and the Bereiter and Scardamalia writing process models have served as the theoretical basis for using the process approach in both L1 and L2 writing instruction. By incorporating pre-writing activities such as collaborative brainstorming, choice of personally meaningful topics, strategy instruction in the stages of composing, drafting, revising, and editing, multiple drafts and peer-group editing, the instruction takes into consideration what writers do as they write. Attention to the writing process stresses more of a workshop approach to instruction, which fosters classroom interaction, and engages students in analyzing and commenting on a variety of texts. The L1 theories also seem to support less teacher intervention and less attention to form.

Despite their implications for classroom instruction, not all the components of these models are appropriate in an L2 context. The Flower model, in particular, does not recognize cross-cultural differences and issues related to sociocultural variation in the functions of the written language (Kern, 2000). Additionally, with native speakers, "writing ability is more closely linked to fluency in and familiarity with the conventions of expository discourse" (Kogen 1986, p. 25). L2 writers, however, are in the process of acquiring these conventions and so they often need more instruction about the language itself. Limited knowledge of vocabulary, language structure, and content can inhibit a L2 writer's performance. In addition, the models do not account for growing language proficiency, which is a vital element of L2 writing development.

Similarly, composing, especially in the revision stage, challenges L2 writers. In his research on how L2 writers revise their work, Silva (1993) observes that learners revise at a superficial level. They re-read and reflect less on their written text, revise less, and when they do, the revision is primarily focused on grammatical correction. On the other hand, L1 writing ability may also transfer to L2. As a result, students who are skilled writers in their native languages and have surpassed a certain L2 proficiency level can adequately transfer those skills. Of course, those who have difficulty writing in their native language may not have a repertoire of strategies to help them in their L2 writing development (Sasaki & Hirose, 1996). These observations warrant consideration for L2 instruction and course design, especially for those courses in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) writing that include less-skilled writers or those who have never had the opportunity to engage in more knowledge-transforming tasks in their native languages.

In sum, social-cognitive theories of writing show us how social contexts for writing operate together with the cognitive efforts of the writer, just as they do when a person is acquiring a new language. However, the problem with applying L1 theories and subsequent models of instruction (such as the process approach) to L2 instruction is that L2 writing also involves the cognitively demanding task of generating meaningful text in a second language. As a result, L2 students generally want more teacher involvement and guidance, especially at the revision stage. Consequently, in order to provide effective pedagogy, L2 writing instructors need to understand the social and cognitive factors involved in the process of second language acquisition and error in writing because these factors have a salient effect on L2 writing development. [-4-]

The Sources of Error in L2 Writing: Social and Cognitive Factors

Social Factors

Both social and cognitive factors affect language learning. Exploration of social factors gives us some idea of why learners differ in rate of L2 learning, in proficiency type (for instance, conversational ability versus writing ability), and in ultimate proficiency (Ellis, 1994). Research based on direct (self-report questionnaires) and indirect measures generally shows that learners with positive attitudes, motivation, and concrete goals will have these attitudes reinforced if they experience success. Likewise, learners' negative attitudes may be strengthened by lack of success or by failure (McGroarty, 1996). Needless to say, although ESL learners may have negative attitudes toward writing for academic purposes, many of them are financially and professionally committed to graduating from English-speaking universities, and as a result, have strong reasons for learning and improving their skills.

There is a direct relationship between learner attitudes and learner motivation. Gardner's (1985) socio-educational model is designed to account for the role of social factors in language acquisition. It interrelates four aspects of L2 learning: the social and cultural milieu (which determines beliefs about language and culture), individual learner differences (related to motivation and language aptitude), the setting (formal and/or informal learning contexts), and learning outcomes. Integrative motivation involves a desire to learn an L2 because individuals need to learn the target language to integrate into the community. In addition to this interest, the people or the culture represented by the other language group may also inspire them. On the other hand, instrumental motivation acknowledges the role that external influences and incentives play in strengthening the learners' desire to achieve. Learners who are instrumentally motivated are interested in learning the language for a particular purpose, such as writing a dissertation or getting a job. According to the theory, if second language learning takes place in isolation from a community of target language speakers, then it benefits more from integrative motivation, whereas if it takes place among a community of speakers, then instrumental orientation becomes the more effective motivational factor. Despite problems in Gardner's research design, it can be concluded that motivational factors "probably do not make much difference on their own, but they can create a more positive context in which language learning is likely to flourish" (Bialystok & Hakuta, 1994, p. 140). (See Lambert, 1975; Schumann, 1978; Giles, Robinson & Smith, 1980; Giles & Byrne, 1982; and Hamers & Blanc, 1982 for examples of other models that focus on the social circumstances of learning in relation to second language acquisition).

Learners' attitudes, motivations, and goals can explain why some L2 writers perform better than others. For example, at the beginning of each of my ESL writing classes, I often ask students to fill out a personal information form to determine their needs and interests when planning my course. The answers to questions such as, "Do you enjoy writing in English?" and "What are your strengths and weaknesses in writing?" are revealing. Most students will answer that they hate writing in English (and in their native language, for that matter), and are only taking the course for educational and/or career purposes. In fact, it seems that many of the students would prefer to be practicing conversation. Students may enjoy writing e-mail messages to friends around the world, but challenges, such as difficulties getting started, finding the right words, and developing topics, abound. However, if students show an overall interest in the target language (integrative motivation), perceive that there is parental and social support, and have a desire to achieve their professional goals (instrumental motivation), they can become more proficient in their ability to write in English, despite the initial lack of self-motivation. [-5-]

Writing teachers should be aware of how the instrumental motivation of their L2 students will influence the effectiveness of their lessons. Common purposes for learners writing in an EAP context include writing a research paper for publication in an English-speaking journal or writing a business report for a multinational company. These learners may be less motivated to write stories or poetry, because they perceive that these tasks are not related to their needs. Even writing a standard research essay may seem like a waste of time for those who will need to write project reports and memos. If learners perceive writing tasks to be useless, they may approach them in a careless manner. Consequently, it is likely that they will be inattentive to errors, monitoring, and rhetorical concerns (Carson, 2001). However, if students are highly motivated, then any sort of writing task, expressive or otherwise, are welcomed.

Social factors also influence the quality of contact that learners will experience. Indeed, we cannot assume that "more contact" with the target language will result in more acquisition of the L2. Certainly, instructors recommend that students studying English for academic purposes should read academic texts, attend academic lectures, and even work with students who are native speakers in order to become more acquainted with the discourse. However, if they do not engage in the texts, understand the talks, or actively contribute to the study sessions, these activities will have little effect on student progress. Interaction is key. A common complaint among ESL students at university is that they have difficulty meeting native speakers and getting to know them. Students are often disappointed that they do not have as much interaction with native speakers as they had expected. In addition, they often associate with other students from their L1 and speak their native language. Unfortunately, this pattern can slow down L2 development in all skill areas. The instructor is often responsible for providing incentives or opportunities for interactions with native speakers. Generally speaking, if L2 learners are motivated to integrate into the L2, they will develop a higher level of proficiency and positive attitudes, which can have a positive effect on their writing.

In short, learners may continue to exhibit errors in their writing for the following social reasons:

1. negative attitudes toward the target language

2. continued lack of progress in the L2

3. a wide social and psychological distance between them and the target culture, and,

4. a lack of integrative and instrumental motivation for learning.

Cognitive Factors

Academic writing is believed to be cognitively complex. Acquisition of academic vocabulary and discourse style is particularly difficult. According to cognitive theory, communicating orally or in writing is an active process of skill development and gradual elimination of errors as the learner internalizes the language. Indeed, acquisition is a product of the complex interaction of the linguistic environment and the learner's internal mechanisms. With practice, there is continual restructuring as learners shift these internal representations in order to achieve increasing degrees of mastery in L2 (McLaughlin, 1988). [-6-]

One model that applies to both speaking and writing in a second language is Anderson's (1985) model of language production, which can be divided into three stages: construction, in which the writer plans what he/she is going to write by brainstorming, using a mind-map or outline; transformation, in which language rules are applied to transform intended meanings into the form of the message when the writer is composing or revising; and execution, which corresponds to the physical process of producing the text. The first two stages have been described as "setting goals and searching memory for information, then using production systems to generate language in phrases or constituents" (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, p. 42). Writers vascillate between these processes as they actively develop the meaning they wish to express in writing. Anderson's learning theory supports teaching approaches that combine the development of language and content knowledge, practice in using this knowledge, and strategy training to encourage independent learning (Snow, 2001).

In structuring information, the writer uses various types of knowledge, including discourse knowledge, understanding of audience, and sociolinguistic rules (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). Organization at both the sentence and the text level is also important for effective communication of meaning, and ultimately, for the quality of the written product (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1987). For instance, coherence problems may be due to not knowing how to organize text or how to store the relevant information. The transformation stage involves converting information into meaningful sentences. At this point, the writer translates or changes his/her plans into a mental representation of the goals, ideas, and organization developed in the construction stage. Revision is also part of this stage. As previously mentioned, revision is a cognitively demanding task for L2 learners because it not only involves task definition, evaluation, strategy selection, and modification of text in the writing plan (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996), but also the ability of students to analyze and evaluate the feedback they receive on their writing.

Due to the complex process of writing in a second language, learners often find it difficult to develop all aspects of the stages simultaneously. As a result, they selectively use only those aspects that are automatic or have already been proceduralized (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). In order to enhance or facilitate language production, students can develop particular learning strategies that isolate component mental processes. O'Malley and Chamot have differentiated strategies into three categories: metacognitive, such as planning the organization of written discourse or monitoring (that is, being aware of what one is doing and responding appropriately to the demands of a task); cognitive, such as transferring or using known linguistic information to facilitate a new learning task or using imagery for recalling and using new vocabulary, and social/affective strategies, which involve cooperating with peers, for example, in peer revision classes.

Learner strategies can be effective, but they need to be internalized so that they can be utilized in adverse learning situations. For example, if an environment is perceived to be stressful or threatening, for example, writing as part of a job interview process, or performing under timed test conditions, learners' affective states can influence cognition. Emotional influences along with cognitive factors can account for achievement and performance in L2, to a certain extent. Schumann (1998) argues that affect may influence cognition through its role in framing a problem and in adopting processing strategies. He states that we very often use feelings as information: "When faced with a situation about which we have to make a judgment we often ask ourselves how we feel about it . . . we may also employ feelings when time constraints and competing tasks limit our cognitive capacities" (p. 247). This outcome may affect the way second language students perform when they are under stress. [-7-]

Language transfer is another important cognitive factor related to writing error. Transfer is defined as the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously acquired (Odlin, 1989). The study of transfer involves the study of errors (negative transfer), facilitation (positive transfer), avoidance of target language forms, and their over-use (Ellis, 1994). Behaviorist accounts claim that transfer is the cause of errors, whereas from a cognitive perspective, transfer is seen as a resource that the learner actively draws upon in interlanguage development (Selinker, 1972). In other words, "the L1 can have a direct effect on interlanguage development by influencing the hypotheses that learners construct" (Ellis, 1994, p. 342). According to McLaughlin, transfer errors can occur because:

[L]earners lack the necessary information in the second language or the attentional capacity to activate the appropriate second-language routine. But such an account says little about why certain linguistic forms transfer and others do not. (1988, p. 50)

Despite the fact that L1 transfer is no longer viewed as the only predictor or cause of error at the structural level (since it is difficult to distinguish empirically between instances of communication and language transfer in research studies), a writer's first language plays a complex and significant role in L2 acquisition. For example, when learners write under pressure, they may call upon systematic resources from their native language for the achievement and synthesis of meaning (Widdowson, 1990). Research has also shown that language learners sometimes use their native language when generating ideas and attending to details (Friedlander, 1990). In addition, contrastive studies, which have focused on characteristics of L1 languages and cultures, have helped us predict rhetorical error in writing. These studies have been valuable in our understanding of L2 writing development. However, many feel that these studies have also led to reductive, essentializing generalizations about ways of writing and cultural stereotypes about students from certain linguistic backgrounds (Fox, 1994; Leki, 1997; Spack, 1997). As a result, erroneous predictions about students' learning based on their L1 language and culture have occurred regardless of social factors, such as "the contexts, and purpose of their learning to write, or their age, race, class, gender, education, and prior experience" (Raimes, 1998, p. 143). In addition, learners are influenced by many global phenomena and are themselves continually changing with new experiences. In spite of these criticisms, though, an understanding of "difference among epistemological rhetorical, and pedagogical traditions" (Kern, 2000, p. 176) and the impact of language transfer can be illuminating for an understanding of why learners make certain structural and organizational errors. [-8-]

Input and interaction also play important roles in the writing process, especially in classroom settings. Some studies have indicated that input, along with L1 transfer and communicative need may work together to shape interlanguage (Ellis, 1994; Selinker, 1972). Research has focused on four broad areas: input frequency, the nature of comprehensible input, learner output in interaction, and the processes of collaborative discourse construction. Writers need to receive adequate L2 input in order to form new hypotheses about syntactic and rhetorical forms in the target language. If students are not exposed to native-like models of written texts, their errors in writing are more likely to persist. Errors abound in peer review classes or in computer-mediated exchanges where learners read and respond to each other's compositions. Indeed, in many of my own classes, interlanguage talk or discourse is often the primary source of input for many learners. However, if the interaction, oral or written, allows for adequate negotiation of meaning, peer responses can be very useful. (See Pellettieri (2000) for what happens when learners respond to each other on the computer and read texts containing spelling and grammar errors).

