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A future with...or without fossil fuels?

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I would like to thank all the organizers and the participants for this beautiful experience and collaboration. Despite the tests and the courses I enriched my knowledge through all these presentations of the different PlantAreas I visited. I found all this process so pleasant and interesting!

Also I would like to thank all my collaborators from my group (group 8) for this beautiful and ''peaceful'' co-operation. I hope not to get lost after the end of this experience.

Thank you all!
Good luck to everyone!

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National Red Lists provide countries with key information about species status within their borders, which can be used directly for national conservation and planning policies supporting effective protection of biodiversity by:

Enabling determination of the extinction risk, conservation status and trends of species

Enabling identification of species or ecosystems under greatest threat

Informing conservation planning and priority setting and therefore underpinning National Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs)

Integrating biodiversity values into national and local development and planning processes (e.g. see theMongolia species tool)

Raising awareness of biodiversity and threatened species throughout a country, with conservation practitioners, policy makers, governments and the general public.

Highlighting important gaps in knowledge and understanding

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A presentation-proposal from  Royal Botanic Gardens

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A presentation-proposal from  Royal Botanic Gardens

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BGCI provides a global voice for all botanic gardens, championing and celebrating their inspiring work. We are the world's largest plant conservation network, open to all. Join us in helping to save the world's threatened plants.

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By reading some business proposals I surprised by the way everyone approached the subject and presented his plan. I initially approached the subject by talking specifically about Crete and then I presented my sources in general. Τhere is an urgent need to put these scedules into practice immediately.

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Looking at diffeferent PlantAreas , I am surprised by the variety of plants that exists around the world, but also by the use of each of them either in the food or in the health. I learned a lot about new varieties but I also learned more about the use of many herbs and spices I already use in my everyday life and I din't know before. Thank you all !!!

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Terrible flash floods in Mandra,Greece-2018

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🔥Worst Terrible Fire in Greece/LARGE WILDFIRE-SOS

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STEP 1. ACTIVATE YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE - assess the problem

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STEP 1. ACTIVATE YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE - assess the problem

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Answer

2. Tropical Andean trees migrate to higher altitudes where the air is cool enough to support their existence. Due to the fast climatic change they have to move faster in order to remain in equilibrium with their preferred temperatures.

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Click here to see this page in other languages: Russian

Developing countries currently cannot sustain themselves, let alone grow, without relying heavily on fossil fuels. Global warming typically takes a back seat to feeding, housing, and employing these countries' citizens. Yet the weather fluctuations and consequences of climate change are already impacting food growth in many of these countries. Is there a solution?

Developing Countries Need Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are still the cheapest, most reliable energy resources available. When a developing country wants to build a functional economic system and end rampant poverty, it turns to fossil fuels.

India, for example, is home to one-third of the world's 1.2 billion citizens living in poverty. That's 400 million people in one country without sufficient food or shelter (for comparison, the entire U.S. population is roughly 323 million people). India hopes to transition to renewable energy as its economy grows, but the investment needed to meet its renewable energy goals "is equivalent to over four times the country's annual defense spending, and over ten times the country's annual spending on health and education."

Unless something changes, developing countries like India cannot fight climate change and provide for their citizens. In fact, developing countries will only accelerate global warming as their economies grow because they cannot afford alternatives. Wealthy countries cannot afford to ignore the impact of these growing, developing countries.

The Link Between Economic Growth and CO2

According to a World Bank report, "poor and middle-income countries already account for just over half of total carbon emissions." And this percentage will only rise as developing countries grow. Achieving a global society in which all citizens earn a living wage and climate catastrophe is averted requires breaking the link between economic growth and increasing carbon emissions in developing countries.

Today, most developing countries that decrease their poverty rates also have increased rates of carbon emissions. In East Asia and the Pacific, the number of people living in extreme poverty declined from 1.1 billion to 161 million between 1981 and 2011-an 85% decrease. In this same time period, the amount of carbon dioxide per capita rose from 2.1 tons per capita to 5.9 tons per capita-a 185% increase.

South Asia saw similar changes during this time frame. As the number of people living in extreme poverty decreased by 30%, the amount of carbon dioxide increased by 204%.

In Sub-Saharan Africa, the number of people living in poverty increased by 98% in this thirty-year span, while carbon dioxide per capita decreased by 17%. Given the current energy situation, if sub-Saharan Africans are to escape extreme poverty, they will have to increase their carbon use-unless developed countries step in to offer clean alternatives.

Carbon Emissions Rate Vs. Total

Many wealthier countries have been researching alternative forms of energy for decades. And that work may be starting to pay off.

New data shows that, since the year 2000, 21 developed countries have reduced annual greenhouse gas emissions while simultaneously growing their economies. Moreover, this isn't all related to a drop in the industrial sector. Uzbekistan, Bulgaria, Switzerland, and the Czech Republic demonstrated that countries do not need to shrink their industrial sectors to break the link between economic growth and increased greenhouse gas emissions.

Most importantly, global carbon emissions stalled from 2014 to 2015 as the global economy grew.

But is this rate of global decoupling fast enough to keep the planet from warming another two degrees Celsius? When emissions stall at 32.1 billion metric tons for two years, that's still 64.2 billion metric tons of carbon being pumped into the atmosphere over two years.

The carbon emissions rate might fall, but the total continues to grow enormously. A sharp decline in carbon emissions is necessary to keep the planet at a safe global temperature. At the 2015 Paris Climate Conference, the United Nations concluded that in order to keep global temperatures from rising another two degrees Celsius, global carbon emissions "must fall to net zero in the second half of the century."

In order to encourage this, the Paris agreement included measures to ensure that wealthy countries finance developing countries " with respect to both mitigation and adaptation." For mitigation, countries are expected to abide by their pledges to reduce emissions and use more renewable energy, and for adaptation, the deal sets a global goal for "enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate change."

Incentivizing R&D

One way wealthy countries can benefit both themselves and developing countries is through research and development. As wealthier countries develop cheaper forms of alternative energy, developing countries can take advantage of the new technologies. Wealthy countries can also help subsidize renewable energy for countries dealing with higher rates of poverty.

Yet, as of 2014, wealthy countries had invested very little in this process, providing only 0.2% of developing countries' GDP for adaptation and mitigation. Moreover, a 2015 paper from the IMF revealed that while we spend $100 billion per year subsidizing renewable energy, we spend an estimated $5.3 trillion subsidizing fossil fuels. This fossil fuel subsidy includes "the uncompensated costs of air pollution, congestion and global warming."

Such a huge disparity indicates that wealthy countries either need stronger incentives or stronger legal obligations to shift this fossil fuel money towards renewable energy. The Paris agreement intends to strengthen legal obligations, but its language is vague, and it lacks details that would ensure wealthy countries follow through with their responsibilities.

However, despite the shortcomings of legal obligations, monetary incentives do exist. India, for example, wants to vastly increase its solar power capacity to address this global threat. They need $100 billion to fund this expansion, which could spell a huge opportunity for U.S. banks, according to Raymond Vickery, an expert on U.S-India economic ties. This would be a boon for the U.S. economy, and it would set an important precedent for other wealthy countries to assist and invest in developing countries.

However, global leaders need to move quickly. The effects of global warming already threaten the world and the economies of developing countries, especially India.

Global Impact of Climate Change

India relies on the monsoon cycle to water crops and maintain its " nearly $370 billion agricultural sector and hundreds of millions of jobs." Yet as the Indian Ocean has warmed, the monsoon cycle has become unreliable, resulting in massive droughts and dying crops.

Across the globe, scientists expect developing countries such as India to be hit hardest by rising temperatures and changes in rainfall. Furthermore, these countries with limited financial resources and weak infrastructure will struggle to adapt and sustain their economic growth in the face of changing climate. Nicholas Stern predicts that a two-degree rise in temperature would cost about 1% of world GDP. But the World Bank estimates that it would cost India 5% of their GDP.

Moreover, changes such as global warming act as "threat multipliers" because they increase the likelihood of other existential threats. In India, increased carbon dioxide emissions have contributed to warmer temperatures, which have triggered extensive droughts and increased poverty. But the problems don't end here. Higher levels of hunger and poverty can magnify political tensions, potentially leading to conflict and even nuclear war. India and Pakistan both have nuclear weapons-if drought expands and cripples their economies, violence can more easily erupt.

Alternatively, wealthy nations could capitalize on investment opportunities in developing countries. In doing so, their own economies will benefit while simultaneously aiding the effort to reach net zero carbon emissions.

Global warming is, by definition, a global crisis. Mitigating this threat will require global cooperation and global solutions.

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Developing Countries Can't Afford Climate Change - Future of Life Institute

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Click here to see this page in other languages: Russian Developing countries currently cannot sustain themselves, let alone grow, without relying heavily on fossil fuels. Global warming typically takes a back seat to feeding, housing, and employing these countries' citizens. Yet the weather fluctuations and consequences of climate change are already impacting food growth in many ...

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Fossil Fuel Industry Has Spent Nearly $2 Billion on Lobbying to Kill Climate Laws

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Fossil Fuel Industry Has Spent Nearly $2 Billion on Lobbying to Kill Climate Laws

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http://priceofoil.org/2018/07/20/fossil-fuel-industry-has-spent-nearly-2-billion-on-lobbying-to-kill-climate-laws/

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The Localized Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels | Climate Nexus

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Fossil Fuel Consumption and its Implications

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Fossil Fuel Consumption and its Implications

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From small businesses to large economies, the long-term availability of energy worldwide is paramount to growth and development. Energy provides industry with a means to manufacture goods, generates the electricity and heat that we require on a daily basis, allows for the rapid transport of people and products, and enables food production and access to potable water.

The availability of energy in our current global framework relies extensively on the availability of fossil fuels: the oil, natural gas, and coal that together constitute 80 percent of global energy consumption.

Consumption of fossil fuels varies by region and by country. The biggest consumers are the United States, China, and the European Union, accounting for more than half of all fossil fuel consumption (see below). Coal, which is not easily transported long distances, accounts for a large percentage of consumption where it is locally available, while oil and natural gas can be consumed far from their source of extraction---in 2004, trade in fuels totaled US$715 billion worldwide (World Bank, World Development Indicators 2006).

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Annual energy use is more or less constant in OECD countries, but is growing by around 5% p.a. in the rest of the world, driven by economic development and population growth. However, per capita energy use in non-OECD countries is still only 30% of that in OECD countries on average, and (e.g.) is 30 times larger in the USA than in Bangladesh. It is estimated that nearly 1.3 billion people do not have access to electricity, around 3 billion people cook and heat their homes using open fires and simple stoves burning biomass (wood, animal dung and crop waste) and coal. Over 4 million people die prematurely every year as a result of illnesses attributable to household air pollution from cooking with solid fuels.

Providing the energy needed to support development at an acceptable cost, and ensuring that it is used efficiently, while protecting the local environment, is a huge challenge - especially for countries that are also striving to contribute to the global public good of limiting use of fossil fuels. Different technical approaches, and economic and regulatory measures, will be appropriate in different countries, but there are some common questions, such as

How to grasp and fund opportunities to adopt low-carbon development paths for the anticipated rapid expansion of energy infrastructure, transport systems, and cities?

Can such 'green growth' strategies be compatible with the immediate need to mobilize investment in labour-intensive activities so as to address current poverty and human development objectives?

How should governments approach domestic energy pricing in resource-rich economies? How can they resist political pressure for maintaining inefficient and regressive energy subsidies to firms and consumers, the benefits of which are typically captured by the well-off?

Could low carbon user-centric local energy systems obviate the need for constructing large centralised networks?

How can the large-scale uptake of new off-grid energy (and other) technologies be encouraged in developing countries?

Oxford scholars are studying, and providing technical, economic and policy advice on energy issues across the globe, in OECD countries and the rest of the world, including in China, India, Africa, and South America. Oxford scientists and engineers are also developing robust, low maintenance, low cost energy technologies for use in rural areas.

Policy, economics and politics

An indication of the wide range of Oxford's work on energy policy, economics and politics in developing countries can be obtained by looking at the interests of the people involved. Examples include:

1) Developing domestic resources: Managing extraction of natural resources and the effective use of resource revenues is a challenge for many countries, especially in the developing world and for high value resources such as hydrocarbons. Poor management and governance has destabilised economies - and in some cases political systems - and led to waste and inefficient use of the resource itself. Oxford economists are analysing the causes of such failures and formulating policies for more effective resource management, including: contract negotiation with oil and gas majors; macroeconomic and tax policy; development of downstream energy policies; development of coherent 'local content' policies that ensure domestic participation in economic development associated with resource discoveries. This work has informed policies in the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the World Trade Organisation and regional development banks. Work is now focusing on the new 'energy economies' of Africa, where countries including Ghana, Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya face the challenges of developing large recently-discovered hydrocarbon resources.

