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Aim to expose and challenge the operation of male power in psych

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Wilkinson 1997
Theory and practice explicitly informed by political Goals of feminism

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Rose (1997) "psychological langage is one of the key components of the major soul"
"network of theories and practices that comprise academic, professional and popular psych"-PArker 1997

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life has no neat categories, it is both good and bad
Thesis <--> Antithesis
/
Thesis <--> Antithesis
/
Thesis<--> Antithesis
(and so on)

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82% of research in 1970s blames individual rather than social circumstances
Research findings are often misdirected the attention from social probelms and instead blames person

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turn on psych and the psychologists
where there is power there is resistance
psych work permeates society
psych as human science

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social life, specific to particular time, place and culture- more like history
knowledge influences social knowledge in 3 ways
1. need for naive subjects- knowledge had liberating effect
2. is prescriptive- values and desires influences questions/issues
3.prevalent cultural values- it invalidates cherished belief

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Ahistorical view of psych lead us to consider human nature as universal
certain actions and experiences are privileged/ given more status than others

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psych testing and assessment
positive reinforcement
pscyh therapies
self directed change
dynamic development across lifespan

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Marketing psych
developed an applied field
tool for administrators
psych directed by funding and demands of end user
focus on statistics
standardised ability testing

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Experimental method (Wundt)
Evolutionary thinking (Spencer)
Emphasis on statistics (Galton)

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central ideas
recapitulation theory
ontogeny reflects phylogeny- biogenetic law
without natural selection- degeneration
subverting the survival of the fittest
evolution as essentially progressive

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3 levels of social context
Experimental situation
research community
professional environment
-> context of discovery
-> context of justification

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critical history not forced to be revisionist
emphasis on social and political context
history for the purpose of critical understanding

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Newer approches
revisionist
alternative mirror image readings od traditional histoires
critical
fundamentally different kind of narrative

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Presentist
Proving that a current position is the valid one
prior histories are treated as steps in the process of discovering what we now know as the truth

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Internalist
focus only on the development within a disciples in its own terms
Externalist
focus on the external economic/cultural factors that surround a discipline

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Progressivist
'old style history' narrow focus; chronological; no wider contet; intellectual/ cultural isolation
celebratory; heroic view of contemporary history

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relativism: knowledge, truth and morality exist in relation to culture, society or historical or individual context and are not absolute

Realism: we try to rationally determine the truth about an objective reality

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If an RP grows continuously then it is progressive. novel facts are discovered
Behaviourism did not lead to novel facts; seemed degenerative

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Lakatos- certain metaphysical assumptions in a research programme are unfalsifiable by rational choice
these are part of the hard core of a RP
Auxiliary hypotheses that do to threaten the hard core are part of the protective belt, they are expandable.
The negative heuristics we should not change the hard core assumptions of an RP
The positive heuristics; develop 'refutable variants' or theories stemming from the research programme , so the hard core remains intact

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cannot be compared to each other as they are incommensurable, cannot determine what paradigm is better
what is true or not depends on the paradigm one appears to- relativism

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There are as many theories as there are scientists
there is no shared idea about the basics
all research starts from scratch
it is not clear what observations are relevant

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what is scientific?  all findings, procedures ect. that are part of a period of normal science-> truth is a relativistic not (relativism)

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some day some scientist develops a new view on certain problematic phenomena, thereby discarding the old view (Gestalt switch)
scientists adhering to the old paradigm either make a gestalt switch or are marginalised and die out

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anomalies lead to crisis if their number is big or if they go against the basics of the paradigm/ world view
philosophical debates about the basics
things grow worse if a new paradigm appears

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It is not possible to define a paradigm
-shared metaphysical ideas
-accepted theoretical assumptions and laws
set of technical apparatus
applying known theories to as Manu aspects of nature possible
finding solutions for falsifications within the paradigm
when problems puzzles= anamolies
the paradigm is not criticised
students learn the paradigm by learning the techniques, and what the relevant observations are

