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MARTA G

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Anaerobic World

Picture a world without oxygen. You might be imagining a barren wasteland like the moon, but in this scenario, the image is just the opposite. The environment is filled with hot volcanoes spewing life-giving chemicals into the aqueous world. Somehow creatures co-exist with thousands of other species, all thriving in this unique ecosystem. What are these creatures? They are anaerobic bacteria. They are single-celled organisms that don't need oxygen to survive, and in fact oxygen will kill them. They live in the hydrothermal vents of the deepest part of the oceans and use chemicals instead of sunlight to make food.

Today, we'll learn about anaerobic bacteria that do not need oxygen to survive, as well as their well-known counterparts, aerobes, which do need oxygen. But first, what are bacteria?

Bacteria

Bacteria are small, single-celled organisms that don't have a nucleus (a compartment to hold their DNA). They are called prokaryotes. Other more complex cells, like the ones in our bodies, are called eukaryotic.

Bacteria can be anaerobic or aerobic. Aerobic means involving oxygen, so anaerobic bacteria can survive without oxygen. Normally, organisms use oxygen to make energy, but these organisms have found ways to get around this. All organisms make energy through cellular respiration, but they do this differently depending on if they are anaerobic or aerobic. In this lesson we'll look at the different types of cellular respiration and then show some examples of each type of bacteria.

Cellular Respiration Types

Before we get started, let's go over some basics about cellular respiration. During cellular respiration, cells use a series of chemical reactions called oxidation-reduction reactions to move electrons around. Cells take electrons from sugar, or glucose, and use the energy stored in them to make ATP, or the energy currency of the cell. Think of cellular respiration as a factory where raw materials like glucose come in, are made into products, and then sold to make money or ATP.

Anaerobic Respiration

All anaerobic bacteria make energy without oxygen. They do this in one of two ways, either through lactic acid or alcoholic fermentation. During lactic acid fermentation, cells use a molecule called NADH to take electrons from glucose. The NADH use the energy stored in the electrons to make ATP, and convert glucose to pyruvate. This process is called glycolysis and is the first step in all forms of cellular respiration. In lactic acid fermentation, the next step is to pyruvate to lactic acid. Lactic acid, although a waste product for bacteria, can be used to make human foods, like yogurt.

The other way anaerobes make energy is through alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. Like in lactic acid fermentation, NADH takes electrons from glucose and turns it into pyruvate during glycolysis. From here, the pyruvate is converted to ethanol instead of lactic acid. This is the same ethanol that we find in beverages like wine and beer. Alcoholic fermentation also makes carbon dioxide, which gives beer the carbonation.

Aerobic Respiration

Aerobic bacteria are much more efficient at making energy. Anaerobes only make two ATP molecules per glucose, but aerobes can make up to 38 ATP per glucose. Aerobic respiration can be broken down into three steps: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

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aerobic vs. anaerobic bacteria: comparison & differences - video & lesson transcript | study.com

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Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Bacteria: Comparison & Differences - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

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Picture a world without oxygen. You might be imagining a barren wasteland like the moon, but in this scenario, the image is just the opposite. The environment is filled with hot volcanoes spewing life-giving chemicals into the aqueous world. Somehow creatures co-exist with thousands of other species, all thriving in this unique ecosystem.

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MARTA G

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PlantEd Digital Learning Library - Gram Stain Procedure

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Florida Integrated Food Safety Center of Excellence

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OUTBREAK CANTALOUPES. MARTAG

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CDC Chief: Source of Deadly Listeria in Contaminated Cantaloupes Still Unknown

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OUTBREAK BLUE BELL FOODS.MARTAG

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LACTALIS OUTBREAK. MARTAG

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Lactalis, one of the world's largest dairy groups, may have been producing Salmonella-conaminated baby milk for more than a decade, its CEO was quoted as saying this week.

The French company has recalled 12 million cans of milk in France and several other countries since babies got sick last year after drinking milk produced at a Lactalis factory in Craon in western France.

Salmonella infections can be life-threatening, particularly for young children.

On Thursday, Reuters reported that Lactalis CEO Emmanuel Besnier said the growing food safety crisis will likely cost the company hundreds of millions of euros.

The same strain of Salmonella was responsible for some infections in 2005, Besnier told French newspaper Les Echos, adding it was possible the factory was the source for those cases, and others since.

In 2005, the factory in Craon was owned by Celia, a company taken over by Lactalis in 2006.

"It cannot be excluded that babies have consumed contaminated milk over this period," Besnier said.

The Institut Pasteur, which monitors micro-organisms and diseases, said more than 200 babies in France had been infected with Salmonella Agona since 2005, including 38 between mid-August and December 2016. There were 25 confirmed illnesses between 2006 and 2017 and 141 in 2005, Reuters reported.

French health authorities have said 36 of the 38 cases in 2016 were clearly linked to Lactalis milk, as was one in Spain and a suspected one in Greece. A group representing victims' families says there were at least 10 more cases.

The privately owned company exports its products to dozens of countries in Europe, Africa and Asia. It also sells in the United States, but none of the recalled baby milk has been traced to U.S. distributors so far.

Last month, French authorities searched five Lactilis sites, including the Craon plant. Besnier said a facility at that plant has been closed and will stay that way.

After talks with Lactalis management, French authorities said last month the company would recall all infant formula milk products made at the Craon factory that were still in warehouses and on store shelves, regardless of the date of manufacture.

The company has said the recall affected more than 12 million products in 83 countries.

French fraud and health authorities have launched a criminal investigation into how the massive recall was handled. Some retailers were still selling the products days after they were recalled.

This week, Besnier questioned the effectiveness of 16,000 tests performed by an unidentified private laboratory last year, saying they revealed nothing.