We can see that writing in a second language is a complex process involving the ability to communicate in L2 (learner output) and the ability to construct a text in order to express one's ideas effectively in writing. Social and cognitive factors and learner strategies help us in assessing the underlying reasons why L2 learners exhibit particular writing errors. For instance, the writing problems experienced by Spanish speakers living in the United States may be due to a multiplicity of factors, including the effects of transfer and interference from the Spanish language, and cultural norms (Plata, 1995). Spanish-speaking writers must undergo the task of cognitively exchanging the style of the Spanish language for that of English. For this transformation to happen, some students find that creating another persona, such as replacing their birth name with an English one, can help them to become more immersed in the target language and culture. In short, because learners are less familiar and less confident with structural elements of a new language, rhetorical and cultural conventions and even new uses of writing, writing in an L2 can have errors and be less effective than writing in L1 (Kern, 2000).

The Sources of Error in L2 Writing

There are several ways to think about error in writing in light of what we know about second language acquisition and what we know about how texts, context and the writing process interact with one another. As mentioned, students writing in a second language generally produce texts that contain varying degrees of grammatical and rhetorical errors. In fact, depending on proficiency level, the more content-rich and creative the text, the greater the possibility there is for errors at the morphosyntactic level. These kinds of errors are especially common among L2 writers who have a lot of ideas, but not enough language to express what they want to say in a comprehensible way. What we classify as an error, which is associated with learner competence, may actually be a mistake, or more specifically in an EAP context, a "derailment" related to learner performance (Shaughnessy, 1977). These "derailments" occur when students attempt to use the academic voice and make their sentences more intricate, especially when the task requires more complex ideas.

From behaviorist and mentalist perspectives of error, which have emphasized the product (the error itself) to more constructivist views, which focus on underlying process (why the error is made), researchers have attempted to understand the errors in writers' texts by hypothesizing their possible sources (Bartholomae, 1980; Hull, 1985). Although reading an error-filled text can be tiring and disconcerting, errors can help us identify the cognitive strategies that the learner is using to process information. According to Ellis (1985), it is through analyzing learner errors that we elevate "the status of errors from undesirability to that of a guide to the inner working of the language learning process" (p. 53). [-9-]

Whether an error, mistake, or "derailment," awkward discourse can occur for a variety of reasons, some of which have already been mentioned. First of all, learners may translate from L1, or they may try out what they assume is a legitimate structure of the target language, although hindered by insufficient knowledge of correct usage. In the learning process, they often experience native language interference from developmental stages of interlanguage or from nonstandard elements in spoken dialects (a common occurrence in students writing in their native language as well). They also tend to over-generalize the rules for stylistic features when acquiring new discourse structures. In addition, learners are often unsure of what they want to express,which would cause them to make mistakes in any language. Finally, writers in L2 might lack familiarity with new rhetorical structures and the organization of ideas (Carson, 2001; Connor & Kaplan, 1987; Kutz, Groden, & Zamel, 1993; Raimes, 1987). L2 writing relates closely to native-language literacy and particular instructional contexts. Students may not be acquainted with English rhetoric, which can lead to writing that appears off topic or incoherent to many native English speakers. Rhetoric and writing are direct outcomes of sociocultural and political contexts; in other words, they are schematic representations of the writer's unique experiences within a particular social milieu. For example, Chinese or Indonesian students may write in accordance with a set of rhetorical norms (such as the "eight-legged" essay) that differ from those of English (Cai, 1999; Matalene, 1985; Williams, 1989).

Repeating a previous mistake, or backsliding, is a common occurrence in L2 writing. More important, though, is the issue of fossilization-when "learner interlanguage competence diverges in more or less permanent ways from the target language grammar" (Odlin, 1994, p. 13). Fossilized errors can be problematic in writing because the errors become ingrained, like bad habits, in a learner's repertoire, and they reappear despite remediation and correction. They can be common among immigrants who have learned much of the L2 "on the street," where the emphasis is on fluency and not linguistic correctness. Errors in writing, fossilized or otherwise, can be glaring, especially to the reader who has had little experience interacting with L2 speakers and texts.

Implications for Teaching: Proficiency, Instruction and Response to Error

Although instructors may think of errors as part of a language learning process related to linguistic, situational, and psycholinguistic contexts (Carson, 2001), and writing as a skill developed over time, most L2 learners' writing is judged according to criteria that are static and product-based. That teachers draw conclusions about intellectual ability on the basis of structural and grammatical problems has also been well documented (Sternglass, 1997; Zamel, 1998). Variability in writing, which is typical of a learner's interlanguage, is a concern when addressing proficiency issues. The definition of proficiency has consequences for L2 students; it affects their ability to complete writing tasks across the disciplines, cope with the demands of academic English, and receive recognition as well-informed, critical thinkers. [-10-]

One problem in assessing language performance is that it must address the many factors related to the contexts in which language is used. According to Bialystok (1998), any definition of language proficiency is deeply entangled in theoretical attitude. On the one hand, there is the formalist approach, which attempts to explain language as code. According to this perspective, "language proficiency is an ultimately unknowable abstraction that reflects the universal competence of native speakers" (p. 502). On the other hand, there is the functionalist approach, which explains proficiency in its relationship to communication in specific contexts. In this respect, it is "the outcome of social interaction with a linguistic environment" (p. 502). In conversation, often both parties assume some common knowledge and take advantage of verbal and nonverbal communication; however, in written discourse, common knowledge cannot be assumed; therefore, the writer may need to provide more background information in order to communicate clearly.

Language requires a combination of formal structure, that is, a clear set of standards, and communicative application, which includes recognition of variations from the rules. Consequently, a proper definition of language proficiency would "present identifiable standards against which to describe language skills of users in different contexts" (Bialystok, 1998, p. 504). A more complete conceptualization of language performance, then, acknowledges personal characteristics, topical or real-world knowledge, and affective schemata, among other factors related to the social and cultural context (Brown, 2000).

Alongside the cultural and curricular aspects of standardization, there is variability in the process of L2 learning. Learners vary in the ultimate level of proficiency they achieve, with many failing to reach target-language competence. This variation is often the result of individual learner differences in motivation and aptitude, in addition to the use of an assortment of strategies, such as inferencing and self-monitoring for obtaining input and for learning from it (Ellis, 1994; Krashen, 1982). However, instead of setting the standard as a well-defined, functionally balanced system, and proficiency as the degree of deviation from this norm, with errors "marked, counted and statistically analyzed," Klein (1998) advocates acknowledging learner varieties. According to Klein, these are "systems in their own right, error-free by definition and characterized by particular lexical repertoire and particular interaction of organizational principles" (p. 538). In fact, it may be more useful to think about proficiency as a process, one in which learners alternate in their use of linguistic forms according to the linguistic and situational contexts (Ellis, 1994). From a functionalist perspective, communicative competence in writing should also take into consideration learner variability and error within particular contexts. Nevertheless, for L2 writers, the greater the language proficiency (however defined), the better the writing quality. In fact, both language proficiency and composing abilities can, or perhaps should be, accounted for in evaluating L2 writing performance and instruction (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996).

Valuable insights from research in second language acquisition and writing development can assist in developing instructional techniques linking the two processes-acquiring a second language and developing writing skills, especially for academic purposes. Both Flower (1994) and Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) have stressed the benefits of process approaches to writing instruction and the need for more knowledge-transforming tasks. Taking the concept of "knowledge transformation" further, Wells (2000) argues that writing approached in this way is also an opportunity for knowledge building, "as the writer both tries to anticipate the likely response of the envisaged audience and carries on a dialogue with the text being composed" (p. 77). However, if students have not developed learning strategies to monitor their writing errors, and if they do not receive enough conceptual feedback at the discourse level, then the positive effects of the instruction may backfire. Instructional approaches that can be used effectively with L2 writers show us what is at stake for L2 instructors and students alike. [-11-]

First of all, students may be able to communicate more effectively if they are exposed to models of not only standard paragraphs and essays, but also a variety of genres of writing, including flyers, magazine articles, letters, and so forth. By examining a variety of written texts, students' awareness can be raised with regard to the way words, structures, and genre contribute to purposeful writing. They can also be made aware of different types of textual organization, which can in turn affect L2 students' composing processes (Swales, 1990; Raimes, 1991, 1998). Models can also be used for text analysis, which can help L2 writers see how particular grammatical features are used in authentic discourse contexts. Depending on the learners' levels of proficiency and writing abilities, models can seem fairly formulaic, as in the knowledge-telling model of the five-paragraph essay. However, as the students progress, they need to be aware of a variety of forms that "serve the writer's purpose instead of the other way around" (Atkinson & Ramanathan, 1995, p. 548). Cazden (1992) advocates the practice of scripting and performing texts in order to sensitize students to the many voices in a reading and how they interact. In this way, models of the target language are reinforced.

In addition to the use of written models, Cumming (1995) also points out the benefits of cognitive modeling in writing instruction, which involves explicit demonstration of the strategies experienced writers use when planning, making decisions, and revising texts. He also advocates that ESL instructors make explicit use of thinking or procedural-facilitation prompts and student self-evaluation as the optimal mode of assessment. Both these approaches promote knowledge-transforming models of composing. Self-evaluation can be encouraged in student portfolios, self-review checklists, and teacher and peer responses. In addition, verbalizing the writing process step-by-step can be effective, as it affords both students and teachers the opportunity to consider writing dialogically. However, convincing students to evaluate their own work requires additional instructional tools, and it may not be effective for all learners. Granted, Cummings refers to self-assessment as a component of one-to-one tutoring sessions, which in contrast to the classroom context, are ideally "more conducive environments for the textual, cognitive, and social dimensions of error identification to be integrated with individual students' composing processes and their immediate concerns about language, ideas, and texts" (p. 393). Unfortunately, many teachers have large classes; nonetheless, the use of specific prompts for cognitive modeling in different aspects of composing, including prompts for error identification, has proved to be valuable.

Apprenticeship models of instruction, which developed out of Vygotsky's sociocultural theories of language and literacy, are also becoming more common. Proficient students who are also fairly skilled writers can benefit from this approach. They start with what they already know and can do, but their learning is extended into what Vygotsky termed the "zone of proximal development" through strategic instruction, collaborative construction of opportunities and active participation (Lantolf, 2000; Schinke-Llano, 1995). Apprenticeship models enable learners to utilize the new language as a tool in the process of becoming self-regulatory. Similar to Cumming's suggestions for fostering writing expertise, "students are supported by a scaffold of prompts and explanations, by extensive modeling, by in-process support, and by reflection that connects strategic effort to outcomes" (Flower, 1994, pp. 142-143). Drawing on and revising student knowledge of genres, reflecting on strategies for approaching a variety of literary tasks, and cultivating a metalanguage for discussing texts are important components of socio-literate methods (Johns, 1999). [-12-]

Students come to class both to improve their language proficiency and become more confident in their writing abilities. Writing practice can also present diagnostic feedback that helps learners improve their linguistic accuracy at every level of proficiency. Instruction should provide students with ample amounts of language input and instruction, as well as writing experience (preferably through the interweaving of writing and reading, referred to as "intertextuality" (Blanton, 1999), and feedback to fulfill their goals. Overt classroom instruction through modeling, for instance, is only one part of the teaching process; providing students with feedback on their writing is the other. Essentially, we need to consider factors related to language proficiency, second language acquisition, and writing skill development when giving feedback. Specifically, the effectiveness of feedback may depend on the level of students' motivation, their current language level, their cognitive style, the clarity of the feedback given, the way the feedback is used, and the attitudes of students toward their teacher and the class (Ferris, 1997; Goldstein, 2001; Omaggio Hadley, 1993). Classroom settings, course goals, and grading procedures and standards are also important (Leki, 1990). Systematically encouraging learners to reflect on what they want to write and then helping them to make an appropriate choice of language forms has pedagogic value.