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evolution of science to cumulative but revolutionary
Prescientific period
Normal science
Crisis
Revolution
Normal science again

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Fallibilism- all ideas in science and in politics are wrong-> everything must be critically scrutinised
criticism is only possible in an open society- unhindered access to info, freedom to criticise, travel,ect
search for truth should never be based on authority or belief

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if a theory appears falsified, the theory may be at fault, but the observations may be at fault
not all aspects of a theory are falsifiable

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the mechanism of growth is conjecture and reduction
conjectures must not be too bold
most important moments in the growth of knowledge are theory falsifications

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Scientific theories are falsifiable
ideas that are not falsifiable are not scientific theories
theories must be formulated as precisely as possible, in order to make them as falsifiable as possible

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Make sure that the tested knowledge is objective
only objective knowledge can be criticised/ falsified. subjective knowledge can't
Theories that have escaped falsification many times have high levels of corroboration

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Virtual lesions and predicting impairments-21st century 

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Virtual lesions and predicting impairments-21st century 

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brain stimulation techniques can mimic lesions in healthy brains (TMS)
Neuroimaging can be used to match lesions with symptoms at a microstructure level; voxel based symptom lesion mapping
computational models developed from this data to predict severity of cognitive deficits after brain injury

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21st century- integration of neuroimaging and lesion studies 

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21st century- integration of neuroimaging and lesion studies 

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models of brain function can be developed through combining multiple imaging studies of patients with brain lesions and healthy brains
this enhances understanding of cognitive processes such as language
enables more precise understanding of functional specialisation in specific areas of the cortex

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cog models of reading could explain this phenomenon by describing the process of combining visual and linguistic information to produce speech
deep dyslexic patients read via the only non impaired route; through the cognitive system

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Emergence of cognitive neuropsychology- 20th century 

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Emergence of cognitive neuropsychology- 20th century 

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classic neuropsychology limited correlations between location of lesion and pattern of behavioural deficits
sparse use of theory to explain how brain function resulted in specific behaviours/impairments
led to integration of neuropsychology within the information processing models used in cognitive psych to explain deficits caused by brain injury

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brain divided into 2 hemispheres connected by nerve fibres called corpus collasum
severing these fibres means the hemispheres cannot communicate
Sperrys spilt brain research 1981
Hemipsheric specialisation- experiments revealed each hemisphere has functional specialisations

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Karl Lashley
Extreme opposite view to localisation, proposed in 19th century
brain functions as an 'undifferentiated whole'
multiple brain regions are involved in all cognitive tasks; brain works as one entity
the extent of damage, not location, determines how much function is lost

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two groups of patients perform differently on two separate, but linked, behavioural tasks. usually the two groups have different types of brain lesions;
e.g. one patient with damage to brocas area and another with damage to wernikes area.
1st patient trouble producing speech, can comprehend normally
2nd patient- difficulty with comprehension of speech but can talk normally

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Emergence of functional localisation- 19th century 

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Emergence of functional localisation- 19th century 

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Specific areas of the brain carry out specific functions
Phineas Gage (1848) demonstrated behavioural control processes are located in the frontal lobes
Focus on language processing- aphasic patients were identified as having similar located lesions in autopsy-specific to left hemisphere-proposed originally by Marc Dax, but made famous by Broca- dissociation between production and comprehension areas

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Beginning to move away from the view that the ventricles were the most important brains structure
Discovery of white and grey matter
discovery of cerebral spinal axis in early 19th century which explained involuntary reflexes

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Greek physician working in Rome circa 150-200AD
Interested in movement and sensation
His work on animal reflects highlighted importance of the brain and nerves over the heart and veins

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Debate existed over which organ had primary importance as the basis of mind or soul
Hippocrates favoured the brain as main organ of importance
Plato thought the brain and heat worked in combination
Aristotle firmly believed the heart was more important than the brain