"If the analysis of end-products had revealed the presence of Salmonella Agona, we would of course not have marketed the products and we would have avoided the crisis," Lactalis said in a statement referring to the tests.

The victims' association reacted to Besnier's comments with dismay.

"These are several hundred million boxes concerned and several hundred thousand tonnes of products sent to more than 80 countries. This is a health scandal of unprecedented scale," it said in a statement. "This implies that the victims could have been much more numerous."

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CEO says firm may have sold contaminated baby milk for years | Food Safety News

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Lactalis, one of the world's largest dairy groups, may have been producing Salmonella-conaminated baby milk for more than a decade, its CEO was quoted as saying this week. The French company has recalled 12 million cans of milk in France and several other countries since babies got sick last year after drinking milk produced at a Lactalis factory in Craon in western France.

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OUTBREAK

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NEW: happend in Spain few years ago

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Researchers from the University of Granada (Spain) have analysed the presence of patulin, a type of toxin produced by fungi, in several commercial apple juices. The results show that more than 50% of the samples analysed exceed the maximum limits laid down by law. They have also discovered a sample of rice with more mycotoxins than permitted. For their part, researchers from the University of Valencia have also found these harmful substances in beers, cereals and products made from them, such as gofio flour.

They are not very well known, but mycotoxins top the list of the most widespread natural contaminants in foodstuffs at the global level. They are toxic and carcinogenic substances produced by fungi, which reach the food chain through plants and their fruit.

Now new analytical techniques developed in universities such as Granada and Valencia (Spain) show that some foodstuffs exceed permitted levels of these harmful compounds.

Researchers from the University of Granada (UGR) have used their own method of 'microextraction and capillary electrophoresis' to analyse concentrations of a kind of mycotoxins, patulin, in 19 batches of eight brands of commercial apple juice. They differentiated between conventional juice, organic juice and juice designed specifically for children.

"The results show that more than 50% of the samples analysed exceeded the maximum contents laid down by European law," as explained to SINC by Monsalud del Olmo, co-author of the study, which is published this month in the magazine ' Food Control'.

The maximum levels of patulin established by the EU are 50 micrograms per kilogram of product (μg/kg) for fruit juices and nectars, 25 μg/kg for compotes and other solid apple products and 10 μg/kg if those foodstuffs are aimed at breast-fed babies and young children.

However, some samples of conventional apple juices had as much as 114.4 μg/kg, and one batch labelled as baby food had 162.2 μg/kg, more than 15 times the legal limit.

Patulin is produced by several species of fungi of the Penicillium, Aspergillus and Byssochylamys varieties, which are found naturally in fruit, mainly apples. They are transferred to juices during processing because of their solubility in water and stability.

The neurotoxic, immunotoxic and mutagenic effects of this substance have been confirmed in animal models. "Even then, it is not one of the most dangerous mycotoxins for health and it is included in group 3 within the categories laid down by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)," Monsalud del Olmo pointed out.

This WHO agency classifies mycotoxins and other compounds in four groups according to their carcinogenic potential for humans: 1 (carcinogenic), 2 (probably or possibly carcinogenic), 3 (not classifiable as carcinogenic, although it has not been proven that it is not) and 4 (probably not carcinogenic).

Mycotoxins in rice and beer

Some mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins, are in group 1 and can be found in dry fruit, such as peanuts and pistachios, and cereals. UGR scientists have also detected concentrations of this compound above the permitted levels in a sample of rice, and they have already informed the relevant authorities of this.

Other toxins from fungi, such as fumonisins and ochratoxins, are also included in group 2. They are found in maize, other cereals and even beer, as researchers from the University of Valencia (UV) have proven.

A team from that university has used a new technique - called HLPC-LTQ-Orbitrap - to detect the presence of fumonisins and ochratoxins in samples of beer in Germany, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Italy, Ireland, Poland and Spain. The study is also published in ' Food Control'.

"They are minute quantities, although we cannot determine whether they are important because beer is one of the drinks which is not directly included in European law on mycotoxins," said Josep Rubert, UV researcher and co-author of the study.

"What this study does show is that merely controlling the raw material - barley, in this case - is not enough," added Rubert, "and that these toxins are present throughout the technological process, where it has been proven that mycotoxins that are legislated for can become hidden by joining wit glucose, so this needs to be taken into account for future research".

The same Valencian team has also analysed 1250 samples of cereal-based products from Spain, France and Germany to see whether there are differences between organic and conventional foodstuffs in the case of fumosins.

One of the most striking findings is that samples of gofio flour, commonly used in the Canaries, had concentrations of this mycotoxin in quantities greater than 1000 μg/kg, the limit established by European law. A couple of years ago, those researchers also identified a consignment of wheat flour with concentrations of ochratoxin above the permitted level.

When the limits laid down by the EU are exceeded, scientists inform the relevant authorities, especially the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Then the contaminated batch must be withdrawn.

The results of the study of cereal-based foodstuffs show that almost 11% of the organic products examined contain fumosins, whereas in conventional products this percentage is reduced to around 3.5%. This data has been published in the magazine ' Food and Chemical Toxicology'.

"The explanation could be that organic foodstuffs do not contain fungicides or other pesticides, so fungi may have a more favourable environment and increase their toxins. However, in any case, there are other important factors such as climatic conditions - heat and humidity benefit these microorganisms - and storage conditions which also influence the production of mycotoxins," said Rubert, who recognises that analysis must be done on a case-by-case basis.

In fact, in the study of apple juices, the opposite happened, and the organic products had fewer mycotoxins than the conventional ones. What the researchers do agree on is the need to keep defining the toxicity of each of these harmful substances, studying their effects on health and developing more and more exact methods of analysis.

References:

María Dolores Víctor-Ortega, Francisco J. Lara, Ana M. García-Campaña, Monsalud del Olmo-Iruela. "Evaluation of dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction for the determination of patulin in apple juices using micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography". Food Control 31: 353-358, 2013.