2) Energy Access: Researchers at the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies are addressing the problem of energy subsidies in India. Energy consumption is expected to grow at 3 % p.a. in the next two decades (even faster than in China), and half the population still lacks access to modern commercial energy. Low carbon sources are currently unable to compete with subsidised fossil fuels. The evidence shows that these subsidies have largely benefitted the well-off rather than the poor and led to distortions in consumption patterns. Research at Oxford focuses on the fiscal (taxation) system for upstream exploration in oil and gas and reforms to domestic pricing. The aim is to resolve the trade-offs between energy access and the transition to efficient and sustainable economic development. This research feeds directly into policy debates in India and the findings have been quoted in policy documentation on the allocation and use of natural resources in India.

3) Sustainable travel is an important transport policy objective, implying less dependence on oil and substantially reduced carbon dioxide (CO ₂) emissions. A study of Jinan (China) by researchers at Oxford's Transport Studies Unit develops normative and qualitative scenarios for the urban transport sector in the rapidly urbanising Asian context, which are combined with a quantitative understanding of different city futures. Each scenario is compared with the current business as usual projections for transport CO ₂ emissions, and alternative policy pathways are described to move from the current highly oil dependent future to one that uses substantially less carbon and oil-based energy sources.

4) Regulation: Economists at the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies analysed the Colombian regulatory framework to determine whether it was discouraging the development of renewable power. Focusing on wind power, they concluded that the regulations under-estimate and hence under-remunerate the contribution of wind power to system reliability, especially during sustained periods of low rainfall that correspond to 'el Niño' years. Regulations thereby discourage investment in this technology.

5) Governance: Oxford political scientists are studying whether the experience of countries in the Caspian region supports the conventional wisdom that developing countries with major income from energy extraction and export tend to experience dysfunction in governance. In the usual interpretation of resource curse theory, rents accruing from export allow governments to concentrate power and avoid democratization, and reliance on resource revenue generates distortions in national development, as well as inequality, as non-resource sectors are neglected and fall behind. The experience of energy exporters in the Caspian Basin is frequently cited in support of these propositions. However, comparison of energy producers and non-producers finds no significant difference in the quality of governance, casting doubt on the validity of the theory, at least in the Caspian regional context.

Technologies

Almost all the energy technologies being developed in Oxford do or could play a role in both developing and developed countries. Many, such as potentially cheap solar PV energy based on perovskites (see solar), could be enormously important in both developing and developed countries. Work on some technologies is however motivated primarily by the special situation in developing countries. Examples include:

1) Small scale generators: Oxford engineers, who developed Stirling refrigerators that are flown by NASA, are developing a novel but robust Stirling engine that would act as a general purpose transformer of heat into useful power. This engine does not need refined fuel and can burn waste, has good efficiency (30 - 40%), and could be deployed on scales of 1 to 100 kW, which would be appropriate for individual houses or villages.

2) Solar cookers: Oxford engineers and physicists have developed a novel low cost solar concentrator. This device is currently being trialled as a low cost solar cooker, for permanent use or in emergencies, as described in the accompanying case study. In the future, the concentrator could be used to generate electricity by focussing sun-light onto the Oxford Stirling engine or photovoltaic cells.

3) Local bioenergy use: Oxford scientists are working to develop bioenergy crops suitable for hot arid conditions (see also bioenergy). These plants could be digested to produce methane, which can be stored to generate electricity on demand and provide back-up for variable renewables. Oxford engineers are studying ways to significantly reduce the cost of anaerobic digestion and the scale on which it becomes economically viable (including mimicking cows, which digest much faster than man-made devices). If successful, this would enable widespread bioenergy production from agricultural waste as well as feedstock grown on marginal land.

4) Refrigeration: An 'Extended Time Refrigerator' is being developed by Oxford engineers, in which trays made of a phase change material would be fitted inside a conventional refrigerator. The trays will ensure that food and medicine are kept at the right temperature for up to 12 hours when electricity is not available as a result of power cuts or because the source (e.g. solar PV) is intermittent.
Meet energy in developing countries researchers

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Annual energy use is more or less constant in OECD countries, but is growing by around 5% p.a. in the rest of the world, driven by economic development and population growth. However, per capita energy use in non-OECD countries is still only 30% of that in OECD countries on average, and (e.g.)

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Present and future biodiversity risks from fossil fuel exploitation

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Present and future biodiversity risks from fossil fuel exploitation

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Please check your email for instructions on resetting your password. If you do not receive an email within 10 minutes, your email address may not be registered, and you may need to create a new Wiley Online Library account.

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Hydrocarbon frenzy in Greece - WWF CrisisWatch

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Iconic and ecologically sensitive marine and coastal areas are at serious risk by the ongoing oil and gas exploitation frenzy currently pushed by the...

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Greece - Fossil fuel energy consumption as a share of total energy consumption (1966-2018)

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Greece - Fossil fuel energy consumption as a share of total energy consumption (1966-2018)

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In 2015, fossil fuel energy consumption for Greece was 82.6 %. Though Greece fossil fuel energy consumption fluctuated substantially in recent years, it tended to decrease through 1966 - 2015 period ending at 82.6 % in 2015.

The description is composed by Yodatai, our digital data assistant. Have a question? Ask Yodatai ›

What is fossil fuel energy consumption?

Fossil fuel comprises coal, oil, petroleum, and natural gas products.

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Greece Fossil fuel energy consumption, 1960-2018 - knoema.com

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In 2015, fossil fuel energy consumption for Greece was 82.6 %. Though Greece fossil fuel energy consumption fluctuated substantially in recent years, it tended to decrease through 1966 - 2015 period ending at 82.6 % in 2015. Fossil fuel comprises coal, oil, petroleum, and natural gas products.

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Category:Fossil fuels in Greece - Wikipedia

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This category has the following 4 subcategories, out of 4 total.

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greece fossil fuel energy consumption percent of total

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Greece Fossil Fuel Energy Consumption Percent Of Total

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Historical data chart | Greece Fossil Fuel Energy Consumption Percent Of Total

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What Are Fossil Fuels? Definition, Advantages And Disadvantages   Video   Lesson Transcript   Study

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Learn more about pros and cons of fossil fuels.......

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Learn more about pros and cons of fossil fuels.......

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Fossil fuels are used throughout the world to power everything from cars to lights in the home. However, there is currently a lot of hot debate over the use of fossil fuels - is it right to use them? Are they safe to use? Should we be trying to cut down how much we use year on year? Nowadays, we are finding more and more alternatives to fossil fuels, including more renewable sources of energy such as solar, wind and hydro power. The most common fossil fuels are coal, natural gas and petroleum, all of which have been formed over millions of years.

Learn more about advantages of fossil fuels here.

There is an urgent need to stop subsidizing the fossil fuel industry, dramatically reduce wasted energy, and significantly shift our power supplies from oil, coal, and natural gas to wind, solar, geothermal, and other renewable energy sources.
~ Bill McKibben

Coal - Most people will know coal as the thing that Santa Claus brings to children who have been naughty, but it is also a carbon based black rock that can be burned for energy.

Oil or Petroleum - This fossil fuel occurs as a liquid and can be refined into a number of other types of fuel such as diesel and airplane fuel. It has actually been used for many thousands of years as an energy source.

Natural Gas - or just 'gas' is a combination of various different gasses - including ethane, nitrogen and carbon dioxide, to name just a few - that is trapped inside the earth's crust. It is most often use in cooking.

They are actually created by the decomposition of dead plant and animal life that existed on the Earth hundreds of millions of years ago, which means that there is actually a finite of each of these different fossil fuels. Once we have used up all the fossil fuels that currently exist on this planet, we will have to find alternative ways of heating and lighting our homes as well as traveling all over the globe. There are a number of benefits to using fossil fuels as well as a number of different drawbacks, which are listed below.

Pros of Fossil Fuels

1. Available in Plenty: We have already relied on fossil fuels for many years now, and we have everything in place, ready, to gather and use these essential resources. We already have plenty of people gathering coal and oil, for instance, from all the places in the world that are rich in fossil fuels, using all the equipment that has been specially designed and made for the extraction of fossil fuels. For this reason, it is better to use fossil fuels because we have already invested a lot of time, effort and money into procuring and using them.

2. Easier to Find: Fossil fuels are actually very easy to find. They occur all over the world, usually in very rich veins deep inside the earth, which means that, once we have committed to getting coal or gas out of the ground or out from under the sea, we are guaranteed to get a lot of resources from that particular area. The fact that they occur all over the world means that all nations and countries should have access to at least some fossil fuels. (Unfortunately, however, this does not always happen thanks to world politics!)

3. Extremely Efficient: Fossil fuels are extremely efficient. This means that they can generate huge amounts of energy, even if we just use a small amount of, for instance, oil or coal. So far, for instance, we have found that the most effective fuel for cars is, without doubt, petroleum. Nothing else - no renewable energies, at least - even comes close to generating the same amount of energy that fossil fuels do.

4. Easier to Transport: Whereas transporting renewable sources of energy such as wind, sun and water is impossible, transporting fossil fuels is actually relatively easy. In fact, it can be made very easy and very safe but the creating of pipes. These pipes are easily laid underground and can transport gas or oil with ease. Although they can be relatively expensive to lay in the first place, once they are completed, they serve as a very cheap and effective method of transportation for these essential fuels.

5. Generate Thousands of Jobs: Fossil fuels generate hundreds of thousands of jobs every year. To just abandon the use of fossil fuels now would lead to lots of people being jobless which could seriously affect the economy all over the world.

6. Easy Set Up: Unlike renewable energy sources which are infinite but have dependency on sun, wind and water, fossil fuels are available widely. A fossil fuel plant can be set up anywhere in the world as long as it gets large quantities of fuel to generate power. These fossil fuel plants are capable of generating huge amount of energy at a single location.

Cons of Fossil Fuels

Learn more about disadvantages of fossil fuels here.

1. Environmental Degradation: The main disadvantage of using fossil fuels, of course, is the pollution that they cause. The problems that are caused as a direct result of burning fossil fuels are well documented by scientists all throughout the world. Carbon dioxide is released into the air when fossil fuels are burned. This has been directly linked to global warming, making fossil fuels very dangerous to the general health of our planet.

2. Need Truckloads of Reserves: Power stations are where power comes from - coal is burned and energy is generated. However, for these power stations to keep working, they require huge amounts of coal to be brought in every single day. Truckloads of fuel, trainloads of fuel need to be shipped into power stations very regularly in order to keep up the level of energy that is required by all those houses, hospitals and shops relying on the power from these fossil fueled power stations.

This means that either power stations need to be built very close to large deposits of coal, or that the coal needs to be shipped miles away to the nearest power station, which requires more power and ends up damaging the Earth even more. These methods of generating electricity can, therefore, be incredibly expensive, and the prices are due to keep on rising as the fuel shortage worsens.

3. Public Health Issues: Fossil fuels are not at all environment friendly. Burning of fossil fuels result in pollution and can cause serious environmental concerns. Pollution-related diseases kill millions of children a year. According to WHO, 7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution. High levels of air pollution can adversely affect your lungs and trigger asthma. People who live in areas with a large amount of traffic are at high risk.

4. Finite Energy Source: Fossil fuels are a finite energy resource. Unlike sunlight, water or wind energy, fossil fuels cannot be renewed: the amount of fossil fuels in the earth's crust today are all that we are ever going to get (at least until another several hundred million years pass and even more organic matter decays and decomposes). This means that, once the gas, coal and petroleum reserves have been completely used up, there is nothing more left.

Unfortunately this also means that we will not be able to use our cars any more as we have not yet found a suitable method to run cars that works as efficiently as petroleum or that is not dangerous.

5. Oil Spill: Once again, fossil fuels can damage the environment, this time in the form of oil spills. Huge tankers carrying oil from one place to another - at great cost and great risk - can sometimes crash or run aground and spill the content into the sea and on the nearby coast. This is disastrous not only for the sea and land but for the animals that live off of it. Birds can get coated in the oil and be unable to fly, fish can choke and other animals, such as seals or penguins, can ingest this deadly fuel when they try to clean it off themselves. Oil spills do not occur often, but when they do they can kill hundreds if not thousands of animals.

6. Rising Cost: Few middle-east countries in this world hold surplus amount of fossil fuels and are responsible for 40 percent of the world's oil production. The rest of the world depend on these countries to fulfill the gap between demand and supply in their own countries. Lower output, fear of war, strikes by trade unions can result in worldwide price fluctuations.

7. Health of Coal-mining Workers: Foraging for coal in coal mines, for instance, can be very dangerous, since the dust that coats people who go down to get coal can get ingested and seriously compromise someone's health. Mining for coal as well as drilling for oil can cost as many as hundreds of peoples' lives every single year. We may need to find an energy source that is safer in the future.

Fossil fuels have a number of different pros and cons. Unfortunately, the biggest disadvantage to burning fossil fuels for energy is the fact that it is so damaging to the environment. However, luckily more and more effort is being put into finding alternative sources of energy such as renewable sources like sunlight and wind, which means that we should soon not have to rely on fossil fuels any longer.

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Pros and Cons of Fossil Fuels - Conserve Energy Future

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Pros & cons of fossil fuels: Fossil fuels are used throughout the world to power everything from cars to lights in the home. However, there is currently a lot of hot debate over the use of fossil fuels - is it right to use them?

