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Plant species which are endangered in Scotland and are included in the Earth’s Endangered Creature’s list include Marsh Earwort (Jamesoniella undulifolia) and two whitebeam species – Sorbus arranensis and S. pseudofennica.
http://www.earthsendangered.com/search-regions3.asp

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Both Sorbus arranensis and S. pseudofennica are endemic to Scotland and are found only on the Isle of Arran.  Although the reasons are not fully understood, whitebeams display a high rate of hybridisation and this results in a high level of endemism.  S. arranensis, common name Arran Whitebeam is a hybrid cross of S. aucuparia (common Rowan) and S. rupicola (rock whitebeam).  The Arran Whitebeam hybridised with the common Rowan and produced another hybrid, S. pseudofennica (Arran Service-tree).  Both of these hybrids are capable of reproducing and are therefore defined as new species.  Currently, there is believed to be 436 Arran Service-trees and also approximately 400 Arran Whitebeams on the isle of Arran with the Arran Whitebeams having a wider distribution across the island while the Arran Service-trees are limited to northern mountainous areas on steep slopes (Global Trees, 2017).  Threats to both species include habitat loss and removal of trees by humans.  In the 1980s, two large specimens were cut down by a professional gardener unaware of the trees’ importance (McHaffie, 2011).   As the Arran Service-tree is now restricted to steep slopes and cracks in rocks, it can be suggested that this species is particularly susceptible to overgrazing by deer and hare as it has only managed to maintain populations in areas which are less accessible to grazing animals.

While it doesn’t seem to be mentioned on the Earth’s Endangered Creature’s list, there is a third Sorbus species endemic to Arran – the Catacol Whitebeam (S. pseudomeinichii).  The Catacol Whitebeam is represented by only a single tree.  This tree is situated precariously on the side of a steep ravine and its immediate danger is the threat of being washed downstream in a heavy storm.

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Replacing fossil fuels with biofuels is highly controversial since it solves one problem but creates new ones.

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Although various grains may be used, traditionally malted barley (Hordeum vulgare) was used to make Scotch whisky.  Whisky has a long tradition in Scotland and at present there are over 120 malt and grain distilleries.

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Marsh Earwort (Jamesoniella undulifolia) grows in heath and raised bog habitats and, in Scotland, the distribution is limited to one site near Moine Mhore in Argyll.  Possible threats to this species include habitat loss and degradation due to bog drainage for arable land or forestry.  Grazing is also posses a threat – intensive grazing, especially at times when Marsh Earwort is flowering or setting seed will reduce the reproductive potential of populations.  Conversely, if heath ground is under grazed, especially at germination stage, Marsh Earwort could be outcompeted by faster and taller growing plants.

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As with whisky, gin can be made using a variety of grains.  Different botanicals can also be added but juniper (Juniperus spp.) must be present.  In Scotland, gin has experienced a renaissance in recent years and there are now around 70 gin distilleries.

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Acton, A. & Rothero, G. (2010). Lichens and bryophytes of Atlantic woodland in Scotland: an introduction to their ecology and management. Back from the Brink Management Series .Plantlife Scotland.

Global Trees, (2017). Arran Serice-tree, Sorbus pseudofennica. Threatened Trees. Fauna & Flora International and Botanic Gardens Conservation International. [ONLINE] Available at: http://globaltrees.org/threatened-trees/trees/arran-service-tree/ [Accessed 28 March 2019].

McHaffie, H,. Frachon, N., Robertson, A. (2011). Starting a Conservation Collection of Sorbus pseudomeinichii – The Catacol Whitebeam. SIBBALDIA: The Journal of Botanic Garden Horticulture, No. 9, 171-178.

Scottish Natural Heritage. 2019. Mosses and Liverworts. [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.nature.scot/plants-animals-and-fungi/mosses-and-liverworts. [Accessed 24 February 2019].

Ward, S. & MacKintosh, J. (2001).  Grasslands. Scotland's Living Landscapes. Scottish Natural Heritage.