J. Rubert, C. Soler, R. Marín, K.J. James, J. Mañes." Mass spectrometry strategies for mycotoxins analysis in European beers". Food Control 30 (1): 122, 2013.

Josep Rubert, José Miguel Soriano, Jordi Mañes, Carla Soler. "Occurrence of fumonisins in organic and conventional cereal-based products commercialized in France, Germany and Spain". Food and Chemical Toxicology, 2013.

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Detection of apple juices and cereals which exceed permitted levels of mycotoxins

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Researchers from the University of Granada (Spain) have analysed the presence of patulin, a type of toxin produced by fungi, in several commercial apple juices. The results show that more than 50 percent of the samples analysed exceed the maximum limits laid down by law.

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MARTA G

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FIRST 3 MINUTES

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Will You Still Eat Raw Fish After Watching This Video?

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SPANISH. MARTAG

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MARTAG

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Safety Information

Do not use in excess than recommended. Do not use if pregnant or breastfeeding. Not for young children or those preparing for or about to have surgery. Do not use if you have or have a history of heart disease. Discontinue use immediately if you experience any adverse reaction. Decrease dosage or discontinue use if you experience flushing of the face, headaches, dizziness, or fluttering of the heart. Keep out of reach of children, do not use if safety seal is damaged or missing, store in a cool, dry place. If more than eleven (11) days passes after taking a capsule and it has not been expelled seek medical attention as there may be a serious complication.

Ingredients

Contains thirty (30) genetically engineered Taenia Saginata capsules.

Directions

Take one (1) capsule weekly with a full glass of water. Do not exceed one (1) capsule within a week period. DO NOT TAKE MORE THAN ONE (1) CAPSULE AT A TIME.

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Weight-B-Gone Tapeworm Diet Pills - Lieware

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Safety Information Do not use in excess than recommended. Do not use if pregnant or breastfeeding. Not for young children or those preparing for or about to have surgery. Do not use if you have or have a history of heart disease. Discontinue use immediately if you experience any adverse reaction.

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 Different analysis to discriminate microorganism type

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 Different analysis to discriminate microorganism type

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SOFÍA & ANDRÉS

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ZEARALENONE. Adisseo mycotoxin analysis: US corn crop of medium quality

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ZEARALENONE. Adisseo mycotoxin analysis: US corn crop of medium quality

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Adisseo mycotoxin analysis: US corn crop of medium quality

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Adisseo's 2018 Mycotoxin Survey found that almost half of corn and silage samples taken in the U.S. were contaminated with zearalenone (ZEN) and more than 70 percent were contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON), making the 2018 U.S. corn harvest of medium quality in terms of mycotoxin contamination.

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Is zearalenone (ZEA) a problem for pigs? In fact, every mycotoxin can be an issue for animals, but ZEA deserves special attention in swine reproduction. In spite of good preventive measures, it proves to be one of the most serious problems in farrowing units.

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A "perfect storm" brewed up fumonisin in corn that many High Plains producers won't soon forget, but experts do not think the toxin will be a major recurrence in in years to come due to expected normal weather conditions.

About 80 producers recently gathered in Dumas, Texas, to hear what the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service and Texas Corn Producers learned since the outbreak in late September.

Fumonisin is a mycotoxin produced by two species of Fusarium fungi and can be toxic to livestock and humans at high levels, so regulatory limits are set on the amount corn can contain.

AgriLife Extension agronomist Dr. Jourdan Bell said fumonisin occurrence is highly dependent on specific weather conditions, which vary from year to year.

Should producers expect it to return as bad next year? Probably not, Bell said. Weather forecast maps indicate a return to hot and dry conditions next summer and slightly below-average precipitation, which is not good overall for corn but is good news concerning fumonisins.

For fumonisin to develop, the plant must first be predisposed to fusarium ear rot, Bell said. The fungus infects susceptible plants and can result in kernel and ear rot. Later in the season, the Fusarium fungus releases the fumonisin only if environmental conditions are conducive for the mycotoxin to be produced. In some years, it is not uncommon for producers to have Fusarium ear rot but not have any fumonisin produced.

"Many producers have never heard of fumonisin, but we have had varying levels of fumonisin historically," she said. "This year, we just ended up with a perfect storm that increased the incidence. The crop was stressed during flowering with hot, dry conditions, followed by rain and high humidity during grain fill, which favored fumonisin development."

This year was a teaching year that will help producers be better prepared in the future and prompt more research into various areas of concern to help both the growers and cattle feeders face regulations, should they become an issue, she added.

Bell said there are some agronomic steps producers can take to help minimize their risk.

"We know some of the newer 'racehorse' hybrids are having some problems, so when you talk to your seed dealer, make sure you talk about traits such as Fusarium ear rot and heat," Bell said. "Some varieties cannot tolerate drying down in August and September when it is really hot and the kernel integrity is damaged."

Susceptibility increases when kernel integrity issues, insect damage, hail, wind, husk coverage or smut cause stress and act as a doorway to Fusarium infection on the ear, she said. However, ear mold presence does not mean the fumonisin toxin is there.

"The Fusarium fungus needs the correct moisture and amylopectin, or starch, to form fumonisin," Bell said. "Extended periods of heavy precipitation and high relative humidity during grain fill, along with temperatures ranging from 50 to 86°F, are ideal for fumonisin formation. In fact, temperature fluctuations favor rapid development, and we saw that through August and September. That is not normal for the High Plains in August, when our daytime temperatures are in the 90s to even 100°(F)."

Another consideration is smut tolerance, she said. In fields with hybrids that had poor Fusarium ear rot ratings, there seemed to be very high fumonisin levels associated with smut.