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THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO STOP SUBSIDIZING THE FOSSIL FUEL INDUSTRY, DRAMATICALLY REDUCE WASTED ENERGY, AND SIGNIFICANTLY SHIFT OUR POWER SUPPLIES FROM OIL, COAL, AND NATURAL GAS TO WIND, SOLAR, GEOTHERMAL, AND OTHER RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES.
~ BILL MCKIBBEN

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https://vittana.org/12-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-fossil-fuels

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Although, fossil fuels were a preferred source of energy until recently, their over consumption and some undesirable properties have led to several issues of grave importance. The disadvantages of fossil fuels are as follows:

Although, oil, natural gas and coal are found in abundance in nature, the alarming rate at which they are being consumed has resulted in substantial depletion of their reservoirs. Besides, it is impossible to replenish the resources as it takes millions of years for the hydrocarbon chains to form from organic remains.

The hydrocarbons present in the fossil fuels, release greenhouse gases, such as methane, carbon dioxide etc., which are capable of damaging the ozone layer.

Besides, other harmful gases such as carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide are responsible for acid rain, which has spelled disaster for the ecology.

Extraction of fossil fuels has endangered the environmental balance in some areas. Moreover, coal mining has jeopardized the lives of several mine workers.

The depletion of reservoirs has made the extraction of fossil fuels an expensive affair. This is likely to affect the fuel prices in near future.

Leakage of some fossil fuels, such as natural gas, crude oil can lead to severe hazards. Hence, transportation of these fuels is very risky.

Fossil fuels have contributed in more than one way for global warming, the issue that is being combated all over the world.

Though, fossil fuels have efficiently met our growing energy demands all these years, it's high time we start looking for alternative sources of energy. The rising fuel demands and the ever rising fuel prices have made the use of substitute energy forms inevitable.

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Fossil fuels have several advantages over other sources of energy. This is the main reason why they are still the major energy supplier of the world. The advantages of fossil fuels are as follows:

Fossil fuels have a very high calorific value. Thus, burning 1 gm of fossil fuel releases tremendous amount of energy. Thus, the energy produced by fossil fuels is greater than that produced by an equivalent amount of other energy resource.

The reservoirs of fossil fuels are pretty easy to locate with the help of advanced equipment and technology.

Coal is a fossil fuel that is found in abundance. It is used in most power plants because it reduces the production cost to a great extent.

Transportation of fossil fuels that are in liquid or gaseous forms is very easy. They are simply transported through pipes.

Construction of power plants that work on fossil fuels is also easy.

Petroleum is the most predominantly used form of fossil fuels for all types of vehicles.

Fossil fuels are easier to extract and process, hence are cheaper than the non-conventional forms of energy.

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Fossil fuels are the remains of plants and animals from the prehistoric era, which have now reduced to mere hydrocarbon chains. These hydrocarbons are in the form of solids or liquids. Fossil fuels have a very high combustion rate and they release tremendous amount of energy. Most of our fuel and energy demands are met by the fossil fuels. Interestingly, the world's demand for fossil fuels has doubled every 20 years, yet the reservoirs of fossil fuels are sufficient enough to meet this demand. However, excessive consumption of fossil fuels in the twentieth century, in the name of progress has led to the depletion of these reservoirs. Besides, fossil fuels have increased the level of environmental pollution so much, that it has now become a serious environmental concern. In this article, we have taken an overview of the various advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels.

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The discovery of fossils for energy purpose has turned the wheel of revolution in the history of mankind. Fossil fuels have the capacity to satisfy the energy demands of the entire world for several hundred years. They have provided a great impetus to the industrial revolution that took place in the twentieth century. The modern world greatly owes its technological and mechanical progress to fossil fuels. However, the irrational consumption of fossil fuels have led to several problems all over the world.

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Fossil fuels, including coal, oil and natural gas, are currently the world's primary energy source. Formed from organic material over the course of millions of years, fossil fuels have fueled U.S. and global economic development over the past century. Yet fossil fuels are finite resources and they can also irreparably harm the environment.

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fossil fuel, any of a class of hydrocarbon-containing materials of biological origin occurring within Earth's crust that can be used as a source of energy.

Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum, natural gas, oil shales, bitumens, tar sands, and heavy oils. All contain carbon and were formed as a result of geologic processes acting on the remains of organic matter produced by photosynthesis, a process that began in the Archean Eon (4.0 billion to 2.5 billion years ago). Most carbonaceous material occurring before the Devonian Period (419.2 million to 358.9 million years ago) was derived from algae and bacteria, whereas most carbonaceous material occurring during and after that interval was derived from plants.

All fossil fuels can be burned in air or with oxygen derived from air to provide heat. This heat may be employed directly, as in the case of home furnaces, or used to produce steam to drive generators that can supply electricity. In still other cases-for example, gas turbines used in jet aircraft-the heat yielded by burning a fossil fuel serves to increase both the pressure and the temperature of the combustion products to furnish motive power.

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain in the second half of the 18th century, fossil fuels have been consumed at an ever-increasing rate. Today they supply more than 80 percent of all the energy consumed by the industrially developed countries of the world. Although new deposits continue to be discovered, the reserves of the principal fossil fuels remaining on Earth are limited. The amounts of fossil fuels that can be recovered economically are difficult to estimate, largely because of changing rates of consumption and future value as well as technological developments. Advances in technology-such as hydraulic fracturing ( fracking), rotary drilling, and directional drilling-have made it possible to extract smaller and difficult-to-obtain deposits of fossil fuels at a reasonable cost, thereby increasing the amount of recoverable material. In addition, as recoverable supplies of conventional (light-to-medium) oil became depleted, some petroleum-producing companies shifted to extracting heavy oil, as well as liquid petroleum pulled from tar sands and oil shales. See also coal mining; petroleum production.

One of the main by-products of fossil fuel combustion is carbon dioxide (CO ₂). The ever-increasing use of fossil fuels in industry, transportation, and construction has added large amounts of CO ₂ to Earth's atmosphere. Atmospheric CO ₂ concentrations fluctuated between 275 and 290 parts per million by volume (ppmv) of dry air between 1000 ce and the late 18th century but increased to 316 ppmv by 1959 and rose to 412 ppmv in 2018. CO ₂ behaves as a greenhouse gas-that is, it absorbs infrared radiation (net heat energy) emitted from Earth's surface and reradiates it back to the surface. Thus, the substantial CO ₂ increase in the atmosphere is a major contributing factor to human-induced global warming. Methane (CH ₄), another potent greenhouse gas, is the chief constituent of natural gas, and CH ₄ concentrations in Earth's atmosphere rose from 722 parts per billion (ppb) before 1750 to 1,859 ppb by 2018. To counter worries over rising greenhouse gas concentrations and to diversify their energy mix, many countries have sought to reduce their dependence on fossil fuels by developing sources of renewable energy (such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, tidal, geothermal, and biofuels) while at the same time increasing the mechanical efficiency of engines and other technologies that rely on fossil fuels.

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Fossil fuel, hydrocarbon-containing material of biological origin that can be burned for energy. Fossil fuels, which include coal, petroleum, and natural gas, supply the majority of all energy consumed in industrially developed countries. Learn about the types of fossil fuels, their formation, and uses.

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Group 8 assignment: advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels, considering implications to developed and developing countries

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Group 8 assignment: advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels, considering implications to developed and developing countries

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Possible reasons threatening the above species

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Possible reasons threatening the above species

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It is estimated that there are 270,000 plant species in the world, and one in eight are threatened with extinction. This page describes the main threats, and provides links to more information.

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Bindweed

Cretan Zelkova

Hare's-ear

Horstrissea dolinicola

Larkspur

Minuartia dirphya

Saponaria jagelii

Stonecress

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Androcymbium rechingeri: a very rare Cretan endemic flower

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Androcymbium rechingeri: a very rare Cretan endemic flower

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 Activities within the framework of the project CRETAPLANT 

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 Activities within the framework of the project CRETAPLANT 

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 Detailed mapping of the areas of Plant Micro-Reserves
 Installation of a permanent monitoring system for the purposes of studying the abiotic (climate, soil) and biotic (animals, other plants) factors that affect the existence of the protected species. It further aims to record and protect other important plant species (endemic, threatened) that are found within the PMR. This system consists of: – Permanent monitoring plots for the study of plant populations – Automated meteorological stations within each PMR
 Fencing, pathways construction, employment of curators of the PMR, installation of informative signs
 Conservation of plants out of the PMR, in three botanical gardens: one garden located on the premises of MAICh and two in the mountainous area of Lefka Ori (at Poria and at the Information Centre of the Forest Directorate of Chania at Omalos). In addition, plant seeds will be preserved in the Seed Bank of MAICh in order to: – Protect the species – Study their germination – Eventually utilise them in future restoration and reinforcement programs for the natural populations of the species
 Information and sensitization of the public, particularly of young people, regarding the outputs of the project and the value of the Cretan flora. The focal points of the information campaign will be the Visitor Centre of the Botanical Garden of MAICh and the Alpine Botanical Garden that will be created at Omalos

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Chamomile (American English) or camomile (British English; see spelling differences) (/ˈkæməˌmaɪl, -ˌmiːl/ KAM-ə-myl or KAM-ə-meel[1][2]) is the common name for several daisy-like plants of the family Asteraceae. Two of the species are commonly used to make herbal infusions for medicinal uses.

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Abstract

Chamomile is one of the most ancient medicinal herbs known to mankind. It is a member of Asteraceae/ Compositae family and represented by two common varieties viz. German Chamomile ( Chamomilla recutita) and Roman Chamomile ( Chamaemelum nobile). The dried flowers of chamomile contain many terpenoids and flavonoids contributing to its medicinal properties. Chamomile preparations are commonly used for many human ailments such as hay fever, inflammation, muscle spasms, menstrual disorders, insomnia, ulcers, wounds, gastrointestinal disorders, rheumatic pain, and hemorrhoids. Essential oils of chamomile are used extensively in cosmetics and aromatherapy. Many different preparations of chamomile have been developed, the most popular of which is in the form of herbal tea consumed more than one million cups per day. In this review we describe the use of chamomile in traditional medicine with regard to evaluating its curative and preventive properties, highlight recent findings for its development as a therapeutic agent promoting human health.

Keywords: chamomile, dietary agents, flavonoids, polyphenols, human health

1. INTRODUCTION

The interplay of plants and human health has been documented for thousands of years ( 1- 3). Herbs have been integral to both traditional and non-traditional forms of medicine dating back at least 5000 years ( 2, 4- 6). The enduring popularity of herbal medicines may be explained by the tendency of herbs to work slowly, usually with minimal toxic side effects. One of the most common herbs used for medicinal purposes is chamomile whose standardized tea and herbal extracts are prepared from dried flowers of Matricaria species. Chamomile is one of the oldest, most widely used and well documented medicinal plants in the world and has been recommended for a variety of healing applications ( 7). Chamomile is a native of the old World and is a member of the daisy family ( Asteraceae or Compositae). The hollow, bright gold cones of the flowers are packed with disc or tubular florets and are ringed with about fifteen white ray or ligulate florets, widely represented by two known varieties viz. German chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla) and Roman chamomile ( Chamaemelum nobile) ( 8) . In this review we will discuss the use and possible merits of chamomile, examining its historical use and recent scientific and clinical evaluations of its potential use in the management of various human ailments.

2. BIOACTIVE CONSTITUENTS OF CHAMOMILE

Different classes of bioactive constituents are present in chamomile, which have been isolated and used as medicinal preparations and cosmetics ( 9). The plant contains 0.24%-1.9% volatile oil, composed of a variety of separate oils. When exposed to steam distillation, the oil ranges in color from brilliant blue to deep green when fresh but turns to dark yellow after storage. Despite fading, the oil does not lose its potency. Approximately 120 secondary metabolites have been identified in chamomile, including 28 terpenoids and 36 flavonoids ( 10, 11). The principal components of the essential oil extracted from the German chamomile flowers are the terpenoids α-bisabolol and its oxide azulenes including chamazulene and acetylene derivatives. Chamazulene and bisabolol are very unstable and are best preserved in an alcoholic tincture. The essential oil of Roman chamomile contains less chamazulene and is mainly constituted from esters of angelic acid and tiglic acid. It also contains farnesene and α-pinene. Roman chamomile contains up to 0.6% of sesquiterpene lactones of the germacranolide type, mainly nobilin and 3-epinobilin. Both α-bisabolol, bisabolol oxides A and B and chamazulene or azulenesse, farnesene and spiro-ether quiterpene lactones, glycosides, hydroxycoumarins, flavanoids (apigenin, luteolin, patuletin, and quercetin), coumarins (herniarin and umbelliferone), terpenoids, and mucilage are considered to be the major bio-active ingredients ( 12, 13). Other major constituents of the flowers include several phenolic compounds, primarily the flavonoids apigenin, quercetin, patuletin as glucosides and various acetylated derivatives. Among flavonoids, apigenin is the most promising compound. It is present in very small quantities as free apigenin, but predominantly exists in the form of various glycosides ( 14- 18).