We must be aware of the complexities involved in the revision process and respond to writing so that students can make modifications with confidence and competence. Ideally, learners should be encouraged to analyze and evaluate feedback themselves in order for it to be truly effective. Teacher commentary, student reactions to commentary, and student revisions interact with each other in a formidable way. How teachers intervene in writing instruction, and how L2 writers react to the feedback influences the composing process. Should teachers stress early mastery of the mechanical aspects of writing, or should they urge their students to pay little attention to correctness, at least until after a first draft has been written? Again, process models of writing instruction allow students time to reflect and seek input as they reshape their plans, ideas, and language. In classroom practice, the focus is on idea development, clarity, and coherence before identification and grammar correction. Ideally, instruction and response serve to motivate revisions, encourage learning, induce problem-solving and critical thinking, in addition to further writing practice (Cumming, 1989; White, 1994; Zamel, 1987). Indeed, the process approach may be effective, but if writers' linguistic ability sets limits to what they can do conceptually or affects the writing process itself, then we need a combination of process instruction and attention to language development.

Focused error correction can be highly desirable, but problematic;. In addition, there are many contradictory findings. The initial impulse for many teachers when reading L2 student writing is to edit the work, that is, focus on the structural aspects so that the writing closer resembles target language discourse. Teachers can correct errors; code errors; locate errors, and indicate the number of errors. To its benefit, attention to errors "provides the negative evidence students often need to reject or modify their hypotheses about how the target language is formed or functions" (Larsen-Freeman, 1991, p. 293). [-13-] However, if this focus on error becomes the totality of the response, then language, discourse, and text are equated with structure. It is then assumed that the instructor has the authority to change the student's text and correct it (Rodby, 1992). In addition, some feel it may not be worth the instructor's time and effort to provide detailed feedback on sentence level grammar and syntax, since improvement can be gained by writing practice alone (Robb, Ross, & Shortreed, 1986). Practice alone may improve fluency, but if errors are not pointed out and corrected, they can become ingrained or fossilized in student writing, as mentioned earlier. L1 research may advocate for focusing on conception and organization, and not on mechanical errors, except for a "note reminding the student that the final copy needs to be edited" (White, 1994, p. 109). However, survey reports in L2 have indicated that students both attend to and appreciate their teachers' pointing out of grammar problems (Brice, 1995; Cohen, 1987; Ferris, 1995, 1997; Leki, 1991; Radecki & Swales, 1988). In support of this claim, Fathman and Whalley (1990), from their research on feedback and revision in an ESL context, concluded that grammar and content feedback, whether given separately or together, positively affect rewriting. However, grammatical feedback had more effect on error correction than content feedback had on the improvement of content. Grammatical and rhetorical feedback should be attentive to the writers' level of proficiency and degree of readiness (Ferris, 1995, Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1996; Lee, 1997; Leki, 1991). Overly detailed responses may overwhelm L2 writers and discourage substantive revision, whereas minimal feedback may result in only surface modifications to the text. Furthermore, learners may be uncertain about what to do with various suggestions and how to incorporate them into their own revision processes. More research on the effectiveness of responses on revision should be examined. (See Sengupta (2000) for research on the effects of explicit teaching of revision strategies on L2 learners' writing proficiency and perceptions about writing).

Summary and Conclusion

For English L2 writers, the process of writing in an academic environment is challenging. I used to tell my students that the only way to improve their writing is to keep writing-thinking that with enough practice in writing and revision (involving problem solving and reflection), they would eventually acquire the fundamentals, or at least the standard, required of academic discourse. Although the process approach to instruction, characterized by practice, collaboration, and the opportunity for revision, may be suitable for most English L1 writers, it is apparent that many L2 writers do not have the necessary linguistic ability to reap the benefits of the approach. As Yau (1991) points out:

[A]lthough we should not cripple our students' interest in writing through undue stress or grammatical correctness, the influence of second language factors on writing performance is something we have to reckon with and not pretend that concentrating on the process would automatically resolve the difficulty caused by these factors. (p. 268)

Kern (2000) also mentions that process-oriented teaching does not acknowledge the influence of sociocultural context on individual processes. He has characterized it as inattentive to "learners' understanding of links between form and communicative conventions that will allow them to construct meanings in ways that are appropriate within the immediate academic context as well as the larger societal context" (p. 182). [-14-]

Feedback is of utmost importance to the writing process. Without individual attention and sufficient feedback on errors, improvement will not take place. We must accept the fact that L2 writing contains errors; it is our responsibility to help learners to develop strategies for self-correction and regulation. Indeed, L2 writers require and expect specific overt feedback from teachers not only on content, but also on the form and structure of writing. If this feedback is not part of the instructional process, then students will be disadvantaged in improving both writing and language skills.

In order to learn more about L2 writers' use of language in the process of writing, we need to apply to L2 writing the research methods utilized in exploring the composing process in L1 writing, such as think-aloud protocols. We also need to understand how students compose in both their native languages and in English to understand more about their learning strategies (especially in monitoring errors), the role of translation, and transfer of skills. Certainly, ethnographic research in L2 writing that examines the writing process, along with the acquisition of communicative competence, will help to create a more comprehensive theory of L2 writing.

About the author

Johanne Myles has been teaching ESL, EAP, and TESL for over 20 years in Canada and abroad. She is presently working on a Ph.D in Education with a focus on cultural and curriculum studies at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Her research interests include intercultural communication, second language acquisition and second language writing. She intends to conduct ethnographic research on the communicative competence of engineering students who are non-native speakers of English in the workplace environment when on their internships.

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Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts

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Academic writing requires conscious effort and much practice in composing, developing, and analyzing ideas. Students writing in a second language are also faced with social and cognitive challenges related to second language acquisition. L1 models of writing instruction and research on composing processes have been the theoretical basis for using the process approach in L2 writing pedagogy.

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Creative Compositions for Children: 3 Great Ways to Inspire Young Learners to Write

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Creative Compositions for Children: 3 Great Ways to Inspire Young Learners to Write

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by Joyce B 22,824 views

Children in ESL classes are notoriously shy about writing in general. It is really critical for their language development that they receive early and constant exposure to writing opportunities.

Here are three ways to inspire young learners to pick up the pen and express themselves.

Try These 3 Great Ways to Inspire Young Learners to Write

1. Free Flow and Creativity

Perhaps one of the reasons children can be reluctant to write creatively is they are insecure about their spelling, grammatical or structural skills. It is a good idea to remove these anxieties by supplying ample opportunities for creative processing that doesn't pick apart structure and syntax. The focus should be on the expression. For some children, devising a complete sentence may be really intimidating. There are several ways you can navigate around their fears, and provide creative options. First off just try thinking about writing in a different way. Give them an opportunity to string words together in poetic ways that don't necessarily rely on punctuation or traditional meanings. Supply them with some jumping off points, like some familiar vocabulary that they need to include in their writing. Choose different types of words, and provide an explanation or discussion of those words after the writing. An example could be: write six lines and include these three words in your poem: Mother, happy, blue. They could then share their writing with a partner or simply turn it into you.

Free flow writing is another way to accomplish a similar writing exercise and could be a bit longer. This is almost like journal writing, and can be done to varying degrees with many different levels and ages. You can devise it however you would like as long as the end product of writing is not judged on grammar, punctuation or spelling. You can give students a topic and tell them to write for five or ten minutes. Be sure to tell the students not to get hung up on the writing itself, but just to write whatever comes to mind.

Example topics could be things like:
- Tell about your day today;
- describe your last birthday;
- what will you bring to class for show and tell.

The topics can be as low level or as advanced as the students' abilities and you can connect them to the lesson's theme for relevance or use them to review past topics or lessons. Obviously you want to choose topics that the students would enjoy writing about (see our Creative Writing Prompts Parts 1-5!), have some knowledge base, and have some language to express themselves. Follow-up activities to free flow writing could be numerous. You could have students read each other's compositions and use it as an opportunity for peer correction. You could also have the students read what they wrote and have their classmates ask them questions about what they wrote. A third option would be to collect the writing and go over it individually with the students. You want to make sure that free flow writing is just that, and that students don't feel inhibited by what their writing may be lacking. The focus is on creativity. There are lots of other options to focus on grammar, punctuation, and syntax.

2. Illustrate Writing and Share

Combining drawing with writing is a wonderful way to engage students, especially really young learners. There are numerous ways to do this to facilitate a feeling of freedom and to allow students to express themselves in two modalities. One possibility would be to have the students do something like a scaled down graphic novel. Depending on the country you are teaching in, these may be hugely popular. Tell students to choose a hero and a villain (great vocab lesson), and then write one scene or frame of a story. Once they have a few frames written, they can accompany that with as simple or as involved drawings as you would like them to get into. They can then share their creations with one another, and you can easily make this an ongoing project making sure that the language objectives are clearly defined. Another way to incorporate illustrations is to have each student draw a picture. You could give them a topic or leave it wide open. Give them a time limit, and collect all of the pictures when they are done. Then redistribute the pictures making sure that no one gets their own. You can then have students write on any number of topics. They could describe the picture that they see or create a story around it. The purpose is again to be creative and to make writing a pleasurable activity that students want to engage in.

3. Create a Story as a Group (storyboard)

Often in higher levels, an inventive writing activity is organizing a collaborative effort among students to write a story. You can adapt this for younger audiences by also including drawings. This could be an entire week long lesson where each day students engage in a different part of the writing or drawing piece. It is also a wonderful way to remind them of all that they have been learning regarding writing, structure, and syntax. Start by introducing the concept of writing and illustrating a story together. Review the elements of a story and brainstorm with the class all the things the story will need to be complete ( characters, setting, plot, conflict, etc.). Then it will come time to determine what the story topic is going to be. Decide ahead of time how you will present this-by dictating it, brainstorming about it, or choosing randomly out of a hat. Then put students into groups. This is up to the teacher's preference. Assign the students their daily task per group and be sure to give them deadlines. The students among different groups will have to work together so that the story has some flow. Sometimes doing the illustrating or storyboarding first will provide the students with a guide to follow when they write. Think it through and determine what will work best for your particular group. The end product could be copied and bound so that all students have a book that they wrote.

Writing is not just about structure and practical elements.

It is also about self-expression and creativity. Opening students up to the world of the written word doesn't have to be painful or frustrating. With a little creativity and spirit, even your youngest learners will pick up the pen and surprise you!

P.S. If you enjoyed this article, please help spread it by clicking one of those sharing buttons below. And if you are interested in more, you should follow our Facebook page where we share more about creative, non-boring ways to teach English.

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Creative Compositions for Children: 3 Great Ways to Inspire Young Learners to Write

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by Joyce B 22,824 views Here are three ways to inspire young learners to pick up the pen and express themselves. Perhaps one of the reasons children can be reluctant to write creatively is they are insecure about their spelling, grammatical or structural skills.

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The process oriented approach to teaching writing to second language learners

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Getting Young Learners to Write | Oxford University Press

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Getting Young Learners to Write | Oxford University Press

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Charles Vilina, co-author of the forthcoming Young Learners series, Oxford Discover, shares some tips on helping young learners to write well in English. Charles will discuss this topic in more depth in his upcoming webinar, taking place on 21st and 23rd January.

I teach writing to primary students almost every day. Fellow teachers often ask me, "Isn't it difficult to teach students to write well? I couldn't do it!"

I understand the sentiment. Of the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing), writing is often the most challenging to teach... and to learn. Many people find writing to be difficult even in their native language, so the challenge is even greater for our EFL and ESL students.