"In many areas, we had lots of smut in 2017. Smut can act like a sponge for all the pathogens in that field, so you need a hybrid with high tolerance to both head and common smut," she said. "There are no fungicides to control common smut, and crop rotation and tillage don't help either, so the hybrid is the key. Because head smut can infect the plant systemically, fungicide seed treatments can be effective."

Other considerations for producers include Bt trait selection and husk coverage. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is an insecticidal protein to provide the plant resistance to Lepidopteran insects such as the corn earworm and fall armyworm.

Research by AgriLife Extension entomologists Drs. Pat Porter and Ed Bynum has shown that the level of activity is not the same for all Bt toxins. Also, ears with loose husks allow wet conditions to cause more mold growth on mature ears. Water can get inside the husks and sit there, creating a perfect environment for mold growth.

Texas Corn Producers executive director David Gibson told producers that one change that resulted from the 2017 fumonisin situation is that the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Risk Management Agency reinstated a scale for fumonisin discounts. The scale existed until 2010, then disappeared and now will be back in place for the 2018 crop.

Gibson said the concerns from this year are not over, as anyone who sold corn directly to a feedyard may be getting a letter from the Texas Office of the State Chemist outlining fees and licenses required when selling a feed source into the industry.

Ben Weinheimer, Texas Cattle Feeders Assn. vice president, said the letters are due to a regulation stating that farmers, truckers, brokers and elevators are subject to licensing, labeling and inspection fees if they market direct to an end user.

Also, a Food & Drug Administration guidance in 2001 specifies the levels of fumonisin the industry is to follow when accepting grain, and the Texas chemist office has put these into state regulations. So, the guideline of 60 parts per million isn't negotiable for them; they can just accept or reject loads of corn, Weinheimer said.

However, he said, it is a level they believe needs more research for validation both by the industry and Texas A&M AgriLife because there is not a huge inventory of trial data for fumonisin in feeding rations.

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Fumonisin not expected to be major yearly problem for corn producers

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A "perfect storm" brewed up fumonisin in corn that many High Plains producers won't soon forget, but experts do not think the toxin will be a major recurrence in in years to come due to expected normal weather conditions.

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SOFÍA & ANDRÉS

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Feed grain producers in the Canadian province are facing high levels of deoxynivalenol (DON), sometimes called vomitoxin, throughout parts of this year's corn crop, said Crosby Devitt, VP strategic development with Grain Farmers of Ontario.

The commodity organization represents about 28,000 producers of barley, corn, oats, soybeans and wheat. It has been working with both federal and provincial governments in Canada to get support for producers during the mycotoxin outbreak.

The damage "is up to about $200m in lost value of this crop this year in Ontario - it's a significant issue that we're working through," ​he told us.

Higher DON corn is discounted in the marketplace and there's less flexibility in where you go with it, he added.

Corn growers faced dry conditions early in the growing season, but saw high moisture levels from pollination through harvest, he said.

"This year we had higher levels of ear mold which causes DON, which is the primary concern this year in terms of mycotoxins ... it's probably more widespread than any other year," ​ he said.

Although there remains a "good percentage" ​ of the crop that saw little to no presence of the mycotoxin, a larger than usual percentage of the crop reported a high presence and a small amount of corn was destroyed while in the field.

However, there is not a shortage of corn that can be used in feed, he said.

DON levels allowed in crops in Canada ​

In Canada, grains or grain by-products can have up to 5mg/kg of deoxynivalenol (DON), in grain for cattle and poultry diets, not exceeding 50% of the diet.

For swine, young calves or lactating animals the amount approved in grains or grain by-products, not exceeding 40% of the diet, falls to 1mg/kg.

Source: Canadian Food Inspection Agency

Grain testing and support​

The organization and producers are working through several channels to address the outbreak, said Devitt.

There have been high levels of testing of the crop since harvest started, he said. However, it can be difficult to obtain a "good and representative" ​sample from within a corn bin.

"We have some research underway to look at best management practices around that to make sure that farmers, or elevators, or end users or feed mills get good results from the corn they're buying and the feed they're making," ​ he said of work to improve testing.

Some funding has been made available through the provincial government to address some of the testing cost for producers and feed users, said Devitt.

Insurance alternatives ​

One additional issue for corn producers is that the current crop insurance system which only addresses yield related challenges.

"It works well as a program when there's a drought, or when there's something that lowers your yield it triggers and gets you back to break even -you're not making money, but you're not losing your farm. ​

"One of the challenges with this year is the earmold wasn't really affecting yield, in a lot of cases the average yield this year in Ontario was above long-term average, but the value of the corn was reduced," ​he said. "It was heavily discounted in the marketplace ... the feed market is pretty regulated and has to be very careful [in terms of] mycotoxins, so it has to go elsewhere at a lower value." ​

To alter insurance plans, work would need to be done with farmers and the government. Insurance is offered through an arm of the provincial government and the federal government also is involved.

The organization is speaking with farmers about what changes they want to see in terms of how insurance plans are structured, said Devitt.

"Insurance is important, but it's after the fact,"​ he said. "Our ultimate goal is to have corn that the marketplace wants to pay top dollar for because it's got a lot of value." ​

Tackling mold development

A longer-term project seeks to develop ways to prevent similar mold development in the future, said Devitt.

There is ongoing work looking at hybrids and genetic differences in corn strains to identify ones that would be less susceptible to the disease that leads to DON, he said.

The researchers want to develop a risk rating in relation to corn hybrids for ear rot and other diseases.

"We've got some research underway right now and there are corn trials across the province that have many hybrids in many environments," ​he said. "We're looking at how we can incorporate disease ratings into those trials." ​

Other projects are focused on the use of preventative measures like fungicides, Devitt said. "The answer will lie in a range of things - it won't be one thing," ​ he added.