3. HEALTHCARE PREPRATIONS OF CHAMOMILE

Chamomile is known to be used in various forms of its preparations. Dry powder of chamomile flower is recommended and used by many people for traditionally established health problems. Medicinal ingredients are normally extracted from the dry flowers of chamomile by using water, ethanol or methanol as solvents and corresponding extracts are known as aqueous, ethanolic (alcoholic) and/or methanolic extracts. Optimum chamomile extracts contain about 50 percent alcohol. Normally standardized extracts contain 1.2% of apigenin which is one of the most effective bioactive agents. Aqueous extracts, such as in the form of tea, contain quite low concentrations of free apigenin but include high levels of apigenin-7- O-glucoside. Oral infusion of chamomile is recommended by the German Commission E ( 19, 20).Chamomile tea is one of the world's most popular herbal teas and about a million cups are consumed every day. Tea bags of chamomile are also available in the market, containing chamomile flower powder, either pure or blended with other popular medicinal herbs. Chamomile tincture may also be prepared as one part chamomile flower in four parts of water having 12% grain alcohol, which is used to correct summer diarrhea in children and also used with purgatives to prevent cramping. Chamomile flowers are extensively used alone, or combined with crushed poppy-heads, as a poultice or hot foment for inflammatory pain or congestive neuralgia, and in cases of external swelling, such as facial swelling associated with underlying infection or abscess. Chamomile whole plant is used for making herb beers, and also for a lotion, for external application in toothache, earache, neuralgia and in cases of external swelling ( 20). It is also known to be used as bath additive, recommended for soothing ano-genital inflammation ( 21). The tea infusion is used as a wash or gargle for inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat ( 22, 23). Inhalation of the vaporized essential oils derived from chamomile flowers is recommended to relieve anxiety, general depression. Chamomile oil is a popular ingredient of aromatherapy and hair care ( 24, 25). Roman chamomile is widely used in cosmetic preparations and in soothing and softening effect on the skin ( 26, 27).

4. TRADITIONAL USE OF CHAMOMILE

Traditionally, chamomile has been used for centuries as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, mild astringent and healing medicine ( 28). As a traditional medicine, it is used to treat wounds, ulcers, eczema, gout, skin irritations, bruises, burns, canker sores, neuralgia, sciatica, rheumatic pain, hemorrhoids, mastitis and other ailments ( 29, 30). Externally, chamomile has been used to treat diaper rash, cracked nipples, chicken pox, ear and eye infections, disorders of the eyes including blocked tear ducts, conjunctivitis, nasal inflammation and poison ivy ( 31, 32). Chamomile is widely used to treat inflammations of the skin and mucous membranes, and for various bacterial infections of the skin, oral cavity and gums, and respiratory tract. Chamomile in the form of an aqueous extract has been frequently used as a mild sedative to calm nerves and reduce anxiety, to treat hysteria, nightmares, insomnia and other sleep problems ( 33). Chamomile has been valued as a digestive relaxant and has been used to treat various gastrointestinal disturbances including flatulence, indigestion, diarrhea, anorexia, motion sickness, nausea, and vomiting ( 34, 35). Chamomile has also been used to treat colic, croup, and fevers in children ( 36). It has been used as an emmenagogue and a uterine tonic in women. It is also effective in arthritis, back pain, bedsores and stomach cramps.

5. SCIENTIFIC EVALUATION OF CHAMOMILE

5.1 Anti-inflammatory and antiphlogistic properties

The flowers of chamomile contain 1-2% volatile oils including alpha-bisabolol, alpha-bisabolol oxides A & B, and matricin (usually converted to chamazulene and other flavonoids which possess anti-inflammatory and antiphlogistic properties ( 12, 19, 35, 36). A study in human volunteers demonstrated that chamomile flavonoids and essential oils penetrate below the skin surface into the deeper skin layers ( 37). This is important for their use as topical antiphlogistic (anti-inflammatory) agents. One of chamomile's anti-inflammatory activities involve the inhibition of LPS-induced prostaglandin E(2) release and attenuation of cyclooxygenase (COX-2) enzyme activity without affecting the constitutive form, COX-1 ( 38).

5.2 Anticancer activity

Most evaluations of tumor growth inhibition by chamomile involve studies with apigenin which is one of the bioactive constituents of chamomile. Studies on preclinical models of skin, prostate, breast and ovarian cancer have shown promising growth inhibitory effects ( 39- 43). In a recently conducted study, chamomile extracts were shown to cause minimal growth inhibitory effects on normal cells, but showed significant reductions in cell viability in various human cancer cell lines. Chamomile exposure induced apoptosis in cancer cells but not in normal cells at similar doses ( 18). The efficacy of the novel agent TBS-101, a mixture of seven standardized botanical extracts including chamomile has been recently tested. The results confirm it to have a good safety profile with significant anticancer activities against androgen-refractory human prostrate cancer PC-3 cells, both in vitro and in vivo situation ( 44).

5.3 Common cold

Common cold (acute viral nasopharyngitis) is the most common human disease. It is a mild viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system. Typically common cold is not life-threatening, although its complications (such as pneumonia) can lead to death, if not properly treated. Studies indicate that inhaling steam with chamomile extract has been helpful in common cold symptoms ( 45); however, further research is needed to confirm these findings.

5.4 Cardiovascular conditions

It has been suggested that regular use of flavonoids consumed in food may reduce the risk of death from coronary heart disease in elderly men ( 46). A study assessed the flavonoid intake of 805 men aged 65-84 years who were followed up for 5 years. Flavonoid intake (analyzed in tertiles) was significantly inversely associated with mortality from coronary heart disease and showed an inverse relation with incidence of myocardial infarction. In another study ( 47), on twelve patients with cardiac disease who underwent cardiac catheterization, hemodynamic measurements obtained prior to and 30 minutes after the oral ingestion of chamomile tea exhibited a small but significant increase in the mean brachial artery pressure. No other significant hemodynamic changes were observed after chamomile consumption. Ten of the twelve patients fell into a deep sleep shortly after drinking the beverage. A large, well-designed randomized controlled trial is needed to assess the potential value of chamomile in improving cardiac health.

5.5 Colic/Diarrhea conditions

An apple pectin-chamomile extract may help shorten the course of diarrhea in children as well as relieve symptoms associated with the condition ( 47). Two clinical trials have evaluated the efficacy of chamomile for the treatment of colic in children. Chamomile tea was combined with other herbs (German chamomile, vervain, licorice, fennel, balm mint) for administration. In a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 68 healthy term infants who had colic (2 to 8 weeks old) received either herbal tea or placebo (glucose, flavoring). Each infant was offered treatment with every bout of colic, up to 150 mL/dose, no more than three times a day. After 7 days of treatment, parents reported that the tea eliminated the colic in 57% of the infants, whereas placebo was helpful in only 26% ( P<0.01). No adverse effects with regard to the number of nighttime awakenings were noted in either group ( 48). Another study examined the effects of a chamomile extract and apple pectin preparation in 79 children (age 0.5-5.5 y) with acute, non-complicated diarrhea who received either the chamomile/pectin preparation ( n = 39) or a placebo ( n = 40) for 3 days. Diarrhea ended sooner in children treated with chamomile and pectin (85%), than in the placebo group (58%) ( 49). These results provide evidence that chamomile can be used safely to treat infant colic disorders.

5.8 Hemorrhoids

Studies suggest that chamomile ointment may improve hemorrhoids. Tinctures of chamomile can also be used in a sitz bath format. Tincture of Roman chamomile may reduce inflammation associated with hemorrhoids ( 55, 56).

5.9 Health Promotion

It has been claimed that consumption of chamomile tea boosts the immune system and helps fight infections associated with colds. The health promoting benefits of chamomile was assessed in a study which involved fourteen volunteers who each drank five cups of the herbal tea daily for two consecutive weeks. Daily urine samples were taken and tested throughout the study, both before and after drinking chamomile tea. Drinking chamomile was associated with a significant increase in urinary levels of hippurate and glycine, which have been associated with increased antibacterial activity ( 57). In another study, chamomile relieved hypertensive symptoms and decreased the systolic blood pressure significantly, increasing urinary output ( 58). Additional studies are needed before a more definitive link between chamomile and its alleged health benefits can be established.

5.10 Inflammatory conditions

Inflammation is associated with many gastrointestinal disorders complaints, such as esophageal reflux, diverticular disease, and inflammatory disease ( 59- 61). Studies in preclinical models suggest that chamomile inhibits Helicobacter pylori, the bacteria that can contribute to stomach ulcers ( 60). Chamomile is believed to be helpful in reducing smooth muscle spasms associated with various gastrointestinal inflammatory disorders. Chamomile is often used to treat mild skin irritations, including sunburn, rashes, sores and even eye inflammations ( 62- 65) but its value in treating these conditions has not been shown with evidence-based research.

5.11 Mucositis

Mouth ulcers are a common condition with a variety of etiologies ( 66). Stomatitis is a major dose-limiting toxicity from bolus 5-fluorouracil-based (5-FU) chemotherapy regimens. A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial including 164 patients was conducted ( 22). Patients were entered into the study at the time of their first cycle of 5-FU-based chemotherapy and were randomized to receive a chamomile or placebo mouthwash thrice daily for 14 days. There was no suggestion of any stomatitis difference between patients randomized to either protocol arm. There was also no suggestion of toxicity. Similar results were obtained with another prospective trial on chamomile in this situation. Data obtained from these clinical trials did not support the pre study hypothesis that chamomile could decrease 5-FU-induced stomatitis. The results remain unclear if chamomile is helpful in this situation.

5.12 Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease resulting from low bone mass (osteopenia) due to excessive bone resorption. Sufferers are prone to bone fractures from relatively minor trauma. Agents which include selective estrogen receptor modulators or SERMs, biphosphonates, calcitonin are frequently used to prevent bone loss. To prevent bone loss that occurs with increasing age, chamomile extract was evaluated for its ability to stimulate the differentiation and mineralization of osteoblastic cells. Chamomile extract was shown to stimulate osteoblastic cell differentiation and to exhibit an anti-estrogenic effect, suggesting an estrogen receptor-related mechanism ( 67). However, further studies are needed before it can be considered for clinical use.

5.13 Sleep aid/sedation

Traditionally, chamomile preparations such as tea and essential oil aromatherapy have been used to treat insomnia and to induce sedation (calming effects). Chamomile is widely regarded as a mild tranquillizer and sleep-inducer. Sedative effects may be due to the flavonoid, apigenin that binds to benzodiazepine receptors in the brain ( 68). Studies in preclinical models have shown anticonvulsant and CNS depressant effects respectively. Clinical trials are notable for their absence, although ten cardiac patients are reported to have immediately fallen into a deep sleep lasting for 90 minutes after drinking chamomile tea ( 47). Chamomile extracts exhibit benzodiazepine-like hypnotic activity ( 69). In another study, inhalation of the vapor of chamomile oil reduced a stress-induced increase in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels. Diazepam, co-administered with the chamomile oil vapor, further reduced ACTH levels, while flumazenile, a BDZ antagonist blocked the effect of chamomile oil vapor on ACTH. According to Paladini et al. ( 70), the separation index (ratio between the maximal anxiolytic dose and the minimal sedative dose) for diazepam is 3 while for apigenin it is 10. Compounds, other than apigenin, present in extracts of chamomile can also bind BDZ and GABA receptors in the brain and might be responsible for some sedative effect; however, many of these compounds are as yet unidentified.

5.14 Anxiety and seizure

Chamomile has been reported in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). But the reports seem contradictory as an earlier report suggests that German chamomile showed significant inhibition of GAD activity ( 71). The recent results from the controlled clinical trial on chamomile extract for GAD suggests that it may have modest anxiolytic activity in patients with mild to moderate GAD ( 72). Extracts of chamomile ( M. recutita) possess suitable effects on seizure induced by picrotoxin ( 73). Furthermore, apigenin has been shown to reduce the latency in the onset of picrotoxin-induced convulsions and reduction in locomotor activity but did not demonstrate any anxiolytic, myorelaxant, or anticonvulsant activities ( 16).

5.16 Sore throat/hoarseness

The efficacy of lubrication of the endo-tracheal tube cuff with chamomile before intubation on postoperative sore throat and hoarseness was determined in a randomized double-blind study. 161 patients whose American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical status was I or II, and undergoing elective surgical, orthopedic, gynecological or urological surgeries were divided in two groups. The study group received 10 puffs of chamomile extract (Kamillosan M spray, total 370 mg of Chamomile extract) at the site of the cuff of the endotracheal tube for lubrication, while the control group did not receive any lubrication before intubations. Standard general anesthesia with tracheal intubations was given in both groups. 41 out of 81 patients (50.6%) in the chamomile group reported no postoperative sore throat in the post-anesthesia care unit compared with 45 out of 80 patients (56.3%) in the control group. Postoperative sore throat and hoarseness both in the post-anesthesia care unit and at 24 h post-operation were not statistically different. Lubrication of endo-tracheal tube cuff with chamomile extract spray before intubations can not prevent post operative sore throat and hoarseness ( 77). Similar results were obtained in another double blind study ( 78).