Woodland Trust. 2019. Spruce, Norway (Picea abies). [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/visiting-woods/trees-woods-and-wildlife/british-trees/common-non-native-trees/norway-spruce/ [Accessed on 13 March 2019].

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2. Tropical Andean trees migrate to higher altitudes where the air is cool enough to support their existence.  Due to the fast climatic change they have to move faster in order to remain in equilibrium with their preferred temperatures.

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At the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE), there is a weather station which has made recordings for many years and has worked in an official capacity for the Met Office since 1956.  Parameters measured and recorded include: minimum and maximum air temperatures, grass level temperature, soil temperature at various depths, rainfall and snowfall.  Additional measurements taken using a Campbell-Stokes recorder include sunshine hours, visibility, wind speed and direction.

RBGE records from 1977 – 2014 show that temperatures have been gradually increasing.  For example, the trend for air frosts over the past years has been negative with, on average, one less frosty day every three years (-0.35 days/year).  Ground frosts, measured by the grass temperature, have also shown a downward trend with a reduction of -0.54 days/year (max. 161 days in 1979, min. 72 days in 2014) when the ground was frozen.  The graph below illustrates the number of days with average air temperatures above 15°C (illustrated with a yellow line) and days below 5°C (illustrated with a blue line).

As can be seen with the two red lines, there is a general trend of decreasing cold days and an increase in the number of warm days from 1977 till 2014.

Signs of climate change including longer drought have been reported in Scotland.  Last year in the Spey Valley reported unusually dry conditions leading to a shortage of grass for silage due to several weeks without significant rainfall and soaring temperatures (BBC, 2018).  Last year, Scotland experienced its warmest day in June in more than 20 years at 31°C in Aviemore (western Scotland) on the 27th.  This was quickly followed the next day (28th June 2018) by 33.2°C in Motherwell which was noted as Scotland’s highest ever temperature since records began.

According to Tony Garn, Garden Supervisor at RBGE: “We have a changing climate.  The long term trend over the past forty years shows a steady increase in total rainfall; heavy rainfall events are becoming more frequent and intense, leading to more waterlogging, runoff and flooding.  For example, the total rainfall for July 2018 was 32.8mm and the sunshine total was 229.4 hours.  By way of contrast, in 2012 we had 181.6mm of rain and 105 hours of sunshine.  Last year, we had the driest summer since 1976.”

These changes in weather patterns have a knock on effect for plant communities.  According to Ruth Monfries, a Climate Scientist at RBGE: “All regions of Scotland have seen an increase in the growing season of more than five weeks since 1961.  Our weather has always been changeable but climate change is bringing more extremes and unseasonal events that are hard to plan for.  Climate change for Scotland is not a gradual warming but is characterised by weirding of the weather.”

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“Many seasonal events - our traditional signs of spring - have changed in association with changing air and water temperatures. Species have responded very differently over time, and this could affect the way in which they interact with each other.”

“Differential responses among species may cause problems for life cycles such as pollinating insects emerging out of synchrony with flowers opening in spring,” he said. “This could increase vulnerability to extreme events such as late frosts, disrupt food webs, and change the balance of competition between species.”

The full article can be read here: https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/15166462.revealed-why-spring-is-coming-earlier-and-earlier-each-year/

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In Scotland, the main tree species which are decorated during Christmas time are Fraser Fir (Abies fraseri), Norway Spruce (Picea abies) and the Nordman Fir (Abies nordmanniana).  While A. fraseri and A. nordmanniana are not native to Scotland, it is thought that P. abies was native to Scotland in the last interglacial period and was re-introduced in 1548 (Woodland Trust, 2019).  All three species are widespread in Scotland, having been planted for forestry.

Although less popular for decorating, native Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) is also available as a Christmas tree.

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In Scotland, the potato is an important food crop.  Potatoes belong to the family Solanaceae (nightshades) which also include other crops such as tomatoes, aubergines, bell peppers and chilli peppers.  All of these crops can be grown in Scotland under glass but the potato is particularly well suited outdoors to the Scottish climate.  Potatoes were first introduced to Scotland in the late 1500s and are native to Peru.