Canada is expected to generate about 14.5m metric tons of corn in 2018/19 with expansion of planted area of that feed grain. Ontario and Quebec are the two provinces that use the most corn and also account for about 85% of production.

Source: USDA FAS report

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Canada: DON contamination of corn 'more widespread than any other year'

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Feed grain producers in the Canadian province are facing high levels of deoxynivalenol (DON), sometimes called vomitoxin, throughout parts of this year's corn crop, said Crosby Devitt, VP strategic development with Grain Farmers of Ontario. The commodity organization represents about 28,000 producers of barley, corn, oats, soybeans and wheat.

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Zearalenone. Explanation by Dr. Walter Hurley

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Zearalenone. Explanation by Dr. Walter Hurley

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Andrea Juliana y Carla Yvonne

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Wheat School: The threat of ochratoxin A

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The Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published today an opinion on ochratoxin A (OTA), a mycotoxin naturally produced by certain fungi such as the Penicillium and Aspergillus species. The Panel concluded that, when consumed, OTA accumulates in the kidney and is particularly toxic to this organ. Taking into account all data currently available the Panel derived a Tolerable Weekly Intake (TWI) of 120 ng per kg body weight for OTA. Currently, the weekly exposure of the general population to OTA varies between 15 and 60 ng per kg bodyweight and is therefore well below this value. The experts recommended that all efforts be made to continue to reduce OTA levels in food and that a monitoring programme be established to gather more specific exposure data for certain vulnerable groups.

At the request of the European Commission, EFSA has reviewed the previous opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF, 1998)[1] on OTA in the light of more recent toxicological studies and exposure data. Specific attention has also been given to vulnerable groups such as infants and children and groups of consumers who are exposed to higher levels of OTA than the average consumer due to their dietary habits.

The Panel concluded that OTA is found to be a potent renal toxin in animals such as rodents and pigs. The extent of renal injury is dose-related and is associated with the duration of exposure. OTA accumulates in the kidney which has been identified as the most sensitive organ with respect to the toxicity of this mycotoxin. The Panel further concluded that there is increasing evidence that both OTA's renal toxicity and its genotoxic effects (damaging DNA, the genetic material of cells) are most likely caused by the generation of free radicals harmful to cells (so called cellular oxidative stress). These effects may finally lead to kidney and liver tumours as observed in animal studies with rodents.

Taking into account all data available the Panel established a TWI of 120 ng/kg body weight for OTA. Current levels of exposure to OTA vary between 15 and 60 ng per kg bodyweight per week which is well below the established TWI. This evaluation takes into account both average and high consumers of foods that are the main contributors to OTA exposure. The Panel also recommended that more specific exposure data be collected for certain vulnerable groups, including infants and children and high consumers of certain regional food specialities containing OTA.

Occurrence of OTA
Ochratoxin A is a mycotoxin produced by several fungal species in the Penicillium and Aspergillus genera which widely occur in nature. Mycotoxins such as OTA are formed as crops grow or more commonly develop later during storage and have been reported as contaminants in food commodities. Human exposure to OTA has been confirmed through the detection of this mycotoxin in the blood, urine and milk samples of healthy subjects. The main sources are cereals and cereal products, pulses, coffee, beer, grape juice, dry vine fruits and wine, cacao products, nuts as well as spices. OTA is also found in animal feed from across the world but OTA in meat, milk and eggs was considered to be a negligible source for human exposure. However, higher concentrations of OTA may occur in certain local specialties such as blood puddings and sausages prepared with pig blood serum.

Previous evaluations considered by the CONTAM Panel for the evaluation of OTA
OTA in food has been previously evaluated by the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) ¹ and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)[2] . The CONTAM Panel evaluated the results of these opinions in the light of more recent toxicological studies, in particular the findings of an EU-research project on the mechanism of carcinogenicity induced by OTA[3] and recent analytical findings on the occurrence of OTA in food and exposure assessments.

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EFSA evaluates ochratoxin A in food and derives a Tolerable Weekly Intake

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The Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published today an opinion on ochratoxin A (OTA), a mycotoxin naturally produced by certain fungi such as the Penicillium and Aspergillus species. The Panel concluded that, when consumed, OTA accumulates in the kidney and is particularly toxic to this organ.

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LUCIA & NATALIA

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Hood River Juice Company Inc. in Hood River, OR, was inspected by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Nov. 27 through Dec. 6 2017, and the results were not good.

"The inspection revealed serious deviations of the juice Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) regulation, Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 120 (21 CFR 120," FDA's Seattle district director said in a warning letter to the juice processor.

After the inspections, an FDA Form 483, listing the deviations was left with the company. Hood River Juice Company responded on Dec. 18, 2017, saying it had updated its HACCP. However, the warning letter says the response was not adequate.

One of the most severe violations by the firm includes the failure to list all food safety hazards that are reasonably likely to occur, and specifically, their HACCP plan does not identify the food hazard of patulin.

The National Institutes of Health says patulin is a mycotoxin, found as a contaminant of foods, and it is commonly found in rotting apples. A number of studies have shown that it is genotoxic, which has led to some theories that it may be a carcinogen. Several countries have instituted patulin restrictions in apple products. Additionally, the World Health Organization recommends a maximum concentration of 50 micrograms/liter in apple juice.

According to the warning letter, FDA investigators observed damaged fruit on the conveyer line after the inspection and sorting, and the firm's patulin test results indicated levels above 50 parts per billion (ppb). According to the FDA, "Any apples which are rotten, moldy, bruised or damaged should be trimmed or culled from production."

"FDA recommends you perform a root cause analysis to determine the source of high patulin levels in your apple juice, and implement appropriate CCPs in your HACCP plan accordingly."

Additional violations observed at Hood River Juice Company were:

Apples were found stored outside for extended periods without atmospheric or temperature controls in open, wooden bins; Such storage conditions increase the probability of patulin formation, thus resulting in elevated levels of patulin in the finished product.