5.17 Vaginitis

Vaginal inflammation is common in women of all ages. Vaginitis is associated with itching, vaginal discharge, or pain with urination. Atrophic vaginitis most commonly occurs in menopausal and postmenopausal women, and its occurrence is often associated with reduced levels of estrogen. Chamomile douche may improve symptoms of vaginitis with few side effects ( 79). There is insufficient research data to allow conclusions concerning possible potential benefits of chamomile for this condition.

5.18 Wound healing

The efficacy of topical use of chamomile to enhance wound healing was evaluated in a double-blind trial on 14 patients who underwent dermabrasion of tattoos. The effects on drying and epithelialization were observed, and chamomile was judged to be statistically efficacious in producing wound drying and in speeding epithelialization ( 80). Antimicrobial activity of the extract against various microorganisms was also assessed. The test group, on day 15, exhibited a greater reduction in the wound area when compared with the controls (61 % versus 48%), faster epithelialization and a significantly higher wound-breaking strength. In addition, wet and dry granulation tissue weight and hydroxyproline content were significantly higher. The increased rate of wound contraction, together with the increased wound-breaking strength, hydroxyproline content and histological observations, support the use of M. recutita in wound management ( 81). Recent studies suggest that chamomile caused complete wound healing faster than corticosteroids ( 82). However, further studies are needed before it can be considered for clinical use.

6.0 CONTRAINDICATIONS AND SAFETY ISSUES WITH CHAMOMILE

A relatively low percentage of people are sensitive to chamomile and develop allergic reactions ( 87). People sensitive to ragweed and chrysanthemums or other members of the Compositae family are more prone to develop contact allergies to chamomile, especially if they take other drugs that help to trigger the sensitization. A large-scale clinical trial was conducted in Hamburg, Germany, between 1985 and 1991 to study the development of contact dermatitis secondary to exposure to a mixture of components derived from the Compositae family. Twelve species of the Compositae family, including German chamomile, were selected and tested individually when the mixture induced allergic reactions. During the study, 3,851 individuals were tested using a patch with the plant extract ( 88). Of these patients, 118 (3.1%) experienced an allergic reaction. Further tests revealed that feverfew elicited the most allergic reactions (70.1% of patients) followed by chrysanthemums (63.6%) and tansy (60.8%). Chamomile fell in the middle range (56.5%). A study involving 686 subjects exposed either to a sesquiterpene lactone mixture or a mixture of Compositae extracts led to allergic reactions in 4.5% of subjects ( 89). In another study it was shown that eye washing with chamomile tea in hay fever patients who have conjunctivitis exacerbates the eye inflammation, whereas no worsening of eye inflammation was noted when chamomile tea was ingested orally ( 90). Chamomile is listed on the FDA's GRAS (generally recognized as safe) list. It is possible that some reports of allergic reactions to chamomile may be due to contamination of chamomile by "dog chamomile," a highly allergenic and bad-tasting plant of similar appearance. Evidence of cross-reactivity of chamomile with other drugs is not well documented, and further study of this issue is needed prior to reaching conclusions. Safety in young children, pregnant or nursing women, or those with liver or kidney disease has not been established, although there have not been any credible reports of toxicity caused by this common beverage tea.

7.0 CONCLUSIONS

Chamomile has been used as an herbal medication since ancient times, is still popular today and probably will continue to be used in the future because it contains various bioactive phytochemicals that could provide therapeutic effects. Chamomile can help in improving cardiovascular conditions, stimulate immune system and provide some protection against cancer. Establishing whether or not therapeutic effects of chamomile are beneficial to patients will require research and generation of scientific evidence. There is a need for continued efforts that focuses on pre-clinical studies with chamomile involving animal models of various diseases. This may then be consequently validated in clinical trials that will help in developing chamomile as a promising therapeutic agent. Without such evidence, it will remain unclear whether these untested and unproven medical treatments are truly beneficial. It is advisable that the discriminate and proper use of chamomile preparations could be safe and provide therapeutic benefits however the indiscriminate or improper use can be unsafe and harmful.

Acknowledgements

The original work from author's laboratory outlined in this review was supported by United States Public Health Service Grants RO1 AT002709 and RO1 CA108512

Abbreviations

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Chamomile: A herbal medicine of the past with bright future

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Chamomile is one of the most ancient medicinal herbs known to mankind. It is a member of Asteraceae/ Compositae family and represented by two common varieties viz. German Chamomile ( Chamomilla recutita) and Roman Chamomile ( Chamaemelum nobile). The dried flowers of chamomile contain many terpenoids and flavonoids contributing to its medicinal properties.

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THEME 5: Threatening factors of plant diversity

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THEME 5: Threatening factors of plant diversity

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Theophrastus of Eresus in Lesbos, born about 370 BCE, is the author of the most important botanical works that have survived from classical antiquity. He was in turn student, collaborator, and successor of Aristotle. Like his predecessor he was interested in all aspects of human knowledge and experience, especially natural science. His writings on plants form a counterpart to Aristotle’s zoological works.

In the Enquiry into Plants, Theophrastus classifies and describes varieties—covering trees, plants of particular regions, shrubs, herbaceous plants, and cereals; in the last of the nine books he focuses on plant juices and medicinal properties of herbs. The Loeb Classical Library edition is in two volumes; the second contains two additional treatises: On Odours and Weather Signs.

In De Causis Plantarum, Theophrastus turns to plant physiology. Books 1 and 2 are concerned with generation, sprouting, flowering and fruiting, and the effects of climate. In Books 3 and 4, Theophrastus studies cultivation and agricultural methods. In Books 5 and 6, he discusses plant breeding; diseases and other causes of death; and distinctive flavours and odours.

Theophrastus’s celebrated Characters is of a quite different nature. This collection of descriptive sketches is the earliest known character-writing and a striking reflection of contemporary life.

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Saffron is known as the “red gold” deriving from the red stigmas of the crocus flower. The Greek crocus of Kozani is known to yield top quality saffron, the world over. Having a light violet aroma, a wonderful slightly bitter taste and a unique yellow colour, saffron takes creations in pastry, cooking, cheese making and liquor-making to great heights.

Use it: in rice, potatoes, pasta, white meat and seafood or in your coffee and tea.

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Kozani in Macedonia with its mild climate produces the best quality organic saffron in the world and has been growing in this area for the last 500 years. Kozani merchants with successful businesses in Central Europe knew the value of the product from back then and although Saffron is also grown in Spain, Morocco and Central Asian countries, saffron from Greece is considered the best quality worldwide.

Cleopatra used it to infuse her bathwater, while Alexander the Great bathed his battle wounds with it and drank saffron tea.

Saffron, the gold of Greek land as it is called, is one of the most precious spices of ancient cultures because of its aroma, colour, pharmaceutical and aphrodisiac properties.

Locals plant saffron every summer and when autumn comes, they remove the stigmas of the flower by hand and dry them thoroughly to make crimson slim threads. It takes about 50,000 stigmas to obtain 100grams of red saffron.

Annual production depends upon weather conditions and ranges from 6 to 12 tons of pure red saffron per year. It is exported to all European Union's countries, Japan, Switzerland, USA, United Arab countries, Australia and elsewhere and can cost up to 2,000 euros per kilo.

Saffron is rising even more in popularity since new research concludes that the saffron stigmas possess strong antioxidant properties that can neutralise free radicals and can also improve brain function and memory.

In 1971 the Greek saffron (Krokos Kozanis) growers formed the Cooperative de Safran; since then, the cooperative has had the exclusive responsibility of harvesting, sorting, processing, packaging and trading the whole saffron production.

As of 1998, Greek Red Saffron has entered the "Register of protected designations of origin" (PDO). Krocus Kozanis Products S.A., established in 2007, is a joint venture between the Cooperative de Saffran of Kozani.

As the flowers begin to blossom in mid-October, they are typically hand-gathered by women, who place them in their gowns or baskets and then take them home in panniers. The work requires a delicate hand and usually goes on from dawn to dusk for a month. The flowers are collected at dawn when their petals are still closed so that their organoleptic properties aren't affected by exposure to atmospheric agents.

In the next step, the red stigmas, typically in groups of three, are separated from the flowers. They are set out to dry on the same day at a temperature of around 35 degrees Celcius, before the red pistils are separated from the yellow ones, thereby eliminating pollens and foreign elements.

This step must also be carried out by hand and takes between 20 to 60 days. Finally, the pistils are weighed and packaged to verify that the product conforms to the quality management's strict standards.

Producers that don't respect the parameters are immediately eliminated in order to guarantee the product's quality. The "red gold" then arrives in countless homes as a spice, used for everything from pastries and cheese-making to pasta and liquor.

It has also become a popular medicinal remedy, thanks to its digestive and anti-inflammatory properties and used in many hair and beauty products.

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Greece's Saffron known as the best in the world - Greek City Times

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Kozani in Macedonia with its mild climate produces the best quality organic saffron in the world and has been growing in this area for the last 500 years. Kozani merchants with successful businesses in Central Europe knew the value of the product from back then and although Saffron is also grown in Spain, Morocco and...

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There is no doubt that cinnamon is the queen of all spices, with a tinge of sweetness and warmth. It has been very popular since ancient times. Did you know that the English name “cinnamon” derives from the ancient Greek word “κιννάμωμον” (kinnamomon)?

Use it in traditional sweets, cookies, cream, cakes and sweet breads. Also use it in dishes of red meat, poultry, fish as well as marinades.

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Written by GreekBoston.com in About Greek Spices and Herbs

Cinnamon, referred to as kanela or κανέλα in Greek, is one of those spices that have a special place in Greek cuisine. Typically, it is associated with desserts but in Greece, it is used in savory cooking as well. However, the use of cinnamon in savory cooking depends on the family recipes and the region of Greece. It makes its way into savory foods such as pilafi and kapama, in addition to desserts like galatopita and baklava. It is also often used in Greek sausage recipes, depending on the region of Greece.

Where is Cinnamon from in Greece?

Cinnamon can be found in markets and specialty stores throughout Greece in either the powder form or as sticks. Cinnamon itself is the bark that is harvested from a tree with the botanical name Cinnamomum verum. However, there are other varieties of the plant that are on the market today and they all have a similar flavor. It is used in its dried form in recipes.

How Does Cinnamon Taste?

Cinnamon has an earthy, warm flavor with a slightly astringent flavor. When using this spice in recipes, a little bit goes a long way and putting too much in the recipe can be overpowering.

What Greek Recipes Use this Cinnamon?

Melamacarona, Beef Kapama, Bougatsa, Milopita, Midia Pilafi, Karidopita, Paksimadia, Baklava, Rizogalo, Loukoumathes, Karydopita me Avga, Svinghi, Kaltsounia sto Tigani, Kithonia Psita, Halva, Stafithopita, Yemistes, Galotopita, Melitinia, Chocolate Baklava

What are the Herbal Remedies for Cinnamon?

Lately, cinnamon has been getting some press for its benefits with regulating blood sugar, which makes it a good choice for those with diabetes. It has also been used for colds as well as the flu, and it is said to be rich in antioxidants. It is said to be antifungal, but studies that have tried to show this have been inconclusive.

Interesting Facts About Cinnamon

In Ancient Greece, cinnamon was a highly prizes spice. Although it is said to have originated with the Egyptians, once the Greeks were exposed to it, they embraced it. Evidence of the importance of cinnamon to the Ancient Greeks can be found at a temple dedicated to Apollo at Milletus where there is an inscription detailing the gift of cinnamon. Ancient Greek writers such as Sappho also extolled the virtues of this spice. It is still important to the culture today.
Sources: Wikipedia - Cinnamon WebMD - Cinnamon Many Greek recipes are different based on the region of Greece and family traditions, so uses of the herbs and spices contained on this page may vary. Also, GreekBoston.com does not provide medical advice and the information provided here is for informational purposes only. This isn't a medical site, please consult with your physician. The medicinal health information is based on anecdotal evidence and Greek history.
Categorized in: About Greek Spices and Herbs

This post was written by GreekBoston.com

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Greek Cinnamon: Cooking and Medicinal Info

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Written by GreekBoston.com in About Greek Spices and Herbs Cinnamon, referred to as kanela or κανέλα in Greek, is one of those spices that have a special place in Greek cuisine. Typically, it is associated with desserts but in Greece, it is used in savory cooking as well.

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Two common spices together with their origin

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Two common spices together with their origin

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artichoke, broccoli, brussel sprout, cauliflower, chive, fennel, saffron

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amaranth, barley, brown rice, buckwheat, bulgur, corn, durum wheat, farro, millet, oats, quinoa, rye, sorghum, wheat, wild rice

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The main tree species decorated during Christmas in Greece

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The main tree species decorated during Christmas in Greece

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FIR TREES

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Headed to pick out your Christmas tree soon?

Will you go with a noble fir known for its sturdy needles? What about a bright green scotch pine with plenty of room for decorations, or a miniature Christmas tree just for the mantle? Whether you handpick the same type of Christmas tree each year or just go with the first one that stands out, the fact of the matter is that there are many tree types from which to choose.