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Edwin Smith Papyrus
series of cases detailing head and neck trauma experience by soldiers after battle
first documented evidence of brain injury analysis
Demonstrated that physicians were recognising the importance of the brain as the cause of disruptions to cognitive and behavioural processes

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Induction is not a valid method; total n of observations is irrelevant. counter examples are relevant

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Demarcation- science is based on observable facts
pseudoscientific theories contain metaphysical elements
Progress in science
science is cumulative. current theories contain more observation statements than theories in the 17th century
philosophy of science should promote the inductuvist methods

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From 1925 weekly meetings of
Physicist Moritz Schlick
Logicians Carnap and Gödel
Mathematical Phillipp Frank
Historian Victor Kraft
Philosophers Herbert Feigl and Friedrich Waismann

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(Frege, Russell, Whitehead, Wittgenstein) give us another truth; the systematic way in which we arrive at valid conclusions based on premises

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Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
The new basis for society is no longer religion or metaphysics but science, based on positive facts or direct sensation

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Empiricism- the truth about the external world is based on sensory information/sensations-positive evidence (Bacon and Hume)

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brain is dynamic system interconnected and mutable
behaviour resulting from a lesion was due to the whole system being out of whack
A lesioned brain was like anew system, not an old system with one part missing

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holistic view-
Constantin von Monakow
neurological study
Diaschisis- damage to one part of the brain can create problems for another
Following this, came holistic view 'the function of the brain should be always viewed as whole'

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Dominant view- some localisation of functions occurs in the cerebral cortex
Critics- it was impossible localise 'higher cortical functions'.

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Camillo Golgi (1843-1926)
Santiago Ramon Cajal (1852-1934)

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19th Century- localisationist view- neurological study
20th century- localisationist view- neuroanatomical study

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the whole brain participated in behaviour
Jean Marie Flourens (1794-1867)

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- Phrenology
brain is organ of the mind
brain is not a single functional entity but a collection of organs representing the propensities, sentiments and faculties
These functions are located in specific parts of the brain
Other things being equal, the size of each organ is indicative of its power
The shape and size of the cranium reflects the shape and size of the underlying organs and is thus indicative of the individuals mental faculties

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Localisationist-functions are localised to discrete areas
Holist- functions are represented throughout the cerebral cortex

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Collaboration- psych, neuroscience and AI
new mission- how the brain actually enables mind
New game- cog neuroscience

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Psychologists began to think in terms of cognition, not just behaviour
Behaviour is simply evidence, not the subject matter of psychology

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Complexity if built into the organism
Sensory information is merely data on which pre-existing mental structures
It failed to explain complex mental functions such as language and other perceptual functions

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Got its name in the later 1970s
evolved from neurology, neuroscience and cognitive science; from brain research and psychology research

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Both psychophysics and electrophysiology tell us something about processing

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People are bad at recognising shadows
Computer models don't ignore shadows
=> use computer models to detect doctored photographs

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Eye movements tend to give an insight into attention
People with autism tend to look at faces differently- Yi et al (2014)

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Psychophysical tests of vision have been applied to people with Autism (Spencer et al 2000) sz (Chen et al 2003)
It is thought these individuals ahem a hyper excitable cortex

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only works for the really insightful/lucky
Also needs verification from other methods

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herring predicted that the 3 colours from the cones must be somehow processed later to be either blue or yellow, not both, and eerier red or green, not both
=> cones are the first stage od colour vision
=> opponent cells come after the cones

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founder of psychophysics
fechner colours
aesthetics, the median, synaesthesia

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Book of optics
influences many Western scholars: Kepler, Galileo, Grosseteste
How light Is transmitted through the eye

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Strong form- objective reality independent for the observer and theories directly reflect this
Intermediate form- objective reality independent from the observer and theories approximate this and are improved over time
Weak form- objective reality in which the observer participates and theories capture what is observable of this