Failure to monitor for the condition and cleanliness of food contact surfaces and the prevention of cross-contamination from insanitary objects; "Clumps of apple mash on mesh press bags after cleaning, prior to re-use," and "Peeling paint with apparent black, mold-like growth on the ceiling above press bags."

The FDA noted the firm's practice of blending batches of apple juice which their internal testing found contained patulin above 50 ppb with batches of apple juice with patulin less than 50 ppb, to lower the patulin levels in the finished blends; "the FDA considers the deliberate mixing of adulterated food with good food renders the finished product adulterated under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, regardless of the final concentration of contaminant in the finished product."

Failure to monitor conditions and practices during processing with sufficient frequency to ensure conformance with current Good Manufacturing Practice regulations. This included failure to monitor the condition and cleanliness of food contact surfaces, protection of food, food packaging material and food contact surfaces from adulertion.

"You should take prompt action to correct these violations and to establish procedures whereby such violations do not recur," Miriam R. Burbach, FDA's Seattle district director wrote. "These actions include, but are not limited to, an injunction."

FDA asked Hood River Juice Company to respond within 15 days to the April 25 Warning Letter with specifics about how it plans to correct the deviations. "If you cannot complete all corrections before you respond, we expect that you will explain the reason for your delay and state when you will correct any remaining deviations."

A copy of the warning letter was sent by FDA to the Oregon State Department of Agriculture's Food Safety Program.

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Patulin levels in juice, filth at plant prompts FDA warning letter | Food Safety News

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Hood River Juice Company Inc. in Hood River, OR, was inspected by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Nov. 27 through Dec. 6 2017, and the results were not good. "The inspection revealed serious deviations of the juice Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) regulation, Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 120 (21 CFR 120," FDA's Seattle district director said in a warning letter to the juice processor.

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LUCIA & NATALIA

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Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins - Stimulating research and data collection

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Fumonisins

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MARTAG

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Detection of apple juices and cereals which exceed permitted levels of mycotoxins / Videos / Multimedia / SINC - Servicio de Información y Noticias Científicas

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SINC Science News and Information Service, Scientific communication multimedia platform

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MARTAG

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Fact or fiction, though? Many of us were told as kids not to eat the brown parts. But can we eat the whole apple, bruises and all?

Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by a fungus that infects apples, and can cause those characteristic brown patches. If it is a human carcinogen-and we're still not sure-it's a pretty weak one. So the concern is not with the apples themselves-because we can just cut away the brown parts-but with apple juice, where companies can get away with using fallen, rotting, moldy apples-and we would never know, unless researchers started testing apple juice for the presence of fungal toxins.

And in countries around the world, patulin levels in apple juice-the #1 source of fruit servings for toddlers in this country-have in many cases exceeded the World Health Organization safety guidelines.

Always better to consume apples than apple juice. But if you are going to drink apple juice, choose organic, as none of the samples of organic juice in the latest 2009 study exceeded those safety limits.
To see any graphs, charts, graphics, images, and quotes to which Dr. Greger may be referring, watch the above video. This is just an approximation of the audio contributed by veganmontreal.
Please consider volunteering to help out on the site.

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Fungal Toxins in Apples | NutritionFacts.org

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Fact or fiction, though? Many of us were told as kids not to eat the brown parts. But can we eat the whole apple, bruises and all? Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by a fungus that infects apples, and can cause those characteristic brown patches.

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MARTAG

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It was May of 1960 when turkeys in England started dying of a mysterious disease. By August, over 100,000 were dead - in some places, the mortality rate was 100%. Although pheasants and ducklings were also susceptible, turkey populations seemed most vulnerable, and so the plague got the name Turkey X Disease.

The turkeys seemed to be in good condition up until right before their death, when they showed signs of nervous conditions and fell into a coma. When officials opened them up, they discovered necrotic tissue in the liver, indicating they had been exposed to some kind of poison. When they traced the food supplied to each of the affected farms, and found peanut meal that had come off a certain ship from South America. When the meal was exposed to UV light, it glowed. That wasn't a good sign.

The meal was contaminated with a fungus called Aspergillus flavus, and the glowing material was what came to be known as aflatoxin. In high quantities, this mycotoxin takes out the liver by causing extreme bleeding, cirrhosis, and killing off tissue. Even if the toxin isn't sufficient to kill an animal outright, it is one of the most carcinogenic agents known to science. It causes liver cancer, but it also takes out the p53 gene. This gene prevents a cell from multiplying if it has mutated. So aflatoxins cause cancer, and take out our body's defense against cancer.

Turkeys are more susceptible to these toxins than other animals, but all animals, including humans, are affected by them. And the fungus that causes them is everywhere. All A. flavus needs to grow in stored food is a high moisture content and a hot room. The aflatoxin makes its way into nearly everything. It has been found in the milk of lactating animals, and researchers studying an outbreak of contamination in Nepal found it in human umbilical blood.

Aflatoxin is nearly impossible to get rid of completely, but food regulatory agencies limit the amount of aflatoxin that can be fed to animals, to lactating animals, and to humans. Provided that food is properly stored, and monitored, there's little danger of aflatoxin.

[Via The Histopathology of Turkey X Disease In Great Britain, Aflatoxin: A 50-Year Odyssey]
Image: Scott Bauer, USDA. Second Image: NIH.

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The World's Most Carcinogenic Toxin Was Discovered Via Turkey Plague

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It was May of 1960 when turkeys in England started dying of a mysterious disease. By August, over 100,000 were dead - in some places, the mortality rate was 100%. Although pheasants and ducklings were also susceptible, turkey populations seemed most vulnerable, and so the plague got the name Turkey X Disease.