Why isn't writing an easy task?

Writing is a productive skill that requires concentration and effort, even for those who write professionally throughout their lives.

Writing, like playing a sport or a musical instrument, requires regular practice to do it well. The more often students write, the more likely they are to improve.

Writing is a process. Revision is always part of good writing (which is why pencils have erasers), and revision takes patience and effort.

Good writing has a very important companion: good reading. Without daily reading across many literary genres and text types, it is difficult for students to develop strong writing skills.

There are strategies teachers can apply to make the task of writing easier, clearer, and even enjoyable for our students! Here are three that work especially well in my classes, for both fiction and non-fiction writing tasks:

1. Introduce students to good writing

Fiction:

A good story has the ability to send us on amazing journeys, create strong emotions, and even change the way we look at life. Children need to read good works of fiction, and then always consider the question, "What makes this story so good?" In every class I teach, I try to introduce good fiction, and the love of reading, to my students.

Non-fiction:

In the world of non-fiction, clear and organized writing makes all the difference when learning something new. My students and I read examples of excellent explanatory writing about topics they find interesting. In this way, students learn the best ways to inform others through writing.

2. Motivate students to write about the world around them

Fiction:

"Write what you know about" is excellent advice for a fiction writer. I encourage students to choose a setting that they are familiar with. In this way, they can focus on creating strong characters and an interesting plot within that familiar setting. They are also more able to describe the scenes with greater detail. Later, they go on to create stories in other times and places of their choosing.

Non-fiction:
Mind maps can help students brainstorm what they know, while organizing the information at the same time. For example, students can write and circle the words in the center of a sheet of paper. From this circle, lines can be drawn out to subheadings such as , , and my activities . Examples can branch off from those subheadings. This activity can give students a physical profile of what they can write about.
I first ask my students to write about what they have seen and experienced in their everyday lives, through a personal narrative written in the first person (I). This task teaches them to be observant and aware. They learn to consider all the information that might be useful to the reader (who, what, when, where, why). Students focus on presenting what they know in a clear and organized fashion. Later, they use these skills of clarity and organization to write about subjects outside of their personal experience.

Suggestion:
One simple activity is to think of a clear topic sentence on a theme students know well, such as "I really like English class." Write this on the board. Then, invite students to give reasons why they like English class, such as, "My teacher is always helpful." Write these reasons on the board as students say them. After many reasons are listed on the board, ask students to write a paragraph that begins with "I really like English class," followed by three or four of their favorite reasons.

3. Emphasize that good writing is a series of steps

As I mentioned before, writing is a process. We can teach our students to achieve their writing goals more efficiently by following a specific series of steps that will lead them to a stronger piece of writing.

Here are the steps I ask my students to follow in both fiction and non-fiction writing tasks:
Suggestion:
After "publishing," one very effective activity is calledpeer review. Students read each other's pieces of writing and then write comments about them. By giving students the responsibility of looking critically at another's writing, they are able to look more objectively at their own writing.

Brainstorm your ideas first!
This means to write freely, allowing your ideas to flow without judging or thinking too hard. Fill the page with anything that comes into your mind. This step should be fun and creative.

Organize your ideas into groups
Each group of ideas should center around one main idea. This step also allows you to arrange your ideas in order of importance, and eliminate those ideas you don't need.

Write a paragraph around each group of ideas
A good paragraph will have one clear main idea, usually stated at the beginning. Continue the paragraph with three or four sentences that support the main idea.

Revise your work
As you read through your paragraphs, ask yourself, "Can I make my topic sentences clearer? Can my supporting sentences be stronger? Are they listed in the best order? Can I find nouns and verbs that are more specific, and adjectives that are more descriptive? Is my grammar and spelling free of errors?"

A final step is often referred to as "publishing" the piece of writing. This step means that students have revised and edited their writing to the best of their abilities, and are now ready to share what they've written with the class.

Because each of the above steps is unique, and has specific outcomes, students do not become bored or frustrated with the process. It is best to do the steps over a number of days, so that students can begin each step refreshed and ready to continue.

In closing, I would like to add some final thoughts for teachers:
Would you like more practical tips on encouraging your students to write and developing 21st Century skills with your children? Visit our site on Teaching 21st Century skills with confidence for free video tips, activity ideas and teaching tools. Sign up for a free webinar with Charles Vilina and Natasha Buccianti on getting young learners to write in English on 21 & 23 January 2014.

Don't expect perfection at any level. Writing is a lifelong pursuit, and even the most gifted writers know that they can always do better.

Always emphasize the more important writing goals for your students: creativity, clarity, organization, and conciseness.

When giving feedback, focus on one area that needs improvement per writing task. For example, does each paragraph have one main idea? Circling every error with red ink will only frustrate students.

Whenever possible, for every weakness you point out in a student's writing, also point out two strengths. Confidence is a prerequisite for all great writing, and we never want to dishearten our students. Stay patient and focused, and you will see real progress over time.

With my best wishes,

Charles Vilina

Categories: Professional Development, Skills, Young Learners | Tags: 21st Century skills, Charles Vilina, EFL, ELT, ESL, Fiction writing, Motivation, Non-fiction writing, Oxford Discover, Productive skills, Reading skills, Writing process, Writing skills, Young Learners | Permalink.

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Getting Young Learners to Write - Oxford University Press

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Charles Vilina, co-author of the forthcoming Young Learners series, Oxford Discover, shares some tips on helping young learners to write well in English. Charles will discuss this topic in more depth in his upcoming webinar, taking place on 21st and ... Continue reading →

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Enhancing EFL Learners’ Writing Skill via Journal Writing

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Humanising Language Teaching Magazine for teachers and teacher trainers

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Humanising Language Teaching Magazine for teachers and teacher trainers

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Humanising Language Teaching Magazine for teachers and teacher trainers

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Humanising Language Teaching Magazine offers lesson plans, student exercises, articles by top EFL professionals, new TEFL publication notices, and much more for teachers and educators of English as a Foreign Langauge. Produced in associated with Pilgrims Limited.

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Introducing Online Training in an Early Childhood Professional Development System: Lessons Learned in One State - Springer

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Introducing Online Training in an Early Childhood Professional Development System: Lessons Learned in One State - Springer

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Abstract

Online educational opportunities provide improved access to high quality professional development for the early education and care workforce. Online and technology mediated learning can create sustainable education and development opportunities for states when face-to-face training is financially prohibitive. This study examined one state's efforts to design and deliver a set of online professional development courses. Through survey research methods, the study examined the experiences of both the trainers and the early educators in these online and technology-mediated professional development courses. In this study, findings indicated that early educators used technology for personal use, but they may be less familiar with learning technologies. Our findings indicate that some early educators do have the technology skills and comfort with technology needed to use the online modules for professional development and to benefit from this format, but most early educators still preferred using both technology and feedback from an instructor or supervisor when engaging in professional development. More research is needed on how to make technology literacy and technology access available to all early childhood educators.

Keywords

Professional development Online training Technology-mediated Early childhood educators Technology

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References

1. Askov, E., Johnston, J., Petty, L. I., & Young, S. (2003). Expanding access to adult literacy with online distance education. Cambridge, MA: National Center for the Study of Adult Language and Learning.

2. Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2011). E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning. San Francisco, CA: Wiley.

3. Colorado Department of Education. (2013). Colorado early childhood professional development. http://coloradoofficeofprofessionaldevelopment.org/index.cfm?PID=1332&ID=5454,20779,0 .

4. Drummond, L. (1993). Flexible delivery of adult literacy and basic education programs. Melbourne, FL: State Training Board and the Adult Community Further Education Board.

5. Illinois Early Intervention Training. (2014). Illinois early intervention training program. http://www.illinoiseitraining.org/page.aspx .

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014

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Introducing Online Training in an Early Childhood Professional Development System: Lessons Learned in One State

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Online educational opportunities provide improved access to high quality professional development for the early education and care workforce. Online and technology mediated learning can create sustainable education and development opportunities for states when face-to-face training is financially prohibitive. This study examined one state's efforts to design and deliver a set of online professional development courses.

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Writing Ideas from the Classroom | ELL Topics from A-Z | Colorín Colorado

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Writing Ideas from the Classroom | ELL Topics from A-Z | Colorín Colorado

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Here are some ideas from ELL educators around the country about getting ELL students (children, adolescents, and adults) to write more enthusiastically and creatively. Try them out!

Ms. Susan Aktary, North Carolina

Rivers Correctional Institution

I have found that providing students in the prison setting with the apparantly distinct "privilege" of writing in journals has men (from ages 20 to 78) who were reticent to write anything in English on paper reticent to stop writing! First, I established a tradition which requires them to copy the following paragraph from the book of one who has "made it" into the "journal level" of the class: "This is ....(date) and I am a well-respected honor student of a course in English as a Second Language, in a prison somewhere in North Carolina, but it has not always been so..."

Then, they are told they can write anything they are able to write, using their notes from class lessons, dictionaries, and me as a resource. Every night except Thursdays (they don't have to write on Thursdays unless they want to), I correct their mechanics by doing error analyses and using footnotes tied to the type of error they are making, while still saying "Good effort," "Keep up the good work!" and other positive comments.

Once they have a substantial handle on their mechanics, I show them how many fewer of my "footnotes" are required, and I challenge them to try different genres and give them comments on their thinking or organizational processes, audience, cohesion, and other such considerations and suggestions relevant to becoming a mature and interesting writer. Eight students graduated from ESL this year, and some came back to tell me they had already passed their GED reading and writing tests as a result of what they learned in my class through this method!

Ms. Tammy Jones, West Virginia

Jefferson County Schools, WV

I consider writing to be an important part of my instruction with my ELL learners. I work closely with a first-grade teacher who uses Writers Workshop in her classroom. I have learned many new techniques and I love to hear the students tell me that they are working on their rewrite or are ready to publish. I learned to use writing terms with my students and have also used the 4-Square writing process. I like the 4-Square because of my time constraints in my schedule and I have found that many of the teachers I work with also like the ease of the process and are able to fit it into their busy schedules.

One of my favorite instructional ideas is to have my students write a book and read it to different classrooms. I have a large K-2 population so my kindergarteners write a 4 page book about a character from another book. I make little pictures of the character and have them glue it on a page and then write about it. We brainstorm for the topic of the page and then we write and draw. Depending on their English levels I may write while they dictate or they may write with invented spelling. Our current book involves an animal and the first page describes it, then page 2 tells us what it likes to eat, page 3 is what it likes to play with and page 4 is their own idea. I encourage them to be as outrageous as they want and when we are finished we will read it to their own classes. The first graders are doing the same, but they are able to be more creative and therefore I can reinforce more of the writing components.

My second graders are writing their own version of High School Musical using their elementary school. They are creating cheers and describing the awards, teachers, mascots, school colors etc. They are also creating their own "lockers" with an autobiography and pictures and/or drawings about themselves. This project will be on display in our library. Every year I try to come up with some writing ideas that I can fit in with all the other subjects and English levels. Last year was a pirate year with ship logs and feathers taped on pencils. It doesn't take much with the K-2nd grade population to encourage writing. A few simple props will do the trick. I enjoy my writing activities and have had students mention their kindergarten book and want to know what the topic will be when they are in second grade!

Ms. Shira Reiss, Colorado

Aurora Public Schools-West Middle School

There are numerous strategies I use to help kids with writing. First, I work with kids who are in special education. Many students in Special Education are ELL students. Hopefully, with the implementation, these ELL students will get explicit instruction at a Tier 2 level and not need to be put into a Tier 2 (Special Ed) level in order to get intensive instruction. When middle school ELL students are at a 1-3rd grade level of reading, usually their writing is very low. My way of teaching them writing is connected to teaching them reading. This is the process I use:

1. Do they have phonological processes in place especially in the area of phonemic awareness? For example: Can they discriminate short and long vowels?

2. Do they know the 6 syllable types (closed, open, silent e, -el, vowel teams and r-controlled syllables)?

3. Which high frequency words do they know?

These are pre-requisites to writing program that I focus on with these ELL middle schoolers.

There are students here who only know 1 syllable type (closed) and some high frequency words and can write a very, very simple paragraph with support from the teacher. In order to improve their writing, I usually teach them 1 or 2 more syllable types and then give them a story text that has these syllable types. I have them color code the syllabel types, i.e. highlight the silent e words in blue. Then I have them read. Often these students struggle with decoding each word.