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in favour of recognising the socially constructed nature of psychological knowledge

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As constructions that are useful for interaction

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Represents reality independent of us

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First used by Galton
believed that the human race could help direct its future by selectively breeding individuals- who have desired traits
Galton, Pearson and Fisher advocated 'social imperialism' believing that 'superior races' and countries should produce more offspring than that of less developed ones

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Professor of genetics
showed how research could statistically control for cofounding variables by factoring them out with statistics
Developed the z distribution
pioneered principles of the design of experiments and statistics of small samples and analysis of real data
Introduced the concept of a null hypothesis

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Considered first modern statistical
Pearson chi-square test
Pearson correlation coefficient
introduced term 'variable'
used term standard deviation first

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First to use term 'nature/nurture'
First to apply the normal distribution to intelligence

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Described as a renaissance man
First to devise the equation for BMI
first to highlight importance of statistical analysis of behavioural data
analysed crime statistics from several countries
individual data points impossible to predict but predictions can be made from mean scores

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Nomothetic (Galtonian) became dominant
facilitated by developments in experimental research
desire for psych to be seen as a science

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branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge
knowledge relates to truth, belief and justification

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is the scientific study of the reciprocal relationships between humans and the rest of nature, with the goal of encouraging conservation of the natural world

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studies the relationship between humans and the natural world through ecological and psychological principles

Ecothearpy-  our connection to the natural world and the environment we live within

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Anthropocentrism- humans and human welfare are most important
Biocentrism- all living things have value; some more important than others
Ecocentrism- well being of a species or community more important than that of an individual

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Kellert 1984
Dominionistic- staisfaction from mastery and control over animals typically sports
Scientific- physical attributes and biological functioning of animals
Naturalistic- affection for wildlife and outdoors
Ecologistic- concern for environment
Humanistic- strong affection for individual animals
Moralistic- treatment for animals, strong opposition for exploitation

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Utilitarian- primarily concerned for the practical and material value of animals
Aestheic- interested in the artistic and symbolic characteristics of animals
Negativistic- active avoidance of animals due to dislike or fear
Neutralistic- passsive avoidance of animals due to indifference and lack of interest

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E.O. Wilson 1984
Innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes

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1- the brain has evolved to generate behaviour appropriate to our environmental circumstances
2- neural circuitry is adapted to solve evolutionary problems
3- much problem solving is unconscious
4-neural circuits are specialised to solve adaptive problems
5- a Stone Age brain in a modern world

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sociobiology came from biologists- evolutionary psych came from psychologists
Evolutionary psych claimed to differ from sociobiology as it is concerned with the underlying computations of the mind
Is a paradigm rather than a topic of study

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systematic study of the biological basis of all social behaviour

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refers to the idea that the greatest differences between people lie in culture
Boas- if you wish to understand people you must understand their cultures

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Wouldn't  have been possible without Darwin and evolution theory

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Functionalism sought to discover the adaptive functions of consciousness
Similar introspective measures as structuralism, the nature os cognition was addressed in distinctively darwinian terms

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Interested in the differences in people
Established an anthropometric lab testing over 9000 people in a year
He believed intelligence is inherited
Founded the eugenics education society
First introduced nature/nurture argument
Introduced statistics to psych

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Darwin explicitly talked about a continuity between species
he suggested that because of their relatedness, humans and primates will share similar structures and behaviours

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Darwin;
varaition
inheritence
selection
God not directly responsible for creation of species

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Malthus- suggested an explantation for why animals are so well suited to environments
Lamarck- incorrectly believed giraffes evolved long necks because they stretched them to reach branches
Cuvier- catastrophism suggested that species re extinguished periodically and then replaced by different species

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Popper- no amount of data that fits a theory can ever prove that it is true whereas one datum that contradicts can prove that it is false

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Transformational- emergence of novelty

Variational- individual differences

Expressive constructive- essential feature of what changes

Instrumental communicative-what it is that changes