The Christmas tree becomes the focal point of your holiday decor and family traditions, so it'll be important to narrow down your decision and find the right one. Shape, color and scent are just a few things to consider.

Christmas Tree Types

To help you find the perfect tree for you, we've put together a guide featuring the different types of Christmas trees. It's classified based upon their most common qualities and characteristics. This season, celebrate the most wonderful time of the year with a Christmas tree that's at the top of your list!

Browse through the different types of Christmas trees below.

Fir trees are a genus of the evergreen coniferous trees and are also a popular choice for the holiday season. The most popular fir trees used for Christmas include the noble fir, fraser fir and balsam fir. Browse the entire list below.
1. Balsam Fir
The balsam fir is an evergreen tree best known for its conical shape and dense, dark-green leaves that are flat and needle-like. The leaves of the balsam fir also tend to have hints of shining silvery-white and are commonly used for Christmas wreaths and Christmas bouquets. This evergreen tree not only looks good, but smells good too. Giving off that spicy Christmas scent only makes it an even more popular Christmas tree choice. This particular fir varietal is small- to medium-sized and grows to heights of up to 66 feet tall.
2. Fraser Fir
Known for its pleasant scent, the yellow-green branches of the fraser fir feature a conical shape with branches that angle slightly upward. The branches of the fraser fir are also known for being extra sturdy, making this Christmas tree a great option for heavy ornaments, Christmas garland and holiday decor. Its leaves are needle-like and spiral along the trunk of the tree, giving off a fragrant scent. The fraser fir typically grows anywhere up to 50 feet tall.
3. Canaan Fir
Known for its similarities to the fraser fir and balsam fir, the canaan fir is referred to as the hybrid of the two. Canaan fir is a medium-growing evergreen tree that features fantastic needle retention, like the fraser fir. Leaves are flat and needle-like, with a nice green color. The canaan fir is native to the mountains of West Virginia and is a newcomer to the Christmas tree market, making this particular fir varietal few and far between.
4. Douglas Fir
A douglas fir will make a statement in your home. This fir tree displays a full pyramid shape with blue or dark green leaves that have one of the richest scents of all the Christmas trees. Leaves of this evergreen are flat, soft and tend to grow in bunches. Douglas firs grow from medium-sized to extremely large anywhere up to 330 feet tall. Fun fact, the douglas fir makes up nearly half of all Christmas trees grown in the United States.
5. Grand Fir
The name of this evergreen tree really says it all. The grand fir is a large tree native to the Pacific Northwest and Northern California. These giants can grow up to 230 feet tall. The grand fir features bicolored needles with yellow-green hues and a white stripe beneath the needle. This tree produces beautiful, thick foliage and gives off that wonderful spicy Christmas tree scent.
6. Noble Fir
Noble fir is yet another one of the more popular Christmas trees and can grow up to 230 feet tall. The dense branches are evenly spaced along the trunk of this evergreen tree. Growing happily in the Pacific Northwest, the Noble fir displays needle-like leaves that tend to curve upward, making them a sturdy option for all of your Christmas decorations.
7. Concolor Fir
The concolor fir is often referred to as the white fir. It's known for its flattened, needle-like leaves that are pointed at the tip. When it's young, the concolor fir features more blue-green colored leaves, but as it gets older the leaves turn into a duller green hue. The concolor fir can grow up to 195 feet tall.

Pine trees are evergreen conifers in the Pinus genus and are the most common coniferous tree around the world. Pine trees love their natural forest the most, but are also common options for Christmas trees.
8. White Pine
The white pine features needles that grown in fascicles or bundles. With bluish-green hues and pointed tips, the branches of this Christmas tree are flexible and give off little to no aroma. This pine tree is not recommended for heavy ornaments or large decorations because the branches are not as strong. Fun fact, the white pine is the largest pine in the United States. Mature trees can live up to 400 years and grow to heights of about 230 feet tall.
9. Scotch Pine
Also referred to as the scots pine, this pine tree is another common Christmas tree option. Dark green foliage and sturdy branches equip the scotch pine: perfect for plenty of Christmas lights and decorations. This pine tree can grow anywhere up to 115 feet tall. The needles range in color from blue-green to a darker green in the winter months and grow in fascicles or bunches of two. The scotch pine is also known for its long term needle retention, meaning less clean up for you when Christmas ends. Fun fact, it's also the national tree of Scotland.
10. Virginia Pine
The Virginia pine can be easily identified due to its short and twisted needles that grow in pairs. This particular pine tree features short branches with dense foliage that respond well to trimming. The Virginia pine is known as a small to medium-sized tree that can grow anywhere up to about 70 feet tall.

Spruce trees are in the Picea genus which includes over 35 species. These particular types of trees tend to grow in the cooler climates and are common selections for the holiday season.
11. Blue Spruce
The blue spruce, also known as the Colorado blue spruce, is loved for its waxy gray-blue needles that tend to curve upwards. Native to the Rocky Mountains of the United States, this spruce tree features dense foliage that grows in a conical shape anywhere up to 75 feet tall. The blue spruce is said to have "the perfect Christmas tree shape." Fun fact, the blue spruce is the state tree of Colorado.
12. Norway Spruce
The Norway spruce is a fast-growing evergreen coniferous tree that can be found anywhere up to 180 feet tall. Its leaves are needle-like and feature a dark green hue with pointed tips. Although common in the United States, the Norway spruce is most notably a species of spruce that is native to Europe. Needle retention of the Norway spruce is poor, so it's important to take proper care of your tree and water it correctly.
13. White Spruce
The white spruce is also commonly referred to as the Canadian spruce, the skunk spruce, the western white spruce and a handful of other names. This particular spruce species is a large tree that grows to heights of up to 130 feet tall. With needle-like leaves that are short and sturdy in a blue-green color, this spruce is a viable option for all of your lights and ornaments.

Cypress trees grow in a tall narrow shape and are most commonly used as shrubbery or privacy trees. If you're looking for a unique Christmas tree this year, Cypress might be your best option. Browse the different types below.
14. Arizona Cypress
As the name implies, the Arizona cypress is native to the Southwestern United States. It is a medium-sized evergreen tree that can grow up to 60 feet tall. Leaves of this particular cypress are a bluish-gray color on branches that grow in a conical shape.
15. Leyland Cypress
The leyland cypress has feathery leaves that are greenish-gray in color and grow upward, giving the tree a pyramid-like shape. This particular cypress does not give off any aroma, so if you're looking for a Christmas tree with a delightful scent, the leyland cypress might not be the one for you. On the plus side, the lack of fragrance can be great for those with allergies. This fast-growing tree will grow up to heights of 70 feet tall.

Cedar trees are large coniferous evergreens with many different types. Cedar trees are most commonly landscaping trees, seen lining streets and parks. Although, if you're looking for a one-of-a-kind Christmas tree, a cedar is a viable option.
16. Red Cedar
Also commonly referred to as the Eastern red cedar, pencil cedar and aromatic cedar. Branches of the this particular cedar are dense and form a pyramid-like shape. The leaves jet upwards and are a dark, shiny green color. Although the eastern red cedars are slow-growing, they have been recorded at heights of over 40 feet tall. Fun fact, this cedar tree is most commonly used as a Christmas tree in Missouri, Oklahoma and Arkansas.

There's no better way to get into the Christmas spirit than to decorate your Christmas tree, but that means you'll have to pick one out first. With so many different options to consider, hopefully our guide to the different types of Christmas trees will help you narrow down your top picks. Once you have your tree at home, don't forget to take proper care of it. Our detailed guide to Christmas tree care will help you assure that your tree stays healthy all season. It's time to get to decorating and celebrate! Don't forget to look for personalized Christmas ornaments to decorate your Christmas tree this year

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16 Types of Christmas Trees | ProFlowers

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Headed to pick out your Christmas tree soon? Will you go with a noble fir known for its sturdy needles? What about a bright green scotch pine with plenty of room for decorations, or a miniature Christmas tree just for the mantle?

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If you have ever been to Greece, or had someone bring you a souvenir from Greece as an adult, you are likely familiar with at least one of Greece's traditional spirits.

The anise-flavored ouzo is as popular with tourists as it is with the locals, and when in Greece it might be tempting to always gravitate towards whenever you fancy a drink, regardless of the setting or season. However, if you do, you will miss out on the rest of Greece's repertoire of spirits.

For example, many Greeks will argue that tsipouro is actually a more versatile drink, and more suitable for the winter. Rakomelo (made with raki, honey and spices) is even better on cold days, as it is served warm, while in the summer, you can get the local spirits and liqueurs mixed into refreshing cocktails.

And as for those souvenirs, there are plenty of creative uses for a bottle of ouzo, raki, or traditional liqueurs. We found some great recipes to help you out.

Ouzo

The most famous and well-traveled of all the Greek alcoholic beverages, ouzo is a drink that reminds most people of warm days by the sea (in Greece only hardcore ouzo lovers order it in the middle of the winter).

It is traditionally produced in copper stills, where alcohol is mixed with water, aniseed, and other herbs and spices like fennel, cloves, and coriander. To be called ouzo, at least 20% of the alcoholic content must be flavored by distillation. The finished product is a dry, aniseed flavored spirit that is great as an aperitif. When water or ice is added to it, the anise makes it turn a cloudy white color, which is how most people know it.

How to best enjoy a glass of ouzo

While usually diluted with ice and water, some argue that ouzo should be enjoyed straight. If, however, you prefer a less fiery drink, make sure you pour the ouzo into your glass first, and then slowly add the water and ice. This way, the spirit is chilled slowly, keeping all the flavors intact. Or so it's said.

The perfect pairing for ouzo is seafood. Enjoy it at seaside restaurants with meze dishes such as grilled octopus and shrimp. When cooking seafood at home, ouzo is also an excellent ingredient (see recipe below).

Recipe: Squid with Ouzo

Pour the oil into a large non-stick pan over high heat. Once hot, add the garlic and the squid, and cook for 3-4 minutes, until the squid is cooked through but hasn't released it's juices.

Add the ouzo and cook until evaporated.

Add the lemon balm and serve.
This recipe was first published in Greek by the food magazine Gastronomos.
1 kg squid, cut into rings and pieces

1 1/2 shots of ouzo

2 cloves of garlic, minced

2 tbsp fresh lemon balm

5-6 tbsp vegetable oil, for frying

Tsipouro, Raki & Tsikoudia

No matter where you go, there's always tsipouro.

Lets start by making this clear: tsipouro, raki and tsikoudia are basically the same thing - essentially Greek versions of grappa - although experts will note that there are some variations in the distillation methods. The names have more to do with the origin of the spirits than anything else; in particular the spirits made on the island of Crete carry different names from the ones made in the rest of Greece.

On Crete, the ubiquitous clear spirit has always been referred to as tsikoudia, from the local word for pomace ( tsikouda). The name raki came later, with the Turks, who used the name for their own traditional spirit to describe the one they found on Crete. Today, both names are used (it is common in bars, for example, to see the drink marketed as tsikoudia to the Greeks and raki to tourists).

Aside from the name however, the Cretan spirits only differ in that they are traditionally not infused with spices, whereas tsipouro sometimes is. Spices aside, there are no clear-cut differences in flavor between unflavored tsipouro and tsikoudia, at least none detectable to a novice.

To make things even more confusing, the most common spice to flavor tsipouro with is anise, which makes it similar to ouzo both in flavor and the cloudy white look when water is added.

No matter what you call it, it's a potent spirit with up to 45% alcohol by volume, made 100% from grape pomace (i.e the solid residue left behind after the grapes are pressed for juice). Being distilled solely from grapes means it's gluten free - a fact that has helped it gain popularity lately. Not that it needed a popularity boost; Greeks everywhere drink tsipouro, but the trend factor of no gluten has helped it make its way into the hip bars in Athens and Thessaloniki, where it's used in delicious cocktails. Another new trend is barrel-aged tsipouro - a caramel colored spirit with flavor that resembles whiskey.

How to best enjoy a glass of tsipouro

Tsipouro and raki / tsikoudia are best enjoyed ice cold, or even with ice. If cold enough, serve it in shot glasses, if not, in glasses just large enough to room a couple of ice cubes. In the winter, you can also enjoy it warm in the form of rakomelo (see recipe below).

Tsipouro and meze belong together, and you'll find tsipouro at every meze restaurant in the country. In Crete, raki is often served as a welcome and a goodbye offering, and in places like Volos and villages in Epirus, small meze dishes are provided on the house when you order tsipouro.

Recipe: Rakomelo

Stir together the ingredients in the smallest pot you have, and place over medium heat.

Remove from the heat just before it boils, and strain. Enjoy in shot glasses.

100 ml raki, tsikoudia or tsipouro

1 heaping tbsp honey

1 cinnamon stick

3-4 cloves

Bonus: Mastic Liqueur

While Greece produces plenty of other more and less traditional spirits and liqueurs, this is one to look out for.

PDO protected and with a growing appreciation abroad, mastic liqueur from the mastic villages (mastihohoria) on the island of Chios is becoming a product of real importance. Bartenders in Greece are now using it as a main ingredient in cocktails, and some of the best bars around the world have embraced it as well. But aside from being a trend that's picked up steam these last few years, mastic liqueur actually has a long history.