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The family Rosaceae also contains a number of important food crops for Scotland.  These include apples (Malus spp.), raspberries (Rubus idaeus) and brambles (Rubus spp.).  The native crab apple (Malus sylvestris) while not farmed commercially is commonly found (along with hybrids) growing in hedgerows and is often foraged for use in jellies and jams etc.  Many apple cultivars have been bred in Scotland including the desert apple ‘James Grieve’ - a cross between ‘Potts Seedling’ and ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’.  Raspberries and brambles (blackberries) are also often found growing in the wild in Scotland.  Fife on the east coast of Scotland is particularly well known for its commercially grown crops of soft fruit including raspberries.

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Scotland’s favourite takeaway is the Curry.  It is loved so much that there is a National Curry Week every October.  Along with many other spices, mustard seeds are often an ingredient in curries.  These are the dried seeds of various cabbage species (Brassica spp.) including black mustard (B. nigra), brown mustard (B. juncea) and white mustard (Sinapis alba).  There is a wild cabbage native to Scotland (Brassica oleracae var. oleracea) although this is not used to produce the seeds used as a spice.  Those which are, originate from North Africa, temperate regions of Europe and Asia.

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Interesting article about the native plants which could be used as experimental substitutes for the exotic spices from abroad!

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The Western palate is obsessed with "exotic" spices from around the world. Cloves, fenugreek, cinnamon, ginger, vanilla, nutmeg, pepper and dozens more have, over the past 500 years, seduced explorers, traders, gastronomes, chefs and, ultimately entire populations.

But while the flavours of these spices evoke a mistique and exoticism that few would associate with the woods, coast and hedgerows of the UK, its quite easy to find a substitute for pretty much all of them with just a little research, effort and processing . By opening our eyes and imaginations to the full extent of our wild larder, its perfectly possible to make richly spiced curries, pakoras, pilafs - pretty much any spice-led dish from around the world - using fungi, seaweeds and the seeds, leaves, flowers and roots of common wild plants.

When the BBC Radio 4's Food Programme heard me making this bold claim, they challenged me to show how it could be done, and this is the program we recorded in Galloway in early November

The reasons why we have chosen to ignore our native spices in favour of imported flavours are complex and could easily be the subject of several PHDs. From the 15th Century onwards, exploration, trade and ultimately Empire, opened up cultures in which strong, easily transportable flavours, could be bought relatively cheaply and sold back home as luxuries. In an age where our rapidly urbanising society was being forcibly and voluntarily disconnected from its natural resources, emergent middle classes sought out new ways by which to differentiate themselves. Rejecting the everyday in favour of the seemingly exotic served this purpose well.

More recently, our increasingly multicultural society, means immigrants have brought with them the flavours of their homelands, enriching our diets to the point where no "traditional" pub menu is complete without a curry, and more people eat chicken tikka than pork pies.

Like most people, I am a huge fan of pretty much all spice-led cuisines, and am certainly not trying play down the deliciousness of a curry from the sub-continent (however we might define that), or the wonderful spices that flavour it. But it does seem apt, in an age when we are starting to question mega food miles, and re-explore the wild flavours of the UK, that we should re-learn and re-evaluate our native spice rack.

I'm not saying that its possible, or even desirable, to create exact replicas of Eastern dishes (most Western notions of what a "curry" tastes like have long been far from the authentic dishes of the Sub-continent anyway). But it is revealing, exciting and a lot of fun explore what, say, a wild Scottish curry might taste like.

I've listed below a few of the wild spices that we can easily forage around the UK, with suggestions for how best to process and use them. For convenience and ease of reference, I have listed them alphabetically, according to the "exotic" spice or flavour they might most easily replace. That we define the flavours of the UK according to what we import is telling in itself! Remember, the first Englishman to smell a coconut may very likely have said "Ooh! That smells just like gorse!"; the first Scotsman to encounter cloves may have been reminded of the wood avens roots he learned to nibble as a child...