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MARTAG

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SAINT ANTHONY'S FIRE
One disease, commonly known as St. Anthony's fire, is caused by the consumption of ergot. It got it's name from a hospital in Vienna (founded in 1100), whose patron was Saint Anthony because they became a pilgrimage center for those afflicted with ergot. As we know, ergot is a vasoconstrictor, but with constant and prolonged exposure to this fungus causes it to be extreme. It can severely limit blood flow to the extremities, resulting in symptoms that vary from shedding one's nails to losing one's limbs! As the disease progresses, many experience extremely painful feelings of intense heat in the limbs, thus why it was called the "Holy Fire." Several weeks after this, the limbs would simply dry up, turn black, and fall off without any pain, but I've read that the stench of rotting flesh was terrible. This disease was most prevalent west of the Rhine River in France for reasons still unknown, but the first recorded outbreak was in Germany in 857 A.D. Many times poorer people were at a higher risk because they could not afford to discard the "dirty grain" and they also didn't know the risk they were putting themselves in every time they sat down to eat bread made with this grain. Also, ergot was most common when a harsh winter followed a cool, wet spring because many people would exhaust their food supply and eat the ergot infected grain. I also found it very interesting that many of the depictions of Saint Anthony in the churches often have his followers missing limbs or with burning limbs. Saint Anthony's Fire is also known as gangrenous ergotism, which also can (and does) affect livestock and cattle. They exhibit similar characteristics and will sometimes also lose their ears or limbs, as in the picture. Scary.

CONVULSIVE ERGOTISM
Eating bread that was made with infected grain can give you gangrenous ergotism, like we saw above, but that is not the only possible side effect. It is also possible that humans and animals may experience convulsive ergotism. The symptoms of this strain range from vomiting, diarrhea, and general lethargy to a sensation of ants crawling all over the body, vivid hallucinations, twitching, epilepsy-like seizures, blindness, deafness and death. The reason one experiences this is because of the ergot alkaloids ergine and lysergic acid. Well, now you are probably asking how one fungus can cause these two different diseases when ingested in the same way. Well, the answer is in the fungus' genes. Convulsive and gangrenous ergotism are both caused by slightly different strains of the fungus. I thought of it like getting a cold, some strains give you a runny nose and others, a stomach ache.

WITCH TRIALS
The Salem Witch Trials (1691) and many others that took place in Europe all seem to be pretty consistent with the symptoms of ergotism. Many of the accused were adolescents, and teenagers are some of the most susceptible to the disease. All of the symptoms that the people exhibited were those of ergot poisoning, such as vomiting, vertigo, sensations of things crawling on one's skin, and hallucinations. Also, the geographic location of the Salem was conducive to ergot growth, as were many of the other places that had witch trials in Europe. Another interesting thing I found in my research is that Ireland didn't have many witch trials. This is believed to be because their main food supply wasn't bread, but potatoes. While they may have escaped witch trials because of their potato diet, eating almost exclusively potatoes also had dire effects on their society because of this organism.
*For more on the Salem Witch Trials and other great info on this organism, check out this website!

GREEK MYTHOLOGY
Claviceps purpurea has clearly made a footprint on human history, but one way to make sure to be remembered is to be associated with Greek mythology! The ancient Greeks had many temples that they would go to for various reasons, and one of them was the Temple of Eleusis. It was at this temple that "great mysteries" were revealed. In order for anyone to go to this temple, however, they needed to fast, rest and make other sacrifices. Yeah, that's all great, but how does ergot fit into all of this? Well, when they broke the fast, they did so by drinking Kykeon, a sacred PURPLE potion. It is believed that this was derived from Claviceps purpurea and that the ergot alkaloids caused the terrors, hallucinations, tremors and sweats the reoccur in descriptions of pilgrimages to this temple. This attracted the interests of Socrates, Plato, Sophocles, Euripides and Homer. This made me question if the effects of LSD played a role in shaping the visions of some of the greatest philosophers in human history. Crazy!

For more history of this fungus, check out this great website!

If you thought this website was the coolest ever and want to learn more about the person who made it, go on to the ABOUT ME page! :) If not check out the HOME page again!

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SAINT ANTHONY'S FIRE One disease, commonly known as St. Anthony's fire, is caused by the consumption of ergot. It got it's name from a hospital in Vienna (founded in 1100), whose patron was Saint Anthony because they became a pilgrimage center for those afflicted with ergot.

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MARTAG

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MARTAG

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Exposure to pyrrolizidine alkaloids in food, in particular for frequent and high consumers of tea and herbal infusions, is a possible long-term concern for human health due to their potential carcinogenicity, say EFSA's experts.
The consumption of food supplements based on pyrrolizidine alkaloid-producing plants could also result in exposure levels causing short-term toxicity resulting in adverse health effects.

EFSA has updated its 2011 advice on the risks for human and animal health from pyrrolizidine alkaloids, a large group of toxins produced by different plant species that can unintentionally enter the food chain.

The European Commission requested the updated risk assessment, which takes account of exposure estimates using more recent data on the levels of these toxins in honey, tea, herbal infusions and food supplements.

In 2011 EFSA concluded there were possible long-term health concerns for toddlers and children who are high consumers of honey, the only food category for which sufficient data were then available.

EFSA's experts identified 17 pyrrolizidine alkaloids in food and feed that should continue to be monitored and recommended further studies on the toxicity and carcinogenicity of those most commonly found in food.

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Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in tea, herbal infusions and food supplements

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Exposure to pyrrolizidine alkaloids in food, in particular for frequent and high consumers of tea and herbal infusions, is a possible long-term concern for human health due to their potential carcinogenicity, say EFSA's experts. The consumption of food supplements based on pyrrolizidine alkaloid-producing plants could also result in exposure levels causing short-term toxicity resulting in adverse health effects.