Flavored with the pine-scented and bitter resin of the lentisk tree, this very special liqueur used to be considered a drink most suitable for women. In the 1920s, women would organize midday mastic gatherings, where they'd pair the drink with sweets and biscuits. The mastic itself has been harvested in Greece since antiquity, and was and is used to make numerous other products as well, such as gum, cosmetics, and food additives.

How to best enjoy a glass of mastic liqueur

Enjoy the liqueur chilled, in a shot glass as a digestif next to your coffee. It seems to taste better the fancier the glass (think crystal).

Mastic liqueur works very well in cocktails, especially in tangy concoctions. It's also delicious drizzled over a fruit salad.

Recipe: Pink cocktail with mastic liqueur

Add all ingredients to a shaker with a lot of ice, and shake vigorously.

Strain into a martini glass and enjoy.
This recipe was first published in K magazine 4/3/2018.
30 ml mastic liqueur

20 ml lemon-scented vodka

10 ml fresh lemon juice

5 ml crème de cassis

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From Ouzo to Raki: How to Enjoy Greece's Famous Spirits - Greece Is

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If you have ever been to Greece, or had someone bring you a souvenir from Greece as an adult, you are likely familiar with at least one of Greece's traditional spirits. The anise-flavored ouzo is as popular with tourists as it is with the locals, and when in Greece it might be tempting to always gravitate towards whenever you fancy a drink, regardless of the setting or season.

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Apart from ouzo, Greece is known for another pair of considerably stronger distilled local drinks, often confused with one another, raki and tsipouro. Frequently homemade, production peaks in the autumn after the grape-harvest with celebrations centred around the great distillation cauldrons.

Tsipouro is a traditional product that comes from mainland Greece while raki is from Crete. Both are made from grapes not destined for wine-making yet still capable of producing quality distilled spirits. The main differences between them are the degree of alcoholic content and the addition or not of aniseed, which is often added to tsipouro but never to raki.

Tsipouro with aniseed takes pride of place in the tsipouro bars of Volos where it accompanies traditional delicacies from the region and Thessaly in general. Drink it either chilled or with ice.

Potent raki is enjoyed by Cretans of all ages, usually in shot glasses either chilled or at room temperature. They tend to accompany it with traditional products of Crete like cheese, local preserved meats, roasts or whatever else arrives at table including traditional sweets and pies. No excuse is needed to pour a glass at any hour of the day or night.

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http://www.greekgastronomyguide.gr/en/ouzo-greek-product/

Ouzo is considered the national drink of Greece. In technical terms, ouzo is either produced by partial distillation or the admixture of plain alcohol with aromatic herbs. The best ouzos are of course the distilled ones with the main flavour being imparted by aniseed, though other aromatics are often added, such as masticha from Chios, cinnamon, cloves or fennel, depending on the brand. Each location prides itself on its ouzo but the most famous are from the island of Lesvos and from Tyrnavos in Thessaly.

Ouzo is ideally served chilled, with or without ice, though many add water which releases the essential oils from the aniseed, turning the drink cloudy and heightening the aromas. You should always add ice or water to already poured ouzo and not the other way around.

Though ouzo is delightful with many kinds of traditional Greek meze, like a good ladotyri from Zakynthos or Mytilini or a kopanisti from Mykonos or Tinos, it is best known for its compatibility with strong-flavoured seafood such as octopus or marinated anchovies. Spicy pickled peppers also go well.

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Two alcoholic drinks consumed in Greece

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Two alcoholic drinks consumed in Greece

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STEP 1. ACTIVATE YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE - assess the problem 

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STEP 1. ACTIVATE YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE - assess the problem 

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Answer

Replacing fossil fuels with biofuels is highly controversial since it solves one problem but creates new ones.

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THEME 4: Plants as source for the future

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THEME 4: Plants as source for the future

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Comparing some of the PlantAreas to mine I noticed that climate change is a worldwide phenomenum. Temperature, sea level, droughts and fires are some problems that most participants noticed. I also posted an article about energy and climate change.

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Through my visiting to other Plant Areas I noticed that Mediterranean area drawn the interest of many pasticipants. Also most of us used simmilar stress factors such as  fires and droughts. I noticed that I used a lot of articles to express the stress factors and most of the participants used photos and other resourses to present their results.

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Climate Change

Climate change affects what we most value and love. It changes the seasons, affects our diet and health, makes life more difficult in cities, increases the dangers to nature, , endangers our monuments, history and the future of next generations.

We know what causes climate change. The greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, such as electricity production from fossil fuels, livestock farming and deforestation.

As a result of the economic crisis, Greece's greenhouse gas emissions have decreased in recent years. Greece emits approximately the equivalent of 100 million tonnes of CO2 per year. Despite the decrease, it continues to not contribute as much as it should in the international fight against climate change, since it emits approximately 50% more per unit GDP compared to the EU average.

Approximately 70% of Greece's greenhouse gas emissions come from the energy sector, 60% of which originate from electricity production, which is in turn still based on lignite, the most polluting fuel on the planet. As a result, lignite despite its recent decline, still contributes more than 30% of the greenhouse gas emissions of the entire country.

Greek lignite

Up until 2010, Greece was the 7 th largest lignite mining country in the world with 22 lignite units in Western Macedonia and the Peloponnese. Currently, 14 units are still operating. Greek lignite deposits are by far the lowest quality in the EU, thus leading to high costs for their exploitation.

In addition to contributing to the greenhouse phenomenon responsible for climate change, lignite combustion has devastating effects on human health and the natural environment, whereas the operation of lignite power plants demands huge amounts of water. At the same time, the constant need for mine expansion has led to the desolation of many villages and the displacement of thousands of residents from their homes.

Dealing with the problem

At WWF Greece we are promoting well-documented, renewables-based solutions for the country's detoxification from lignite. In 2013, we showed that the construction of new lignite units is not economically viable and two years later we presented alternative solutions to the construction of the new, expensive "Ptolemaida V" lignite unit, which are based on the sun, air and water.

Renewable energy

Greece can triple the share of renewables in the electricity mix over the next 20 years. WWF Greece showed in 2017 that this is not only technically feasible but also economically beneficial, when combined with a lignite phase out.

We are walking the talk. Since 2014, we have been working in the Dodecanese to make Tilos the first energy self-sufficient island to cover almost all its needs for electricity with renewables. The smart microgrid will be powered by energy coming from the sun and the wind, which will in turn be stored in batteries for cloudy and windless weather. Such hybrid systems can be a solution for many Aegean islands. Already three more islands are walking in the footsteps of Tilos, while 12 others are taking part in the "smart islands" initiative.

We work together

We do not only work with governments. In 2015 we joined our voice with 48,000 citizens from all over the world to say a thundering NO to the plans for the construction of the new lignite unit Ptolemaida V. We did not stay on our screens and our sofas, and a few weeks later we all danced together on the most colorful path to climate change in Greece.

In December 2015, in Paris, we experienced a historic moment. 196 countries including the EU agreed to limit global warming below 1.5 ° C. The road for fossil fuels became even harder after that!

A step in the right direction

The retirement of lignite plants does not need to create new wounds in Western Macedonia and Megalopoli. Since 2015 we have been trying to defend local communities, workers in the lignite industry and their families. We talked to MEPs, MPs and the Greek government, we proposed sustainable economic activities for the development of lignite regions, and we, together with the local communities and the municipal authorities, advocated for the establishment of a National Just Transition Fund which will finance the shift of the local economies to the post-lignite era. Ultimately, in 2018 such a fund was created in Greece, the first of its kind in Europe!

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περιβαλλοντική εκπαίδευση

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Climate change affects what we most value and love. It changes the seasons, affects our diet and health, makes life more difficult in cities, increases the dangers to nature, , endangers our monuments, history and the future of next generations. We know what causes climate change.

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How does climate change affect regeneration of Mediterranean high mountain plants? An integration and synthesis of current knowledge

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How does climate change affect regeneration of Mediterranean high mountain plants? An integration and synthesis of current knowledge

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In Greece, so the saying goes, they are blessed that summer lasts until the end of October. But is this true? Sure, most years the country's warm weather and summertime habits stretch further than they do in more northern European countries. But is this a blessing or a curse? Is it a cause for celebration or concern?

In 2015, summer in Greece arrived slightly later than normal but from July the temperatures topped 36 degrees almost every day. These are not heatwave conditions by local standards, but both its mainland and islands stayed consistently warm and, when combined with humidity, somewhat sticky.

According to both the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the Japan Meteo Agency, 2015 saw the hottest March ever recorded. For , it was the third warmest Greek March after 2010 and 2002.

It seems that 2015 will pip 2014 as the warmest year in history. Michalis Petrakis, Research Director of National Observatory of Athens says that climate change is making Greece more tropical. As he says in Greek newpaper Ta Nea "the sea is getting warmer and even warmer than the land, so we have evaporation which gives us more humidity and this causes us more discomfort."

In the last report of the International Panel on Climate Change it mentions that the temperature of the Aegean Sea will rise between 1.2 and 2.5 degrees Celsius, which means that 'October summers' will be something that Greeks won't necessarily be feeling particularly proud nor happy about. There are also further consequences of climate change that are already starting to affect the everyday lives of Greeks.

WWW Hellas, with the National Observatory of Athens, forecasts in its research on climate change in Greece from 2021-2050 a bleak future for Greece. ( Read more about the research in greek). They warn that if the objective of keeping the rise in temperature to below 2 degrees above pre-industrial levels is not achieved, then the consequences will be serious and multifaceted: people in cities like Thessaloniki, Patra, Lamia and Larissa will feel more discomfort, with an extra 20 days of 'heatwave' conditions per year. Also Lamia, Volos, Thessaloniki and Athens will experience fewer rainy days globally but 10% more thunderstorms. This means more danger of floods and forest fires.

Climate change in Greece will also impact negatively the already-damaged economy of the country as the weather there is a key to the success of the Greek tourist industry.

According to the WWF, climate change will definitely "change" the tourist "wave" towards Greece. More heatwaves and more sticky, sleepless nights with temperatures higher than 20 degrees will become features of the Greek holiday experience, especially in the islands. While tourists appreciate warmth in the day, visitors - particularly those from Scandinavian countries, Russia and the UK - who are not used to these conditions will start to find Greece a turn-off and book elsewhere.

Then there's agriculture. The same research from the WWF says that less winter rain will increase incidents of drought, turning Greek fields to desert.

The same goes for the fisheries: warm sea waters could seriously damage fish populations and thus affect the entire food chain.

A report from the National Bank of Greece, concludes that if climate change continues as expected until 2050 and 2100 without a global effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, then this will cause huge damage to the Greek economy, or 701 billion euros by 2100 to be precise.

It seems obvious that more measures are needed not only in Greece but also across Europe and beyond. Even if Greece is not as much of an 'industrial' country anymore, if it doesn't pollute as much as other European countries, it will not be immune to the consequences.

The cost of the measures that Greece has promised to undertake by 2100 amounts to 142 billion euros, according to National Bank of Greece. So Greece must do whatever it can to reduce even her own damage to the country.

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Climate change in Greece: More visible than we think - Negative future ahead

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In Greece, so the saying goes, they are blessed that summer lasts until the end of October. But is this true? Sure, most years the country's warm weather and summertime habits stretch further than they do in more northern European countries. But is this a blessing or a curse?

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An alien species, a plant invader that was named "German" is spreading rapidly displacing the local species and threatens protected areas while the fight against it is extremely difficult because the plant is working as a Hydra.

Professor in the Biology department of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Nikos Krigas has covered thousands of miles of the rural road network and the motorways in order to locate and recorde the spread of the Solanum elaeagnifolium, a plant of American origin that is one of the most dangerous invaders worldwide.

"The plant follows the road networks because its round grains are drifted by the passing vehicles and spread rapidly," he said.

The plant was initially spotted in 1927 in Thessaloniki and was imported probably with goods that came from the US. In 1930 it started growing in the city and during WWII the locals named it "German" because it spread everywhere.

According to an urban myth, the German occupiers brought it in Greece to feed their mules, something that is not true because the plant is poisonous, said Krigas adding that in 1950 the plant made its first appearance in Athens.

The plant does not have any natural enemies in Greece. On the contrary in America there are insects that eat its flowers.

In his study, professor Krigas found that the recorded populations of this species increased by 1,750 percent and 10 percent of Natura 2000 protected network has been invaded. " The natural ecosystems with structured societies when not disturbed appear to work as a barriers against the invaders. A strong and broad programme with pesticides and constant uprooting must be applied against the invader. The most important is to be aware the the bigger the human intervention on the ecosystems the weaker they became in the invasion of the solanum elaeagnifolium," said professor Krigas.

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invader plant species spreads and threatens protected areas in greece

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Invader plant species spreads and threatens protected areas in Greece | TornosNews.gr

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An alien species, a plant invader that was named "German" is spreading rapidly displacing the local species and threatens protected areas while the fight against it is extremely difficult because the plant is working as a Hydra.