This is a selection from what I consider to be wild UK "spices", and a few other "exotic" flavours. Some may be wild equivalents for things that can be cultivated, such as chillies. By no means all things on the list are native to the UK: many are introduced, and several considered nuisance "weeds" - plants cross boundaries just as people do, and long may that continue!

This list is by no means comprehensive. It is based on my own explorations and research, as well as a few things I have learned from fellow foragers and food explorers. There is vast potential for further exploring, redefining, and refining our native spice rack. I'd love to hear about which wild spices you love in the comments section below.

While some of the species listed can be gathered easily and used with very little processing, a few can be fiddly to pick and may require processing. For me, this reveals another key reason for our neglect of these ingredients: we have grown lazy, and labour is cheap where many of our imports grow. Where processing is required, I've given guidance, or linked to relevant pages on my Wild Food Guide.

Its no coincidence that many of the plants on this list are members of the apiaceae (aka carrot) family. This is a hugely rewarding family, of which many of of our go-to imported spices are members (eg. fennel, coriander, cumin, caraway etc). I highly recommend investing some time in getting intimate with this group of plants, but novices should be aware that the it includes some highly toxic species such as hemlock and hemlock water-dropwort. Identification of members of this family should be based on at least 3 characteristics, and certainly not just on seed shape alone. I wrote this article to help:

I have noted, where known, any health warnings. When consuming any food for the first time, it is wise to take only a small amount first time round. You should also bear in mind that pretty much everything we eat (wild or cultivated) can be harmful in large doses (e.g.. 10 whole nutmegs could kill you!) I recommend reading the following article if you are new to/nervous about eating wild foods:

Botanical Note: For simplicity I have kept to easily recogniseable terms like fruit and seed where a scientist might use more accurate terms such as drupe or silique.
Almond
Almonds are native to the mediterranean, middle and far east and is a key ingredient of many middle eastern dishes. The stones and blossoms of many other temperate members of the roasaceae family and especially the prunus genus share similar flavours. Notably:

Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) - blossom and stone

Damson (Prunus insititia) - blossom and stone

Cherry (Prunus spp) - blossom

Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) - very young leaf and flower buds

Whitebeam (Sorbus aria) - very young leaf and flower buds

Blossoms of prunus species tend to have a bitter almond flavour, while rowan and white beam leaf and flower buds tend to be pleasingly sweet. There is a long tradition of fermenting cherry blossoms in Japanese cuisine. Long (1 year+) infusion of prunus fruits in alcohol (as in sloe gin for example), will extract the almond flavour from the stone and give a nice almond backnote. Alternatively, add the blossoms to your infusion in the spring, or make a syrup with them to sweeten the gin, cakes etc. Flavour extraction from stones can be accelerated by removing the stones and smashing them up. Blossoms and buds readily infuse into alcohol and syrups, or can be added to frangipani, bakewell tarts, middle eastern dishes etc as they are.

The compounds that give so many of the sorbus family their almond overtones are benzaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide - which is toxic in high dosage. As this compound is also regularly consumed in apple pips, this need not be of concern unless you are consuming large quantities.
Aniseed

Sweet cicely (myrrhis odorata) - leaves, seeds, stems, roots and flowers - view on the Wild Food Guide here.

Aniseed agaric mushroom (clitocybe odora) - cook in savoury dishes that call for aniseed/fennel or dry and powder and use as a spice.

Cardamon
Its hard to know where to list hogweed seeds as they have such a rich, pungent flavour. They often remind people of coriander, cardamon and orange peel, but really deserve recognition as a spice in their own right. The green seeds are very pungent, with quite a bitter aftertaste, while the dry seeds are somewhat mellower, though still not for the feint-hearted! The seeds of the very closely related and similarly flavoured heracleum persicum are known as golpar in Persian cuisine and used dried in both sweet and savoury dishes. I use them whole as a mulling spice or grind them and add to parkin, in curry spice mixes (especially for rice dishes) and in spiced vermouths and cocktail bitters.
Read all about common hogweed on the Wild Food Guide here. Caraway
The seeds of wild carrot are deliciously aromatic, and although not an exact substitute for caraway, flick many of the same switches. While they have many beneficial medicinal applications, nursing mothers should be careful with wild carrot seeds as they have been used in the past as an abortifacient. I like to dry them and add to rye bread, or add to spice blends, especially those for curing fish. Read more about identification and uses here.
Chilli
Water pepper is a frail and innocuous looking member of the dock family that grows in wet fields, bogs and swampy riversides. Its diminutive appearance belies the intense and lingering heat that comes with a nibble of its fresh leaves. As this heat can take up to 30 seconds to reveal itself on the tongue, standard practice among mischievous foraging teachers (maybe its just me!?) is to offer a taste to macho "I can't get enough chilli" types, and wait for the erruption as they graze fistfuls.