I then tell the student that we need to read for meaning. I demonstrate a "think-out-loud" when reading this text, and I have the student read the story a few more times in order to increase fluency. Using a graphic organizer, I demonstrate how to summarize this story while "thinking out loud." The student is instructed to first ORALLY tell the teacher a NEW story using the words in the text. Then the student is given the graphic organizer to write the story. The student is told that they must use the text as their "mentor text" in order to spell all the words correctly in their own writing.

I have found that after teaching this process with numerous texts while teaching other syllable types, the student's reading and writing skills improve greatly. When they have accomplished writing this type of text, we move on to another genre of text and do the same thing.

Ms. Theresa Straub, Illinois

Community Consolidated District 62

Writing has been a focus of our school improvement plan this year. With 70% of our students being ELLs, writing has been a challenge. As an ELL teacher, I have found the following two methods to work very well with all grade levels. For beginning speakers the Writing A-Z graphic organizers and examples are simple enough to get the students writing narratives, persuasive essays, and more.

For the more advanced ELL students, we use a graphic organizer (hand drawn by the students) that has a large circle in the middle (for the topic) with three smaller circles coming out of the center one (for the main idea of each paragraph), followed by three straight lines (coming out of each small circle) for writing the details. After the graphic organizers are filled out I model what an opening and closing paragraph should look like, and then the students begin writing their rough draft. After conferencing with each student one-on-one to edit their paper, the student will then either rewrite or type their final copy. Once everyone is finished the students practice their fluency skills by reading their writing aloud. My students have made some wonderful progress throughout the year by using these methods. We even entered a contest!

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Here are some ideas from ELL educators around the country about getting ELL students (children, adolescents, and adults) to write more enthusiastically and creatively. Try them out! Rivers Correctional Institution I have found that providing students in the prison setting with the apparantly distinct "privilege" of writing in journals has men (from ages 20 to 78) who were reticent to write anything in English on paper reticent to stop writing!

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Writing Poetry with English Language Learners | ELL Topics from A-Z | Colorín Colorado

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Writing Poetry with English Language Learners | ELL Topics from A-Z | Colorín Colorado

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I Have to Write a Poem for Class
By Jack Prelutsky

I have to write a poem for class
But don't think I'll succeed,
I know I don't know all the words
That I am going to need.
I cannot quite imagine
How my poem's supposed to be -
I've got a sinking feeling
I'm not good at poetry.

My poem must have a meter
And it also has to rhyme,
It's due tomorrow morning...
How I wish I had more time!
I do not think that I can write
A poem the way I should -
But look...this is a poem right here,
And it is pretty good.

Writing poetry is a great exercise for English language learners. It gives them a chance to experiment with language and vocabulary, and to freely share their ideas without the confinement of perfect grammar or firm structures. Many ELLs have also had rich life experiences that range from memories of their home culture to saying good-bye to loved ones and adjusting to a new life in the U.S. They may very well welcome this opportunity to create heartfelt poems to share with their classmates and family. Here are some suggestions for getting started:

Read a variety of poems first. I would recommend a couple of different kinds of poems before assigning any writing activities. For more ideas on how to start a unit on poetry, be sure to take a look at Introducing and Reading Poetry with English Language Learners. While the introduction doesn't have to be too in-depth, giving students time to read and think about poems will help them feel more comfortable when it's time to write.

Introduce different poetry forms as models. Read some poems that fit the structure or format, discuss unique rhyming or line patterns, and then have students try writing on their own, using the poems read in class as a model. Focus on each form before moving on to the next one so that students have a chance to master it.

Use poetry throughout the curriculum. You may also wish to use poetry writing as an activity in other content-area lessons, or trying having students write some of these poems as riddles that their classmates have to figure out.

My own knowledge of poetry forms was pretty limited before I began teaching poetry, but here are some poetry forms that work effectively with students, as well as some ideas of how to help students try their hand at writing! I recommend beginning with simple poetry styles such as the ones that follow, as these forms offer a lot of structure and students of all English levels will find them easier to work with.

I have linked to a number of online resources throughout the article from websites such as PoetryTeachers.com, Education World, Poets.org, PBS, ReadWriteThink, EdSitement, ArtsEdge, and Scholastic, but there are many, many more websites devoted to teaching poetry out there - this is just a sample!

Poetry Forms for Beginners

Group Poem

This is a good place to start before students create their own poems. Ask students for poem ideas and then choose one of those ideas for the poem. Have students brainstorm all the words they can think of that are associated with the topic of the poem. If learning a new form, work with the class to figure out how to use that form with the suggested words. Little by little, the poem will be created. You may want to help the students review their poem and make any changes to improve it. For example, the students may want be able to find more descriptive words than the original suggestions. Once the students have done a couple of group poems they will be ready to create poems in pairs or on their own. (This strategy can be use with all of the forms listed in this article.)

Acrostic

Students write their name or a key vocabulary word in capital letters down the left side of the page. Then they insert a word that begins with each vocabulary word. It may be helpful to brainstorm first. The vocabulary words can be descriptive or can refer to things that are important to the student, such as a favorite sport or musician. For example:

You may wish to start with a class acrostic poem about a word, historic figure, or person that everyone in the class will know. Then have students write poems about their classmates - keeping the descriptions positive, of course! Students can also try writing acrostics about everyday objects, places, feelings, or ideas.

Examples:

Lessons:

"I Am" Poem

This format can be used by students to describe themselves, or to describe a figure from history, literature, current events, or anywhere else!

Template:

Name Poem

Another (auto)biographical form is the name poem. While many name poems use acrostics, another common format uses this 10-line structure, which encourages students to think about themselves, their family, and what matters to them.

Template:

Bio-Poem

A bio-poem is a poem that a student writes about herself. Not only does it give students a chance to reflect about their own lives, it allows the class to get to know each other better!

Template:

5 W's Poem

This format is a great tool for teaching students about the 5 W question words (Who? What? When? Where? Why?) As you can see below, students can get pretty creative with something very simple!

Example:

Template:

Magnetic Poetry

This is a take-off on the magnetic poetry people have on their fridge. Students receive little cards (index cards cut into smaller pieces) with known vocabulary words on them, and then work in pairs to create a poetry message. The cards can be saved and used throughout the year in a little box, or you can cut magnets (such as the kind you get from a store or restaurant) into little pieces and gluing them to the back of the cards to play with on the white board or file cabinet.

Free Form

Free form (or free verse) is exactly that - free from grammar rules or conventions of writing. This is definitely a type of poetry that students should see a few examples of so that they understand just how free it is! Students choose an idea or theme and create vocabulary words that evoke the emotions and visual they want to share. Then they string the words together in short sentences or in vocabulary sequence to create the poem. Students may even wish to experiment with the layout of the poem on the page. If students need a structure to start with the teacher can show a model with a three word refrain at the beginning and end. Students can also be told to keep sentences to six words or less so it doesn't become a story.

Examples:

Lessons:

Cinquain

I enjoy teaching Cinquain poetry because of the easy format and the opportunities for developing the nuances of vocabulary. My students of all English levels were able to create a wonderful selection of poetry - funny, sad, and beautiful. I really loved introducing this poetry form to my students because they could put so much of themselves into it and they worked well with the format. The outline follows:

One word = topic
Two words = description
Three words = adverbs
Four words = actions (-ing verbs)
One word = sum it up word

Example:

Kitty
soft, white
gently, playfully, quickly
napping, whining, purring, jumping
comfort

Depending on the English level of the students, the format could be changed to fewer lines. Students can work in pairs to review each other's poems and suggest some options of different vocabulary words. Students can also write cinquains about themselves or each other.

Example:

Lessons and activities:

Shape Poems

A shape poem (or concrete poem) describes a familiar object, and is written in the shape of the object. You may wish to start with an object that the whole class writes about before having students write their own poems. Shape poems give students a chance to brainstorm words and ideas connected with the object, and to delve deeper into the associations we have with everyday objects.

Lessons and activities:

Catalog Poems

This form of poetry is essentially a list that uses very concise language to describe something such as an emotion or a familiar object. It allows students to explore a single idea while at the same time practicing an economy of language.

Examples:

Lessons:

Poetry Forms for More Advanced Students

For students who are more comfortable with poetry forms and have a higher level of English I recommend the following forms as they require enough proficiency in English to be able to hear syllables and rhymes and enhanced descriptive vocabulary.

Haiku

This is the Japanese poetry form that relies on a pattern of syllables: 5-7-5. The trick for ELLs is to be able to hear the syllables and get the wording right. If a student mispronounces a word they will not represent it correctly in the poem. Here is an example of a Haiku written by a student:

Smooth ocean shining,
Happy dolphins love to play.
Islands far at sea.

Lessons:

Rhyming

Rhyming poems seem like they would be very simple. Everyone has recited the poem, "Roses are red, violets are blue." and filled in the rhyme. However, ELLs may not have a strong rhyming concept (depending on their first language and literacy skills) and they may not hear they rhyme of English words - not to mention the fact that you have to know quite a few vocabulary words to be able to come up with a rhyming word that makes sense. To introduce a rhyming format I recommend starting with something simple and then increasing difficulty as students work. For younger readers, many of Jack Prelutsky's poems have very accessible rhymes and rhythms. Older readers may enjoy the more lyrical verses of Langston Hughes.

Feeling and Place

Feeling and Place poems are really themes for any poem, although they lend themselves well to free form poetry. These poems require students to have an advanced vocabulary and the ability to describe emotions and places in detail. Students can start by brainstorming all the words they relate to a feeling, for example. If the word is, "Sad," they might make a list that includes depressed, tired, crying, missing, lost, father, distance, etc. Once they have the list of words they can choose some of them to begin creating metaphors, such as, "Crying is like you're turned inside out." Or "Missing someone is like an emptiness." Once students have compiled a list of vocabulary words and metaphors, they can begin putting the ideas together to make a poem. Throughout the process students can review each others' work and offer suggestions and feedback.

Examples:

Lessons:

Invent Your Own Poetry Form!

In this lesson plan, teacher Glori Chaika describes an activity in which students invented their own poetry form at the end of the year, and then had to describe how to write poems in their form to their classmates. If other students couldn't follow the form, students revised their form and/or instructions until everyone could use the style.

Other Activities

While form is important when writing poetry, there is much more to it. Poetry offers the opportunity to explore an idea and emotion, to describe a special place or object that we take for granted, and create an image that others will be able experience. For this reason, I think it helps to incorporate some instructional strategies that will help students develop these skills.

Sparking Imagination

It may help get those creative juices flowing by doing some activities such as the ones suggested by teacher Faith Vicinanza. One of the activities involves students imagining that they are something else such as "a drop of rain, the color blue, a school bus, or a stalk of wheat." Then students must be that object, and write about what they see, and where they go, etc. Ms. Vicinanza has some other great ideas in Calling on the Muse: Exercises to Unlock the Poet Within.

Artwork and Visualization

Another good way to begin warming up to writing poetry is to ask students to close their eyes and go through a guided visualization. Instruct the students to think of a place. Is it indoors or outdoors? What do you see and hear? What colors and sounds? Are people there? What are they doing? How do they feel? How do you feel? When the students open their eyes they can draw the picture they formed in their head and then explain it to a partner. In this exercise, students begin to practice focusing on the process of visualization, and formulate the vocabulary they will need to add description and emotion to their poetry.

Box Toss

A quick warm-up for students before writing is the box toss. Make a little box and write words on all the outside surfaces of the box. You could also put post-it notes words on the sides in order to re-use the box. Students sit in a circle and take turns tossing the box or passing it around. The teacher gives the students a task using the word that is visible when the box is caught. For example, the teacher might tell the student to list three adjectives describing their word, and if another person gets the same word, they will have to think of three new adjectives. Or the teacher might ask them to think of two words that rhyme with the box, or to say the first thing they think of when they see that word. It is really an activity to get students thinking creatively and quickly about words, and to emphasize that writing poetry is about expression not being perfect.

Boring poem

I like to use this technique to model how to revise a poem to make it more specific and interesting. The beauty of poetry is finding just the right words and putting them together to create a picture or emotion. I put the following poem on the board.
I woke up.
It was a nice day.
I was happy.