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MARTAG

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MARTA G

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Red tide: Toxic algae crisis is worst ever recorded in Chile - TomoNews

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Fugu | how to prepare the deadly pufferfish as shown by "Uosei" chef Rikizo Okamoto | Tokyo

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PATULIN

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Hood River Juice Company Inc. in Hood River, OR, was inspected by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Nov. 27 through Dec. 6 2017, and the results were not good.

"The inspection revealed serious deviations of the juice Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) regulation, Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 120 (21 CFR 120," FDA's Seattle district director said in a warning letter to the juice processor.

After the inspections, an FDA Form 483, listing the deviations was left with the company. Hood River Juice Company responded on Dec. 18, 2017, saying it had updated its HACCP. However, the warning letter says the response was not adequate.

One of the most severe violations by the firm includes the failure to list all food safety hazards that are reasonably likely to occur, and specifically, their HACCP plan does not identify the food hazard of patulin.

The National Institutes of Health says patulin is a mycotoxin, found as a contaminant of foods, and it is commonly found in rotting apples. A number of studies have shown that it is genotoxic, which has led to some theories that it may be a carcinogen. Several countries have instituted patulin restrictions in apple products. Additionally, the World Health Organization recommends a maximum concentration of 50 micrograms/liter in apple juice.

According to the warning letter, FDA investigators observed damaged fruit on the conveyer line after the inspection and sorting, and the firm's patulin test results indicated levels above 50 parts per billion (ppb). According to the FDA, "Any apples which are rotten, moldy, bruised or damaged should be trimmed or culled from production."

"FDA recommends you perform a root cause analysis to determine the source of high patulin levels in your apple juice, and implement appropriate CCPs in your HACCP plan accordingly."

Additional violations observed at Hood River Juice Company were:

Apples were found stored outside for extended periods without atmospheric or temperature controls in open, wooden bins; Such storage conditions increase the probability of patulin formation, thus resulting in elevated levels of patulin in the finished product.

Failure to monitor for the condition and cleanliness of food contact surfaces and the prevention of cross-contamination from insanitary objects; "Clumps of apple mash on mesh press bags after cleaning, prior to re-use," and "Peeling paint with apparent black, mold-like growth on the ceiling above press bags."

The FDA noted the firm's practice of blending batches of apple juice which their internal testing found contained patulin above 50 ppb with batches of apple juice with patulin less than 50 ppb, to lower the patulin levels in the finished blends; "the FDA considers the deliberate mixing of adulterated food with good food renders the finished product adulterated under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, regardless of the final concentration of contaminant in the finished product."

Failure to monitor conditions and practices during processing with sufficient frequency to ensure conformance with current Good Manufacturing Practice regulations. This included failure to monitor the condition and cleanliness of food contact surfaces, protection of food, food packaging material and food contact surfaces from adulertion.

"You should take prompt action to correct these violations and to establish procedures whereby such violations do not recur," Miriam R. Burbach, FDA's Seattle district director wrote. "These actions include, but are not limited to, an injunction."

FDA asked Hood River Juice Company to respond within 15 days to the April 25 Warning Letter with specifics about how it plans to correct the deviations. "If you cannot complete all corrections before you respond, we expect that you will explain the reason for your delay and state when you will correct any remaining deviations."

A copy of the warning letter was sent by FDA to the Oregon State Department of Agriculture's Food Safety Program.

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Patulin levels in juice, filth at plant prompts FDA warning letter | Food Safety News

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Hood River Juice Company Inc. in Hood River, OR, was inspected by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Nov. 27 through Dec. 6 2017, and the results were not good. "The inspection revealed serious deviations of the juice Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) regulation, Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 120 (21 CFR 120," FDA's Seattle district director said in a warning letter to the juice processor.

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MARTA

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Scientists explain that acrylamide has the potential to cause cancer. The chemical is created when food is overcooked. The video from the Food Standards Agency gives us more insights and tells us how to reduce our...

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Video: Chemical acrylamide from overcooked food can cause cancer | Daily Mail Online

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Scientists explain that acrylamide has the potential to cause cancer. The chemical is created when food is overcooked. The video from the Food Standards Agency gives us more insights and tells us how to reduce our intake of acrylamide.

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ACRYLAMIDE

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What is acrylamide and what are the risks? | Daily Mail Online

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Dr. Joe Schwarcz, Director, of McGill University's Office for Science & Society discusses acrylamide in our food supply and what we can do to reduce our consumption

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Stephen Palumbi: Hidden toxins in the fish we eat

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What's link between the ocean's health and our health? Marine biologist Stephen Palumbi shows how toxins at the bottom of the ocean food chain find their way into our bodies -- and tells a shocking story of toxic contamination in the fish market, where consumers were being tricked into buying fish that's not only mislabeled but unsafe.

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FOOD PROCESSING CONTAMINANTS IN FOOD. EFSA

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FOOD PROCESSING CONTAMINANTS IN FOOD. EFSA

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MARTAG

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Process contaminants, what are they? What are scientists doing to protect consumers? And how can consumers reduce their exposure to them? This video explains.

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MARTAG

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Japan's Ominous Dancing Cats and the Disaster That Followed

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A New Continent Is Discovered on Earth In the Pacific Ocean

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Takeout creates a lot of trash. It doesn't have to.

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MOST COMMON FOOD PRODUCTS CONTAINING PESTICIDES

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MOST COMMON FOOD PRODUCTS CONTAINING PESTICIDES

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Pesticides Most Common in 12 Produce Items

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Food recalls in the USA for different reasons

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Food recalls in the USA for different reasons

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Sofia Mier

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Here Are All the Current Food Recalls You Should Know About

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If you've found it hard to stay on top of all the latest food recalls, worry no more-we've got all the information you need about current food recalls. Check your kitchen for all of these recalled foods, and remember: When in doubt, throw it out!