I can't say I enjoy the heat as much as that of chillies. Its mostly just hot, with none of the nuance and complexity of good chillies, but it will do the job if you want some wild heat. Unfortunately, the frail leaves don't keep very well and I've not yet found a way to capture and preserve their heat through either drying or infusion, and cooking seems to obliterate it too. But i'll keep trying - watch this space! The best way i've found of using it is to shred the leaves fresh and add to dishes as they are served. In combination with some of the mustards and sichuan pepper substitutes listed below however, it can certainly pep up a curry.

The amusing alternative name of arsesmart does not come, as one might expect, from its hot properties on exiting the digestive system, but from its historical use as a flea-repellent in straw beds. Apparently it can easily become lodged in intimate areas, at which point it can smart a little!
Clove/Cinnamon
A delicious warming herb on the clove/cinnamon spectrum. Some wild UK spices just happen to emulate exotic counterparts, while others share a common compound. Herb bennet roots share the compound eugenol which is also present in cloves. Use it as a direct substitute in the usual clove settings: as a mulling spice, in apple pies or finely chopped in masalas and spice blends, though it isn't so pungent, so you'll need to up your quantities.
Read all about wood avens on my Wild Food Guide here. Coconut
Coconut seems to be marketeer's go-to symbol for exotic, despite being a flavour that is quite easy to find in the west.

Gorse (Ulex europaeus) aka Whin or Furze - Flowers. Its hard to miss the tropical smell of gorse flowers on a warm spring day - somewhere between coconut and ambré solaire sun lotion. If you eat the flowers you'll immediately recognise their lineage in the pea (Fabaceae) family, but the aftertaste is distinctly of coconut, which I find is enhanced by the slightly crunchy, dry texture. You may be disappointed if you pick them on a cold day. Add them fresh to anything that calls for a hit of coconut and some pretty yellow pizazz!
Coriander - Dry Seeds
Coriander is a member of the carrot family and the flavour profile of its dry seeds, though unique, overlaps with several of its wild relatives, notably common hogweed, spignel, wild carrot and angelica seeds. Please see their listings elsewhere in this blog. Wild (or at least feral) coriander does grow in the UK, mostly in coastal locations in the South of England.
Coriander - Fresh
Sea arrowgrass (Triglochin maritima) - young shoots and green seeds. I discovered this delicious coastal grass quite by accident while picking sea plantain (Plantago maritima). Its succulent coriander-meets-salty-cucumber flavour has since become a firm favourite with chefs and foragers around the country, though it does come with a few gentle health warnings. Read all about sea arrowgrass on my wild food guide here.
Cumin Seeds Curry leaves Fenugreek
While true fenugreek is a member of the pea ( Fabaceae) family of plants, sotolon, the compound that give it its complex spicy flavour, can be found in a number of other species:

Fenugreek milkcap mushroom (Lactarius helvus). This fungi can be found in the autumn on wet, mossy ground, usually beneath pine trees. Like other lactarius species, it exudes latex when damaged, though this is less opaque than the milk of most milkcaps. The distinct, strong smell of fenugreek and pipe tobacco is quite distinctive. This mushroom is somewhat toxic in its unprocessed form, so please do some research and use with caution. Boiling in water, dehydrating and powdering results in a spice that can be used safely in small amounts, though the fenugreek hit is considerably reduced by the process.
Garlic
Cultivated garlic is easy to come by in the UK, but as its fairly crucial to most spicy dishes, I thought it would be fun to include some wild alternatives:

Ramsons/Wild garlic (Allium ursinum). Most people are familiar with wild garlic - you can read all about it on my wild food guide here. It lacks the pungent bulb of crow garlic, but its shoots, leaves, flowers, buds and green seeds can all add a great hit of fresh garlic and spring onion, provided cooking is kept to a minimum. Add them at the last minute to stir-fries and curries. I also love to ferment wild garlic with other wild spices, kimchi-style (see here for recipe), and this can then be dehydrated to make an umami-rich dry spice to add to masalas and spice mixes.
Ginger
Magnolia petals (Various Magnolia species, especially m.grandiflora) have an interesting floral - ginger flavour. Where this lies on the floral - ginger spectrum depends on the species of magnolia. I've had most success with the large-petalled varieties, though its worth nibbling any to check their flavour profile. Most magnolias are found in parks and gardens, so take care not to ruin other's enjoyment by over-harvesting the beautiful flowers. Most established magnolias are big enough that cropping only what you can easily reach by hand leaves plenty for pollinators and other admirers. Its also possible to harvest kilos of the fallen petals before they start to discolour, if you get your timing right. Pickled, they make an excellent accompaniment to wild sushi. They also dry and powder very well, so its worth stocking up in the spring.
Mustard
All manner of mustards are easy to find in the wild throughout the UK at all times of year. A couple of my favourites include:
Pepper
Peppery Bolete mushroom (Chalciporus piperatus). These pored mushrooms are common under conifers in the autumn, often growing close to more esteemed boletus species such as ceps. They are usually ignored as they taste very peppery if cooked liked regular mushrooms. But used either fresh (finely chopped) or dried and powdered, they make an excellent spicy seasoning, and a potent substitute for ground peppercorns.
Sichuan Pepper Vanilla
The folly of depending on spices from the far corners of the world are clearly illustrated by recently rocketing prices of vanilla pods. Poor growing conditions and production problems in Madagascar (the worlds foremost producer of vanilla) means that prices have shot up in the last 6 months. Vanilla is certainly delicious, but not significantly more delicious than some of our abundant native spices that share a similar flavour profile.
Safety note: All the species I list below as potential vanilla substitutes contain the compound coumarin. In high dosage this can act as an anticoagulant, preventing blood clotting, but is generally considered safe (and widely used) in low dosage. If drying any of them for future use, ensure it is done quickly and thoroughly before storing in an airtight container, as relatively benign coumarin can be converted into the more toxic dicoumarol in the presence of some airborne moulds.
Sweet woodruff (Galium odoratum) - leaves and stalks. With a sweet flavour somewhere between vanilla and tonka beans, sweet woodruff is truly delicious. It is a relatively common member of the bedstraw (Galium) family that includes sticky willy, and its leaf structure is very similar, consisting of whorls of 7 - 9 lanceolate leaves around a central stem. Its lovely aroma doesn't reveal itself until you start to dry it. Once dried it can be infused into creams, custards and ice creams in much the same way as vanilla. The flowers and foliage of the related lady's bedstraw (Galium verum) is equally delicious and should be processed in the same way.
Learn To Forage with Galloway Wild Foods: Other Pages You May Enjoy:

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The Western palate is obsessed with "exotic" spices from around the world. Cloves, fenugreek, cinnamon, ginger, vanilla, nutmeg, pepper and dozens more have, over the past 500 years, seduced explorers, traders, gastronomes, chefs and, ultimately entire populations.

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The spice saffron is the stigmas of the autumn flowering crocus Crocus sativus.  There is debate about the origin of C. sativus but it currently grows in the Mediterranean and East Asia.  In Scotland C. sativus is usually grown as an ornamental flower although the stigmas can still be picked on a small scale for use in dishes.

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“Enquiry into Plants” describes and classifies varieties of trees, plants important to Egypt, Asia, the Mediterranean etc., herbaceous plants and cereals with practical uses for people.  This also includes medicinal properties and timber use etc.