I ask the students if they like my poem. Some are too polite to say, "No." Then I ask them if they can think of some other words I might use to make it more interesting. They think of things like "opened my eyes," "gorgeous" or "thrilled." Then we play with putting the words in the poem and create something much more interesting than the original. I have the students compare the two poems and then discuss why the second poem is more interesting. We practice with more vocabulary words and put them on a continuum of general to more specific. For example:

Good - happy - ecstatic

Using the Thesaurus

This is an excellent time to introduce the Thesaurus and how to use it. I taught my students how to use the Thesaurus with some music activities. I played a variety of music selections with my students and asked them to write all the vocabulary words that came to mind as they listened. One piece was sad and slow, one was cheerful, and one was a loud hard rock number. After the students had finished listening, I had them work in small groups to share their words and discuss any new vocabulary. As a class we discussed how each word may have a slightly different meaning such as the difference between "sad," "mournful," and "despondent." I introduced the thesaurus to the students and lead them through the steps to discovering different words for the same thing. I then reinforced the importance of knowing the meaning of the words because the Thesaurus may list words that have different meanings from each other. For example, the word "connected" might have words listed that could have different meanings such as "linked" or "related." These discussions help students begin to understand the nuance of the different meanings.

Using Songs and Music

Discussing songs and song-writing can complement a poetry lesson nicely, and may be of particular interest to students who enjoying listening to music and thinking about lyrics. Here are some ideas of how to use songs and music in your poetry instruction.

Lessons

Sharing Your Students' Poetry

Another wonderful thing about teaching poetry is that it can be easy to share with others! Students can read it out loud at a poetry reading or family night event, or you post can student poems on the wall.

In her blog entry on poetry and ELLs on Scholastic's website, Andrea Spillett shares a great idea from one of her colleagues - he collects a poem from each student, and then binds all of the poems together in a book that he gives his students at the end of the year. The Academy of American Poets offers some other great ideas, publishing student poetry in your school's newspaper or magazine, holding student poetry workshops or a student poetry reading at the local library or bookstore. For other ideas, take a look at the Academy's Tips for Teaching Poetry, as well as some ideas for using presenting poems through PowerPoint for Open House or a Poetry Slam.

I encourage you to check out some of the Hotlinks for more resources and ideas on how to explore poetry writing with your students. You never know what their creative minds will come up with, and what they'll learn about themselves in the process!
Poetry Projects with Pizzaz
This guide shares 15 hands-on poetry activities for the classroom.
Pizza, Pigs, and Poetry: How to Write a Poem
In this book, Jack Prelutsky uses easy tips and humor to get even the most reluctant writer started with writing the poetic form. (Amazon listing)
PoetryTeachers.com
This website has a number of creative lesson plans and ideas to use when working on poetry writing.
Education World: Poetry Month Resources
These resources include a wide variety of lesson plans, activities, and ideas for teaching poetry.
Academy of American Poets: Tips for Teaching Poetry
Here are a number of creative and inexpensive suggestions for making poetry a more important part of school life throughout the year.
National Writing Project Resources: Teaching Writing Through Poetry
The National Writing Project offers numerous lesson plans and resources for poetry-writing activities, including many ideas submitted by NWP educators.
Scholastic: Poetry Printables (PreK-3)
Fun, ready-to-print poetry activities are the perfect tools to bring words to life. Use these reproducibles to teach new concepts, reinforce past lessons, and inspire creativity.
Scholastic: Write It Poetry
A poetry workshop website for middle and high school students, with resources for brainstorming, drafting and revising poetry.
PBS Kids: Fern's Poetry Club
This poetry club offers examples of different styles of poetry, poems written by kids, and a section where kids can submit their own poems.
Poetry Portfolios: Using Poetry to Teach Reading and Writing
This lesson from ReadWriteThink supports students' exploration of language and writing skills as they read and dissect poetry. Through a weekly poem, students explore meaning, sentence structure, rhyming words, sight words, vocabulary, and print concepts. (Appropriate for elementary, but some strategies can be adapted for older ELLs.)
PIZZAZ: Cinquain poems
A poetry site designed to assist instruction of ESL students in poetry and other creative writing forms. The site has links and detailed information on poetry such as Cinquain, Diamante, Haiku and Limericks. It also has further information on other types of creative writing and tips for instruction.

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Writing Poetry with English Language Learners

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I Have to Write a Poem for Class By Jack Prelutsky I have to write a poem for classBut don't think I'll succeed,I know I don't know all the wordsThat I am going to need.I cannot quite imagineHow my poem's supposed to be -I've got a sinking feelingI'm not good at poetry.

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All Writing articles | ELL Topics from A-Z | Colorín Colorado

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All Writing articles | ELL Topics from A-Z | Colorín Colorado

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What does it take to help English language learners (ELLs) become successful writers? This section offers a number of ideas and resources from veteran educators and researchers for students of all ages and proficiency levels. For examples of student writing projects, see our Student Voices section.

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What does it take to help English language learners (ELLs) become successful writers? This section offers a number of ideas and resources from veteran educators and researchers for students of all ages and proficiency levels. For examples of student writing projects, see our Student Voices section.

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WRITE ON: CHILDREN WRITING IN ESL. Sarah Hudelson. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents, 1989. Pp. xi + 109. $14.75. | Studies in Second Language Acquisition | Cambridge Core

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WRITE ON: CHILDREN WRITING IN ESL. Sarah Hudelson. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents, 1989. Pp. xi + 109. $14.75. - Volume 13 Issue 4 - Carolyn Kessler

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EFL learners' use of blogging for developing writing skills and enhancing attitudes towards English learning: An exploratory study

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EFL learners' use of blogging for developing writing skills and enhancing attitudes towards English learning: An exploratory study

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The Internet TESL Journal Ron Belisle
ronb [at] mfwi.org
Mukogawa Women's University
Nishinomiya, Japan

Introduction

This article explores the student and teacher benefits of using electronic mail (e-mail) in an ESL writing class. It also explains several e-mail writing activities and sample assignments that have proven useful in a program with first and second year Japanese English majors at Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute (MFWI) in Spokane, WA USA. MFWI is a branch campus for English majors at Mukogawa Daigakuin in Nishinomiya, Japan.

Research shows that by using computers, students become better problem solvers and better communicators. Over a network, using e-mail and sharing files, students have the chance to collaborate and work together with other classmates, peers, and teachers. Networking electronically can help learners create, analyze, and produce information and ideas more easily and efficiently. Networking people "puts an inspiring, enticing, and usable set of tools within reach of the mass of computer users, empowering them to go beyond simply processing information to repurpose, design, publish, and express" (Mello, 1996). Through this increased electronic access to the world around them, students' social awareness and confidence increases. Networking frees them from the limitations of traditional writing tools that often inhibit and restrict writing processes. Learning is then transformed from a traditional passive-listening exercise to an experience of discovery, exploration, and excitement. Students can begin to realize their full potential when they are empowered to contribute and collaborate as a team to accomplish their writing tasks more effectively.

What is electronic mail?

Electronic mail is a relatively new medium of communication that is experiencing exploding growth in the U.S. and around the world. E-mail messages can be sent across different kinds of networks, both locally and globally. Aside from the Internet there are thousands of local area networks and wide area networks that send millions more messages daily across various kinds of transmission cable. Electronic mail over the Internet, the world's largest computer network, is experiencing exploding growth daily. Reuter, a major online news service, estimates that number of American homes online will more than triple to 35.2 million by the year 2000, or a third of households in the United States (Reuter, 1996). Nearly every major university in the United States provides Internet e-mail for its staff and students. America Online (AOL), the largest commercial online service in the States, handles more than 4 million pieces of e-mail each day. Moreover, its membership is growing by 75,000 per week. (Case, 1996).

Why use e-mail in the writing class?

Using e-mail in a writing class can occur over any kind of network as long as workstations with e-mail software are readily available to the students. This could be in a lab, over a campus network, or across the Internet. There are many reasons why using e-mail is advantageous for the student and the teacher in the writing class.

First, by using e-mail in the writing class students become familiar with a communication tool that is vital to their survival in the 21st century. What was once considered a fad is now becoming the communication tool of choice of many white collar workers in industrialized countries. In the world of business, education, politics, and technology, electronic mail is quickly taking the place of voice, paper, and fax communication. Employers will require this vital skill for their employees of today and tomorrow.

Secondly, a teacher can interact with a student or a group of students working on a project at times that are more convenient to the student, group, and the teacher. The vital interaction and feedback that takes place between a teacher and student (or group of students) over a writing task is not limited to the confines of a classroom.

Another teacher-advantage of using e-mail is the ability to electronically monitor the individual or group writing process from the brainstorming phase to the final draft. Typically, teachers often receive dozens of papers, assignments, and pieces of correspondence from their students each term. These pieces of paper often get organized (or should I say disorganized) on desks, in brief cases, in filing cabinets, at home, in the office, in the classroom, and so on. The age-old hassle of shuffling, filing, and retrieving these papers is nearly eliminated. With the click of a mouse modern e-mail software allows groupings of messages by student name, by date received, or by project name. Writing assignments received can be organized electronically by any one of these categories. These types of groupings make it easier for the teacher to actually see the process which their students are using when writing. This process can be monitored and analyzed much more effectively and logically by the teacher who can also view and organize student or group work more easily and efficiently. The teacher can quickly retrieve student writing for future analyses and grading.

Additionally students themselves can use these features to organize their writing instantly either by topic or by date created, or by name of sender. This kind of organizing helps the writers focus more on the tasks of communicating and collaborating with peers and teachers. An added benefit to all this is that it can save natural resources by cutting down on the use of expensive paper and toner.

Using e-mail can also save class time for some assignments. Teachers can send assignments and announcements electronically to the group. For example, if a teacher has to remind the students of a certain assignment due or of a particular procedure, the teacher can send one message to entire group. This can save valuable class time. Moreover, with the return receipt capabilities of e-mail the teacher is able to know whether each individual student has opened and read the message. This is an important feature to help monitor the progress of the student or the group.

A further advantage is that sometimes more writing is actually accomplished when using e-mail. Electronic blips on the screen are perceived to be more changeable, more ephemeral, and less indelible than traditional pen and pencil writing. Students who enter our program at MFWI love to have an eraser handy when writing. The reason is possibly because our students think that their writing has to be perfect the first time. They often don't understand that writing can be a way of thinking; it can actually help them with ideas, with organization, and with their thought processes. Writing involves braining storming, taking notes, preparing outlines, first drafts, revising, editing, and final drafts. Not even the best writers get it right the first time. Since computer-generated writing is much more ephemeral and less indelible, their writing becomes less static and "final" since it's perceived as more changeable, and thus the students learn to perceive it as a process.

This leads to the next point. I have found that when students communicate with each other using e-mail, their audience tend to focus almost entirely on the message itself and much less on the form, grammar, spelling, mechanics, etc. An interesting study was done by Susan Lapp, an ESL researcher, of the University of Texas Pan-American. She paired students of different ethnic backgrounds as e-mail pen pals. Prior to the pen-pal writing, she analyzed the attitudes of each of the partners towards the ethnic group of their partner. She found that in many cases there were many negative attitudes towards ethnic groups. Through the process of sending e-mail back and forth to one another, the partners began to put aside their biases and focus more on the person and what they were saying.

A final, but not least, positive aspect of e-mail is that shy students have a forum for expressing themselves and asking questions. Occasionally, some students who do not like to express themselves in a group tend to do better with writing. Since students usually generate more content electronically than with traditional pen-and-pencil methods, shy students often tend to express their opinions more openly without fear. This can give students self-confidence and eventually improve their writing ability.

Sample e-mail assignments and activities

The last section of this paper briefly describes some simple e-mail activities that I have used in my writing class during a 45-minute session in the lab or over the course of the term. For several of these assignments and activities described below I have developed student handouts. Those are indicated as "handout available". If you would like to receive a Microsoft Word copy of any or all of these files, please e-mail me at rbelisle [at] on-ramp.ior.com. I will send you the file electronically.

Please note that these assignments work best with software such as Eudora, Microsoft mail or programs like them in which the settings are personalized for the user. NCSA Telnet or certain types of communication software cannot manage large volumes of incoming or outgoing mail easily.