“On the Causes of Plants” discusses the cultivation of plants – optimal growing conditions etc. along with their practical applications and economic value.

Both treatises were of vast importance during the Middle Ages as they constituted the first systemisation of the botanical world.

Text can be read here:    https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL070/1916/volume.xml

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Machair is a unique habitat to the north and west of Scotland and Western Ireland with the majority found in the Western Isles.  In total, there are around 30,000ha of machair systems in Scotland.  Machair is coastal grassland, formed on low-lying, exposed coastline and is composed of mostly shell fragments and sand and the habitat is influenced by humans through low-level crofting farm practises.  Machair is a species-rich and diverse habitat for plants including bryophytes and lichens.  A list of some of the uncommon species present in machair can be found here: https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/2018-02/Priority%20Habitat%20-%20Machair.pdf

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In recent years, Scottish winters have become milder with snowfall generally delayed until spring

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Scotland's mountain snowsports resorts are having one of their toughest winters in years.

Mild weather has reduced opportunities for skiing and snowboarding at Glencoe Mountain, Nevis Range, Cairngorm, Glenshee and the Lecht.

Iain Cameron, an expert on snow, said this winter was among the most snowless of the last 70 years.

However, Scotland's snowsports industry remains optimistic of colder and snowier weather in spring.

The resorts have been using snowmaking equipment to guarantee skiing and snowboarding on runs at lower levels.

Trafford Wilson, chief executive of Snowsport Scotland, said: "With snow not arriving in any real form until late January, most snow resorts have been finding it difficult to get going this season."

He said the mountain resorts had been working "really hard" to try and keep ski runs active in the challenging conditions.

Mr Wilson said: "Snowmaking at Glencoe, the Lecht and Cairngorm have allowed lower mountain runs to operate.

"However, a combination of rain and mild temperatures over the last two to three weeks has put a number of resorts on hold until more snow cover arrives."

'Unseasonal temperatures'

The way previous seasons have progressed offers some hope to the snowsports industry. Mr Wilson said it had been possible to ski in Scotland until early May last year.

He said: "History would suggest that April is the best skiing month in Scotland, as the spring temperatures cool off and the weather settles.

"Fingers crossed for cooler temperatures and snow fall in the coming weeks."

Glencoe Mountain is to hold the Red Bull Homerun on 13 March.

The competition, which is to be held for the first time in the UK, involves entrants making a sprint for their skis or snowboard and then sliding the rest of the way to the finish line.

Andy Meldrum, of Glencoe Mountain, remains hopeful for the rest of the season.

He said: "It has not been the best ski season but it looks like colder weather on the way from the start of March, so there is still time for it to come good."

Like the Lecht, Glenshee and Cairngorm, Glencoe has been manufacturing snow so it can offer snowsports on lower slopes.

Mr Meldrum said: "We currently have an area of Snowfactory snow for beginner ski and snowboard lessons and sledging and expect to be able to maintain this in the coming weeks despite the very unseasonal temperatures."

The Lecht in Aberdeenshire has been manufacturing snow since November.

Operations director James McIntosh said the centre was enjoying a "fantastic season" after he and the other directors took "the gamble" to invest in snowmaking equipment.

He said: "The challenge is trying to keep production above the snow melt and concentrating on one of the runs.

"We can produce 50 tonnes in 24 hours and then spread that snow onto the slope."

David Farquharson, at Glenshee, said it had been a difficult season so far, but it was far from over.

He said 22 days of snowsports had been possible so far, while last year the centre enjoyed an above average of 109 days.

Mr Farquharson said: "Had we not had manmade snow we probably would have had a couple of days with one of our lifts.

"But we are still hopeful. It is still a long way to Easter."

'Atlantic storms'

Snow expert Mr Cameron, whose research on snow in Scotland is published by The Royal Meteorological Society, said there had been a lack of the white stuff this winter.

He said: "Winter 2018/19 is, as we speak, amongst the most snowless of the last 70 years.

"The last comparable February where we had so little present on the hills was 1998, which itself was the least snowy February since before 1954.