Dialoging

Dialoging is the most basic way to use e-mail. It's simply one more way to increase the frequency of communication between teacher and student and student and student. Below are examples of different kinds of dialoging that has taken place in the context of my writing classes.

Student to teacher

journal writing

asking and answering questions

progress reports and updates

Teacher to student

announcements

assignments

homework

Student to student(s)

class mailing lists

fun, etc.

social events and announcements

Real-time teacher-to-student dialoging

A fun first day dialogue activity to introduce e-mail to students is a kind of real-time teacher-to-student dialoging. Prior to a lab class session, send a message to the group. (Ask your network administrator how to create groups in your e-mail software.) The message must end with simple question eliciting a response. An example might be a basic welcome message followed by a question such as "What is your favorite food?" When each student opens her e-mail for the first time, a Welcome Message awaits them. Each has to read the message and reply to the question. (Tip: Ask the students to write complete sentences for their reply.) The teacher's role is to respond back immediately to each student's reply often just pasting an appropriate answer in the reply window plus another follow-up question that continues the dialogue. This activity works best with small classes of 12 or less.

An interactive process writing assignment

(handout Available)

This is a process writing assignment which involves collaborating with a partner electronically over a simple research project (just 2 paragraphs). All the interaction with the partner, from brainstorming for ideas to writing the final draft and everything in between, must be done electronically. All the while the teacher is monitoring the writing process of the group by receiving copies (cc) of all the correspondence. The students are not only graded on the final product, but also on the process of writing and how well they follow the instructions.

One perfect paragraph

(handout available)

This is a simple e-mail activity that helps students practice editing short paragraphs looking for grammar, agreement, spelling, and structural mistakes. The teacher prepares one practice paragraph or two with several mistakes and sends it to the group.

Example 1 of what to send to the group

This paragraph has about 9-10 mistakes. Find and correct them. Drag and select the paragraph with mistakes, then copy from the Edit menu. Click on Reply. Then paste from the Edit menu into your reply. Find and fix the mistakes. Send back the corrected paragraph to me. Continue this until the paragraph is perfect.

Lat months I spent two wonderful day with host family. They have 3 child and we played a lot together. We cook Japanese foods for them Saturday evening. They thought it dericious. On Sunday we wnt to the church. I enjoyed the music, but didn't understood the speech. I hope see them again in the future.

Example 2 of what to send to the group

Here's another paragraph to correct. It has about 11-12 mistakes. Find them and correct them and send the corrected paragraph back to me.

This wekend I will go grand Culee dam and Leavenworth. I looking forward to go there. I have never seen dam before. I want to go shop. I want to stay a nice hotel.

Teacher Tips

1. Copy and paste an answer such as "There are more mistakes. Please correct them and send the corrected paragraph back to me." into the reply of the e-mail message This will allow you to quickly reply to a paragraph that still needs correcting thus keeping up with all the messages students are sending to you.
2. List your messages in your mailbox window by date/time received if software allows. This will enable you to see which new messages on your list need replies.

Electronic secret pals

(handout available)

This is a term-long pen-pal activity in which students are assigned to other students from another writing class in the program. The students use bogus American names (for this activity only) and are not allowed to know the identity of their secret pal. The activity concludes with a "Meet Your Secret Pal" party at the end of the term. The teacher receives cc of all correspondence from the students.

Chain stories or sentences

This is a simple activity that help students with basic sentence level grammar reinforcing such grammatical structures as countable/uncountable nouns, prepositional phrases, and so on.

Before class send a partial sentence to the group, such as

"It was a dark and stormy night and "
or
"I went to the store and bought some "

Students then add to the story or sentence and forward it on to an assigned partner in the class. (Using copy and paste may be necessary for some e-mail programs. Other software programs append the original message to the reply.) The story is passed around to all members of the class with each adding their part. Have each student add something different each time. In the end there will be x number of stories or sentences where x equals the number of students in the class.

A strange meeting

(handout available)

Another more elaborate version of a chain story is what I call my Strange Meeting assignment. Students are asked to create phrase by phrase the skeleton of a short story (8 partial sentences) about the meeting of two individuals (male and female). What's unique about this exercise is that each person in the class is writing a sentence phrase to the story and then forwarding it (using copy and paste) on to an assigned person who then adds the next sentence phrase who in turn forwards it to another assigned person and so on. The sentence phrases are passed on to eight different people and then the last person puts the 8 sentence phrases together into a coherent, but often strange, paragraph of eight complete sentences. All the while students are sending copies of all the messages sent to the teacher who is monitoring the process.

Story puzzles

Story puzzles are stories in which sentences are randomly mixed and rearranged by the students in a correct sequence. Students use copy and paste to rearrange the randomly mixed sentences into a story and then send back the story to the teacher in the correct sequence. (Teacher Tip: Write the story in most any word processor separating sentences into paragraphs. Then select all and sort. The word processor will sort the sentences alphabetically by first letter of the sentence. Then copy and paste the mixed sentences into your e-mail message and send the mixed sentences to the group.)

Cloze exercises

Students fill in sentences with every xth word omitted, or every noun, or verb, and so on. The teacher then sends the message back to the teacher. The teacher checks and sends back for further revision if necessary. This activity can be used to reinforce the use of certain words such as adjectives, articles, nouns, etc.
Mailing lists

Students dialogue with a group on a particular topic. One e-mail address of the group can be created and a message on a certain topic asking for a response. Others send their responses to the group members. Most e-mail software programs have the ability to reply to either the original sender or all the recipients of the original message. In this case the preferences would need to be set to the latter.

International pen pals

(Internet access necessary.)

With the tremendous growth of the Internet, there are lots of opportunities to interact with students from other countries and cultures thus increasing the global awareness of students. International Pen Pals can be easily found on the World Wide Web using such search engines as Web Crawler or Yahoo.

How to page

Students write (via e-mail) a step-by-step process of how to send e-mail, use the word processor, use a CD ROM, and so on. Can be done in a group or assigned to individuals. Copies (cc) of all correspondence are sent to teacher.

References

Case, Steve; A Letter From Steve Case, In the SpotLight, America Online, January 1, 1996.

Lapp, Susan, the University of Texas Pan-American, Cross-Cultural Communication Through Electronic Mail, TESOL Convention; Chicago, IL, March, 1996.

Mello, Adria; Welcome to the Age of Digital Express; Macworld, June 1996.

Reuter, Report: Online Homes to Skyrocket by 2000, April 29, 1996.

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. II, No. 12, December 1996
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Articles/Belisle-Email.html

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Belisle-E-mail Activities in the ESL Writing Class (TESL/TEFL)

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The Internet TESL Journal Ron Belisleronb [at] mfwi.orgMukogawa Women's UniversityNishinomiya, Japan This article explores the student and teacher benefits of using electronic mail (e-mail) in an ESL writing class. It also explains several e-mail writing activities and sample assignments that have proven useful in a program with first and second year Japanese English majors at Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute (MFWI) in Spokane, WA USA.

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If you are already registered on our website, you can sign in by selecting your partner organization below, then entering your email address and password on the next screen.

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When students write, they draw upon the sum of their experiences in listening, speaking, and reading. As ELLs apply themselves to solving the problems they face in writing, such as how to spell a word, where to place a period or an adjective, how to introduce a character, or how to organize supporting details, they gain metalinguistic awareness.

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Allen, V. (1986). Developing contexts to support second language acquisition. "Language Arts," 63, 61-66.

Bissex, G. (1980). "GNYS AT WRK: A child learns to write and read." Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Calkins, L. (1986). "The art of teaching writing." Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Edelsky, C. (1986). "Writing in a bilingual program: Habia una vez." Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Company.

Flores, B., et al. (1985). "Bilingual holistic instructional strategies." Chandler, AZ: Exito.

Genishi, C., and Dyson, A. (1984). "Language assessment in the early years." Language and learning for human service professions monograph series. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Company.

Graves, D. (1983). "Writing: Teachers and children at work." Exeter, NH: Heinemann.

Harste, J., Woodward, V., and Burke, C. (1984). "Language stories and literacy lessons." Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Hudelson, S. (1986). Children's writing in ESL: What we've learned, what we're learning. In P. Rigg and D.S. Enright (Eds.), "Children and ESL: Integrating perspectives." Washington, DC: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.

Hudelson, S. (1987). The role of native language literacy in the education of language minority children. "Language Arts," 64, 827-841.

Kreeft, J., et al. (Eds.) (1984). "Dialogue journal writing: Analysis of student-teacher interactive writing in the learning of English as a second language." National Institute of Education (NIE-G-83-0030). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Myers, M. (1980). "A procedure for writing assessment." Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 193 676).

Rigg, P., and Enright, D.S. (Eds.) (1986) "Children and ESL: Integrating perspectives." Washington, DC: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.

Samway, K. (1987). "The writing processes of non-native English-speaking children in the elementary grades." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Rochester, NY.

Urzua, C. (1987). "You stopped too soon": Second language children composing and revising. "TESOL Quarterly," 21, 279-304.

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Allen, V. (1986). Developing contexts to support second language acquisition. "Language Arts," 63, 61-66. Bissex, G. (1980). "GNYS AT WRK: A child learns to write and read." Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Calkins, L. (1986). "The art of teaching writing." Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Edelsky, C. (1986). "Writing in a bilingual program: Habia una vez."

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How to help young English language learners love writing | British Council

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Roseli Serra, winner of the TeachingEnglish monthly blog award, writes about how to encourage children learning English to love writing in English too.

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literature and young learners in an EFL situation

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Karen Frazier, co-author of Let's Go, looks at how to get children writing in English.
Writing, in any language, can be so much fun! It's exciting to send messages and letters to people in a language that they understand. Everyone enjoys describing events in their lives, talking about pictures and places, and sharing their thoughts and ideas. Many also like to create stories and songs, too! So, how can we, as teachers, help our ELT students develop this type of enthusiasm for sharing and writing in English?

Children enjoy the beginning stages of writing, when they are learning the letters or characters. Young learners are very willing to work at tracing letters and words. They are usually eager to learn how to print their names and the names of their brothers, sisters and pets. It's this interest in writing that we want to maintain as we help our students learn and continue to develop their English writing skills. Yet writing can be a challenging skill for children to learn. So what can we do to help them retain their interest in writing while they develop their skills and confidence in writing in English?

To be able to write in English, students must have a basic foundation and understanding of the spoken language. To get our students prepared to write, we need to provide opportunities for them to recycle and review the language they already know. They need to know how to identify and talk about objects and people in English in order to write something about them. Of course, they must also know how to write the alphabet letters so that they can learn to spell words that they know. Finally, they need to know some basic sentence patterns in order to write sentences that are meaningful to them.

Students must also be able to read some words and sentences because the skill of reading goes hand-in-hand with learning to write. Reading provides the opportunity for students to become more familiar with language patterns, and it develops their vocabulary. Yes, reading, as well as listening and speaking, are important in helping our students learn to write. So our writing activities should always include these skills as part of the pre-writing steps.

Steps for Beginner Writers:

1. Use pictures to stimulate comments and discussion

Have students draw their own pictures or bring in photos. Or, you can provide pictures for them from magazines, the internet and other sources.

Some of the first recognizable pictures that most children draw are pictures of themselves and their family. If they have pets, they often like to draw them. Favorite places, like houses and landscapes with the sun, are also among the first things that children like to draw. Therefore, as you prepare your young students for writing activities, primarily focus on having them draw these types of pictures.

2. Have students describe and talk about their pictures

Be sure to provide plenty of chances for your students to talk about and share pictures. Children enjoy talking about people, places and events that are important to them. Let them share their pictures and thoughts about these pictures with each other. This also gives them a great opportunity to review and practice their English. It helps them remember what they already know and builds confidence.

3. Help students write down what they have said

For young writers, this often means that you will do much of the writing at the very beginning. You write down the sentences that your students use to describe their pictures. Then you can have the students trace the sight words or the key vocabulary. As the children develop more ability and confidence in their writing, they can start writing the descriptions on their own under their pictures. They may start with one or two words in the beginning and will gradually start to write a sentence on their own. More confident and experienced students of English can write their own longer descriptions of their pictures (two to three sentences). The main goal of this step in writing is to encourage and capitalize on the natural interest that children have in describing what they see.