"Save for a few Atlantic storms in January, which brought deep snow to the north west Highlands, mild and relatively dry conditions have ensured that most other hills over 3,000ft (900m) have only large drifts."

Mr Cameron said Britain's highest mountain Ben Nevis had far more rock exposed on its north east face than could "reasonably be expected" for the time of the year.

He said a massive "wreath" of snow that forms at the base of one of the mountain's major gullies was more akin to how it looks in June than February.

Mr Cameron added: "As usual, the Cairngorms are hanging on to more snow than anywhere else in Scotland. But, even here, conditions are very thin.

"With temperatures forecast to hit 18C over the next few days, there would appear to be no prospect of any white stuff falling until well into March."

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Scotland's mountain snowsports resorts are having one of their toughest winters in years. Mild weather has reduced opportunities for skiing and snowboarding at Glencoe Mountain, Nevis Range, Cairngorm, Glenshee and the Lecht. Iain Cameron, an expert on snow, said this winter was among the most snowless of the last 70 years.

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Another species-rich grassland type found in Scotland is "Neutral Grasslands".  Neutral grasslands are found in fertile, well drained areas which are 'well balanced' in nutrients.  Due to these favourable conditions, the majority of neutral grasslands in Scotland have been converted to farmland for arable crops or reseeded and dosed with mineral fertiliser to create grass leys.  The remaining areas of traditional grassland, found mostly in Perthshire, are species-rich with many wildflowers and grasses.
According to Ward & MacKintosh (2001), plants which characterise this habitat type include sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), wood cranesbill (Geranium sylvaticum), lady’s mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris), sorrel (Rumex spp.), ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata) and eyebright (Euphrasia officinalis).

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The warming influence of the Gulf Stream means Scotland’s west coast has much milder winters than elsewhere in Europe at the same latitude.  Along with abundant rainfall throughout the year, these mild temperatures and wet conditions create an ideal habitat for a diverse range of mosses, liverworts and lichens within long established, semi-natural oak (Quercus sp.) and birch (Betula sp.) woods.  The Atlantic woodland habitat is also known as Scotland’s temperate rainforests or “Celtic rainforests” and 799 bryophyte species are found in Scotland (Scottish Natural Heritage, 2019).  Indicator species of a high quality Atlantic woodland habitat include Golden Specklebelly Lichen (Pseudocyphellaria crocata) and Tailed Loop Lichen (Hypotrachyna taylorensis) (Acton & Rothero, 2010).

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Highest February temperature in over 120 years was recorded this year on the 21st at 18.3°C in Aberdeenshire.

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Aboyne has broken Scotland's February temperature record which had stood for more than 120 years.

The highest temperature previously recorded for the month in Scotland was 17.9C in Aberdeen on 22 February 1897.

However, Aboyne in Aberdeenshire reached 18.3C on Thursday afternoon.

The Moray coast was also basking in warm weather, with Lossiemouth and Kinloss among the towns hot on the heels of Aboyne in the temperature stakes.

Weather experts said the north east corner of Scotland's temperatures were experiencing a boost from what is known as the Foehn effect.

It involves air warming as it moves up and over mountains.

Warm weekend

A spell of warm weather this weekend is set to bring temperatures in the UK close to the record for February, according to the Met Office.

It said the current record maximum temperature measured in the UK in February is 19.7C, which was set in London on 13 February 1998.

The Welsh record temperature for February was set at 18.6C in Powys in 1990 and the highest in Northern Ireland was 17.8C in Bryansford in 1998.

A large area of high pressure centred over continental Europe is predicted to move across the UK, bringing settled, dry and sunny weather to much of the UK.

Despite the unusually high temperatures, the South East of England could see some frost over the weekend.

The mild conditions are expected to continue into next week.

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Scotland smashes February temperature record

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Aboyne has broken Scotland's February temperature record which had stood for more than 120 years. The highest temperature previously recorded for the month in Scotland was 17.9C in Aberdeen on 22 February 1897. However, Aboyne in Aberdeenshire reached 18.3C on Thursday afternoon.