4. Have the students read each other's captions and descriptions of the pictures

After they read, they can share ideas with each other in small groups. Then you can have them work together in small groups to add another sentence to the description.

5. Have students use their descriptions to create their own little books

As beginner ELT students become more skilled in writing words and sentences, they can expand on their own one-sentence descriptions by adding extra words, like adjectives, or one or two more sentences. If you have them describe several of their own pictures, they can then put them together to make their own small book. This is a great motivator for the students. They will enjoy reading their books and will be look forward to writing more. You could also let them take their books home to share their stories, and new writing skills, with their families.

You can also motivate your students of all levels to write by providing them with real-life writing exercises. For example, they can write about something that happened while they were all together in your English class. Start by talking about what happened as a class and then encourage each of the students to draw a picture and write a sentence or two about the event. Next have them share their sentences with the class and finally combine all the sentences into a story. It becomes a small book that was written by the class.

Other types of real-life writing activities include making lists of vocabulary words, making lists of things to buy at the store, and writing notes, text messages and emails to friends. You can also have your students create their own comic strips or keep a simple journal in which they share thoughts in English with you.
Visit Let's Share for more videos, blogs and upcoming events by our Let's Go authors.
These are just a few of the ways you can keep your students engaged in writing in English. There are many activities that can be used which give children a realistic reason to write. Whatever activity you choose to use should be one that is motivating and that taps into your students' interests. Doing this will help keep your students enthusiastic about writing in English.

It would be great to hear your comments on this blog. I'd also love to see you at my free webinar on teaching writing this Friday, 19 April. You can sign up here.

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Teaching Writing to Young ELT Learners - Oxford University Press

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Karen Frazier, co-author of Let's Go, looks at how to get children writing in English. Writing, in any language, can be so much fun! It's exciting to send messages and letters to people in a language that they understand. Everyone ... Continue reading →

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An interesting paper which explores the use of reading aloud for learning ESL. The paper also covers other types of reading and the benefit of reading to a child's L2 acquisition skills. Fedyk is an assistant ESP (English for Special Purposes) teacher to Aboriginal children in British Columbia, Canada.

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Kids' activities > How to write your best story ever
Do you like making up stories about your favourite book characters, or inventing new characters? What happens when you try writing them down - does writer's block set in?

From fear of the blank page to worries over spelling, writing a story can be a real challenge, as you try to use your reading and writing skills to tell a gripping tale.

To help you channel your inner author, we've asked the author of How to Write your Best Story Ever!, Chris Edge, to share his top 10 tips to help get you writing.

Once you've read the tips, don't forget to download our writing activity sheets - packed with great ideas to help your child write their best story ever (JK Rowling watch out!):

How to Write your Best Story Ever! Top Ten Tips

Story sparks

Every story needs a spark of inspiration. Look out for story ideas in everyday life. Maybe a place you visit on a day out could become the setting for a spooky story, or a newspaper headline about a Jack Russell terrier who makes friends with a tiger could inspire an amazing animal tale. When you start looking, you can find inspiration everywhere! Download our 'Stuck for a story idea?' activity sheet >

All you need is a book

Find or make a creative space that's your own - a notebook or journal for you to scribble down story ideas, invent incredible characters or even draw pictures of the places where you want to set your story. A writer's notebook is a private place where you can gather your inspiration.

Reader to writer

Every writer is a reader and every reader can be a writer too. Think about the books you are reading. What are the best bits? What are the worst? Who's your favourite character and why? Write down your favourite lines and think about how the books you are reading could inspire your own spin-off stories and sequels.

Opening lines

Sometimes the hardest thing about writing a story is the fear of the blank page. You can conquer this fear by finding an opening line. Why don't you take a book off your bookshelf and use the opening line as the first line of your own story? Download our 'Start your story' activity sheet >

Remix a story

Making a mash-up story that mixes together characters from different books, films and TV shows can be a lot of fun. Choose a favourite character from a book and create a story that puts them into your favourite TV show or videogame. How would Sherlock Holmes solve a Minecraft mystery? What would happen if Mr Gum entered The X Factor? Let their imagination run wild as they write their mash-up story!

A picture can inspire a thousand words...

A visit to an art gallery or even just looking at photos in a magazine can inspire a story. Talk to your parents about the pictures you see, and think about characters, settings and situations you can turn into a story. Wordless picture books such as Journey and Quest by Aaron Becker can help you invent their own story to accompany the pictures.

Making a map

If you are a big fantasy fan and love stories about dragons, wizards and monsters, try to create your own magical land. Look at maps of other fantasy lands such as Middle Earth and Narnia and think about the stories that are set there. Making a map can help to inspire fantastic adventures.

Comic books and coding

Writing a story isn't always just about the words. Creating comic books, picture books and illustrated stories can use your artistic talents too. Or you could move from page to screen and get coding to create an animated tale.

Share their stories

Try your new story out on your parents. Type it up, print it out, make it look like a book and send it out to friends and family. Look out for creative writing competitions such as BBC Radio 2's 500 Words competition that let children share their story with the biggest possible audience.

Have fun

Why not get your parents to join in and make up their own story too? The novel Lionboy was written by eight-year-old daughter Isabel - and her mum Louisa Young - under the pseudonym Zizou Corder. Work together to make up your own bedtime story and you might find you've written a bestseller! Good luck!

How To Write Your Best Story Ever!

From how to overcome writer's block to what words to use to best effect, How to Write your Best Story Ever! is designed to help all children unlock their story ideas and write their own best ever stories.

Packed with entertaining illustrations that will inspire new writer, this book is filled with tips on how to write in particular genres, create exciting characters, and write powerful sentences using metaphors, similes, and idioms.

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How to write your best story ever! | Oxford Owl

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Kids' activities > How to write your best story ever Do you like making up stories about your favourite book characters, or inventing new characters? What happens when you try writing them down - does writer's block set in?

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In education, scaffolding refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process. The term itself offers the relevant descriptive metaphor: teachers provide successive levels of temporary that help students reach higher levels of comprehension and skill acquisition that they would not be able to achieve without assistance. Like physical scaffolding, the supportive strategies are incrementally removed when they are no longer needed, and the teacher gradually shifts more responsibility over the learning process to the student.

Scaffolding is widely considered to be an essential element of effective teaching, and all teachers-to a greater or lesser extent-almost certainly use various forms of instructional scaffolding in their teaching. In addition, scaffolding is often used to bridge learning gaps -i.e., the difference between what students have learned and what they are expected to know and be able to do at a certain point in their education. For example, if students are not at the reading level required to understand a text being taught in a course, the teacher might use instructional scaffolding to incrementally improve their reading ability until they can read the required text independently and without assistance. One of the main goals of scaffolding is to reduce the negative emotions and self-perceptions that students may experience when they get frustrated, intimidated, or discouraged when attempting a difficult task without the assistance, direction, or understanding they need to complete it.

Scaffolding vs. Differentiation

As a general instructional strategy, scaffolding shares many similarities with differentiation, which refers to a wide variety of teaching techniques and lesson adaptations that educators use to instruct a diverse group of students, with diverse learning needs, in the same course, classroom, or learning environment. Because scaffolding and differentiation techniques are used to achieve similar instructional goals-i.e., moving student learning and understanding from where it is to where it needs to be-the two approaches may be blended together in some classrooms to the point of being indistinguishable. That said, the two approaches are distinct in several ways. When teachers scaffold instruction, they typically break up a learning experience, concept, or skill into discrete parts, and then give students the assistance they need to learn each part. For example, teachers may give students an excerpt of a longer text to read, engage them in a discussion of the excerpt to improve their understanding of its purpose, and teach them the vocabulary they need to comprehend the text before assigning them the full reading. Alternatively, when teachers differentiate instruction, they might give some students an entirely different reading (to better match their reading level and ability), give the entire class the option to choose from among several texts (so each student can pick the one that interests them most), or give the class several options for completing a related assignment (for example, the students might be allowed to write a traditional essay, draw an illustrated essay in comic-style form, create a slideshow "essay" with text and images, or deliver an oral presentation).

The following examples will serve to illustrate a few common scaffolding strategies:

The teacher gives students a simplified version of a lesson, assignment, or reading, and then gradually increases the complexity, difficulty, or sophistication over time. To achieve the goals of a particular lesson, the teacher may break up the lesson into a series of mini-lessons that progressively move students toward stronger understanding. For example, a challenging algebra problem may be broken up into several parts that are taught successively. Between each mini-lesson, the teacher checks to see if students have understood the concept, gives them time to practice the equations, and explains how the math skills they are learning will help them solve the more challenging problem (questioning students to check for understanding and giving them time to practice are two common scaffolding strategies). In some cases, the term guided practice may be used to describe this general technique.

The teacher describes or illustrates a concept, problem, or process in multiple ways to ensure understanding. A teacher may orally describe a concept to students, use a slideshow with visual aids such as images and graphics to further explain the idea, ask several students to illustrate the concept on the blackboard, and then provide the students with a reading and writing task that asks them articulate the concept in their own words. This strategy addresses the multiple ways in which students learn-e.g., visually, orally, kinesthetically, etc.-and increases the likelihood that students will understand the concept being taught.

Students are given an exemplar or model of an assignment they will be asked to complete. The teacher describes the exemplar assignment's features and why the specific elements represent high-quality work. The model provides students with a concrete example of the learning goals they are expected to achieve or the product they are expected to produce. Similarly, a teacher may also model a process-for example, a multistep science experiment-so that students can see how it is done before they are asked to do it themselves (teachers may also ask a student to model a process for her classmates).

Students are given a vocabulary lesson before they read a difficult text. The teacher reviews the words most likely to give students trouble, using metaphors, analogies, word-image associations, and other strategies to help students understand the meaning of the most difficult words they will encounter in the text. When the students then read the assignment, they will have greater confidence in their reading ability, be more interested in the content, and be more likely to comprehend and remember what they have read.

The teacher clearly describes the purpose of a learning activity, the directions students need to follow, and the learning goals they are expected to achieve. The teacher may give students a handout with step-by-step instructions they should follow, or provide the scoring guide or that will be used to evaluate and grade their work. When students know the reason why they are being asked to complete an assignment, and what they will specifically be graded on, they are more likely to understand its importance and be motivated to achieve the learning goals of the assignment. Similarly, if students clearly understand the process they need to follow, they are less likely to experience frustration or give up because they haven't fully understood what they are expected to do.

The teacher explicitly describes how the new lesson builds on the knowledge and skills students were taught in a previous lesson. By connecting a new lesson to a lesson the students previously completed, the teacher shows students how the concepts and skills they already learned will help them with the new assignment or project (teachers may describe this general strategy as "building on prior knowledge" or "connecting to prior knowledge"). Similarly, the teacher may also make explicit connections between the lesson and the personal interests and experiences of the students as a way to increase understanding or engagement in the learning process. For example, a history teacher may reference a field trip to a museum during which students learned about a particular artifact related to the lesson at hand. For a more detailed discussion, see .

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Scaffolding is a teaching approach that moves students progressively toward stronger understanding, skill acquisition, and learning independence.

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Children Learn to Write by Mary R. Martin

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Using Music to Support the Literacy Development of Young English Language Learners

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Integrating experiences with music in the early childhood classroom supports English language learners' literacy development (Peregoy and Boyle, Reading, writing, and learning in ESL. Pearson,...

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The Mysterious Process of Writing

Developing an Awareness of Genre

Teaching the Early Stages of Learning to Write

From the First Marks to Writing for a Purpose

Writing Narrative Fiction

Using a Range of Non-Fiction Genres in the Classroom

Developing Control of the Argument/Persuasive Genre

Assessing Children's Developing Awareness of Genre

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Developing Writing for Different Purposes

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The Mysterious Process of Writing Developing an Awareness of Genre Teaching the Early Stages of Learning to Write From the First Marks to Writing for a Purpose Writing Narrative Fiction Using a Range of Non-Fiction Genres in the Classroom Developing Control of the Argument/Persuasive Genre Assessing Children's Developing Awareness of Genre

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Yaverbaum - Letterland Pictogram Concept in EFL Teaching of Young Children (TESL_TEFL)

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Most of the LEARN NC Content has been archived using the Wayback Machine. Instructions for how to access that content is below, including links to frequently requested materials.

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The Effect of Computers on student writing