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Biodiversity Greece

Biodiversity in numbers

Greece has a total area of 131.957 km2 and occupies the southernmost extension of the Balkan Peninsula. The mainland accounts for 80% of the land area, with the remaining 20% divided among nearly 3000 islands. The Greek landscape, with its extensive coastline, exceeding 15,000 km in length, is closely linked with the sea, since only a small region in the northwest is further than 80 km from the sea. Approximately 25% of it is lowland, particularly the coastal plains along the seashore of the country (1).

The protected areas enacted through national law (National Forests, National Parks, Wild Life Refuges and Landscapes of Particular Aesthetic Value) cover only 2.5% of the Greek territory (1).

Vulnerabilities - Terrestrial biodiversity

The Paris Agreement of December 2015 aims to maintain the global average warming well below 2°C above the preindustrial level. Ecosystem variability during the past 10,000 years was reconstructed from pollen analysis. Only a 1.5°C warming scenario permits Mediterranean land ecosystems to remain within this Holocene variability. At or above 2°C of warming, climatic change will generate land ecosystem changes that are unmatched in the Holocene (12).

In fact, regional temperatures in the Mediterranean basin are now ~1.3°C higher than during 1880-1920, compared with an increase of ~0.85°C worldwide. Climate model projections indicate that the projected warming in the Mediterranean basin this century continues to exceed the global trend. Without ambitious mitigation policies anthropogenic climate change will likely alter ecosystems in the Mediterranean this century in a way that is without precedent during the past 10,000 years. The highly ambitious low-end scenario of climate change (the so-called RCP2.6 scenario) seems to be the only possible pathway toward more limited impacts. Under a high-end scenario of climate change (the RCP8.5 scenario), all of southern Spain turns into desert, deciduous forests invade most of the mountains, and Mediterranean vegetation replaces most of the deciduous forests in a large part of the Mediterranean basin (12).

In addition to climate change, other human impacts affect ecosystems, such as land-use change, urbanization, and soil degradation. Many of these effects are likely to become even stronger in the future because of the expanding human population and economic activity. Without ambitious climate targets, the potential for future managed or unmanaged ecosystems to host biodiversity or deliver services to society is likely to be greatly reduced by climate change and direct local effects (12).

Various ecosystems in the Mediterranean are close to the environmental limits, for example with respect to their ability to cope with drought stress (2).

A 3.6°C global warming could lead to a loss of over 50% of plant species in the northern Mediterranean and the Mediterranean mountain region, while species loss is likely to exceed 80% in north central Spain and the Cevennes and Massif Central in France (3).

Vulnerabilities - Fresh water biodiversity

The Mediterranean ecohydrology is vulnerable to climate change, and can affect flora and fauna of the region. In arid and semi-arid parts of the region, the biggest danger facing the lakes is the expected decrease in water input resulting from increasing evapotranspiration with increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation. This process can lead to conversion of existing freshwater to saltwater (6).

Wetlands

Wetland systems are vulnerable to changes in the quantity and quality of water supply. Even small changes in fresh water input or output can affect the water balance of wetlands such that plant communities and habitat for animals are strongly affected (9). Wetlands in Greece, and the Mediterranean in general, face on-going climate impacts including 20% less rainfall in the course of the previous century (10). Further deteriorating of these wetlands due to climate change is expected. Projections were made for two Greek wetlands (11): Lake Cheimaditida and Lake Kerkini. Lake Cheimaditida is a natural lake that covers an area of 10 km ² at its maximum water level. Lake Kerkini is an artificial lake fed by a river that has developed into a unique wetland ecosystem covering an area of 73.2 km ². These projections are based on two scenarios of climate change (A1B for the period 2020 - 2050 and A1B and A2 for the period 2070 - 2100) that have been fed into a large number of European regional climate models. The influence of groundwater inflow and outflow on the lake's water balance was not taken into account (11).

According to these projections, climate change will further disturb the water balance in both lakes by increasing evaporation, and by decreasing water input from precipitation and lake's catchment run-off. Catchment run-off represents a considerable amount of the water inflow into the lakes. Projections indicate this run-off will reduce by one-fourth during the period 2020 - 2050 and by half during the period 2070 - 2100, compared with the reference period 1961 - 1990. In addition, lake water will be used for irrigation. Consequently, the surface area of Lake Cheimaditida may shrink by 20% during the period 2020 - 2050 and by 37% during the period 2070 - 2100; the water volume of the lake may decrease by 39 and 61%, respectively. Lake Kerkini's surface area may shrink by 5% during the period 2020 - 2050 and by 14% during the period 2070 - 2100; the water volume of the lake may decrease by 18 and 38%, respectively. In fact, these percentages may be even higher due to a possible increase in irrigation demand in the future, in a warmer and drier climate (11).

Vulnerabilities - Marine, estuarine and intertidal biodiversity

A key factor is the tidal range. In general, the smaller the tidal range, the greater the susceptibility to increasing sea level (4). The Mediterranean and Baltic coastal wetlands, which have low tidal ranges, are therefore considered to be more vulnerable than wetlands in the Atlantic and North Sea. ... The largest losses in Europe have been projected for the wetlands along the Baltic and Mediterranean coasts. Estimates vary between 84-98% and 31-100%, respectively (5).

The eastern Mediterranean is an essentially land-locked basin with nutrient-poor surface waters ("marine desert"). In the past two decades rapid increases of the sea surface temperature have been observed, dominated by changes in summer. Modeling studies suggest that this tendency will continue in future, and the warming of surface and deep waters will result in salinization and water mass stabilization. The marine biodiversity can be affected, e.g. through reduced nutrient delivery to surface waters, "tropicalization" and the invasion of alien species through the Suez Canal (7).

From a number of model experiments and three climate change scenarios (B1, A2 and A1B, respectively optimistic, pessimistic and intermediate scenarios in terms of gases emissions) it was concluded that the mean Mediterranean sea surface temperature will increase with a range between +1.73 and +2.97 °C in 2070-2099 compared to 1961-1990. These experiments project mean Mediterranean sea surface salinity increase with a range between +0.48 and +0.89 for the period 2070-2099 compared to 1961-1990 (8).

Adaptation strategies Greece

Adaptation strategies should focus on increasing the resilience of watershed systems to climatic change. Given the heterogeniety in watershed types, strategies need to incorporate local needs and issues with active participation of all stakeholders. The conservation and sustainability of watersheds in the Mediterranean region is an important issue to sustain local and regional economies and ecosystems. A localized strategy that incorporates watershed characteristics and information is vital to sustain the region. A long-term strategy is needed to involve resilience enhancing measures that will enable watersheds to withstand and transform to climatic change (6).

References

The references below are cited in full in a separate map 'References'. Please click here if you are looking for the full references for Greece.

1. Hellenic Republic, Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works of Greece (2006)

2. European Environment Agency (EEA) (2005)

3. Thuiller et al. (2005), in: Giannakopoulos et al. (2005)

4. Kundzewicz et al.(2001), in: European Environment Agency (EEA) (2005)

5. Gitay et al.(2002); Kundzewicz et al.(2001), both in: European Environment Agency (EEA) (2005)

6. Erol and Randhir (2012)

7. Lelieveld et al. (2012)

8. Adloff et al. (2015)

9. Acreman et al. (2007), in: Doulgeris et al. (2016)

10. Climate Change Impacts Study Committee (2011), in: Doulgeris et al. (2016)

11. Doulgeris et al. (2016)

12. Guiot and Cramer (2016)

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κλιματική αλλαγή προσαρμογής στην κλιματική αλλαγή βιωσιμότητα παγκόσμια υπερθέρμανση

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Ελλάδα σε ένα μεταβαλλόμενο κλίμα. Όλα για την κλιματική αλλαγή, τα τρωτά σημεία και στρατηγικές προσαρμογής για όλες τις ευρωπαϊκές χώρες.

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Summary of the 2020 National Biodiversity Strategy for Greece

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Summary of the 2020 National Biodiversity Strategy for Greece

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The vision for 2050
The biodiversity of Greece and the ecosystem services that it supports, are viewed as being of national importance. Νatural capital is evaluated to facilitate the rational management, effective protection and restoration of its intrinsic value, due to the substantial contribution of biodiversity to the society’s welfare and economic prosperity. By 2050, it is aimed to have prevented all destructive changes caused by the loss of biodiversity

General Objectives of the Strategy
Halting biodiversity loss - Promoting biodiversity as a national natural capital - Intensifying the contribution of Greece to preventing the loss of global biodiversity

13 Biodiversity Strategic Targets
1 Increasing scientific knowledge
2 Preservation of national natural capital
3 National system of protected areas
4 Conservation of genetic resources
5 Synergistic policies to conserve biodiversity
6 Conservation of landscape diversity
7 Biodiversity and climate change
8 Biodiversity and invasive alien species
9 International and transnational conservation
10 Public administration and the protection of biodiversity
11 Integrating biodiversity conservation in the value system of society
12 Participation of society in biodiversity conservation
13 Valuation of ecosystem services and promotion of the value of Greek biodiversity

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The long-term warming trend has continued in 2018, with the average global temperature set to be the fourth highest on record. The 20 warmest years on record have been in the past 22 years, with the top four in the past four years, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

Other tell-tale signs of climate change, including sea level rise, ocean heat and acidification and sea-ice and glacier melt continue, whilst extreme weather left a trail of devastation on all continents, according to the WMO provisional Statement on the State of the Climate in 2018. It includes details of impacts of climate change based on contributions from a wide range of United Nations partners.

The report shows that the global average temperature for the first ten months of the year was nearly 1°C above the pre-industrial baseline (1850-1900). This is based on five independently maintained global temperature data sets.

"We are not on track to meet climate change targets and rein in temperature increases," said WMO Secretary-General Petteri Taalas. "Greenhouse gas concentrations are once again at record levels and if the current trend continues we may see temperature increases 3-5°C by the end of the century. If we exploit all known fossil fuel resources, the temperature rise will be considerably higher," he said.

"It is worth repeating once again that we are the first generation to fully understand climate change and the last generation to be able to do something about it," said Mr Taalas.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) special report on Global Warming of 1.5°C reported that the average global temperature for the decade 2006-2015 was 0.86°C above the pre-industrial baseline. The average increase above the same baseline for the most recent decade 2009-2018 was about 0.93°C and for the past five years, 2014-2018, was 1.04°C above the pre-industrial baseline.

"These are more than just numbers," said WMO Deputy Secretary-General Elena Manaenkova.

"Every fraction of a degree of warming makes a difference to human health and access to food and fresh water, to the extinction of animals and plants, to the survival of coral reefs and marine life. It makes a difference to economic productivity, food security, and to the resilience of our infrastructure and cities. It makes a difference to the speed of glacier melt and water supplies, and the future of low-lying islands and coastal communities. Every extra bit matters," said Ms Manaenkova.

The WMO report adds to the authoritative scientific evidence that will inform UN climate change negotiations from 2-14 December in Katowice, Poland. The key objective of the meeting is to adopt the implementation guidelines of the Paris Agreement on Climate Change, which aims to hold the global average temperature increase to as close as possible to 1.5°C.

The IPCC report on Global Warming of 1.5°C said that this target was physically possible but would require unprecedented changes in our lifestyle, energy and transport systems. It showed how keeping temperature increases below 2°C would reduce the risks to human well-being, ecosystems and sustainable development.

National meteorological and hydrological services have been contributing to national climate assessments. A new U.S. federal report detailed how climate change is affecting the environment, agriculture, energy, land and water resources, transportation, and human health and welfare, with a risk that it will lead to growing losses to American infrastructure and property and impede the rate of economic growth over this century.

A UK assessment published 26 November warned summer temperatures could be up to 5.4°C hotter and summer rainfall could decrease by up to 47% by 2070, and sea levels in London could rise by 1.15m by 2100. A Swiss report on climate scenarios released on 13 November said that Switzerland is becoming hotter and drier, but will also struggle with heavier rainfall in the future and its famed ski resorts will have less snow.

"The WMO community is enhancing the translation of science into services. This will support countries in generating national climate scenarios and predictions and developing tailored climate services to reduce risks associated with climate change and increasingly extreme weather. WMO is also working to develop integrated tools to monitor and manage greenhouse gas emissions and carbon sinks," said WMO Chief Scientist and Research Director Pavel Kabat.
Highlights of the provisional statement on the state of the climate
Temperatures: 2018 started with a weak La Niña event, which continued until March. By October, however, sea-surface temperatures in the eastern Tropical Pacific were showing signs of a return to El Niño conditions, although the atmosphere as yet shows little response. If El Niño develops, 2019 is likely to be warmer than 2018.

Greenhouse gases: In 2017, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide concentrations reached new highs, according to WMO Greenhouse Gas Bulletin. Data from a number of locations, including Mauna Loa (Hawaii) and Cape Grim (Tasmania) indicate that they continued to increase in 2018.

Oceans: The oceans absorb more than 90% of the energy trapped by greenhouse gases and 25% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions, making them warmer and more acidic. For each 3-month period until September 2018, ocean heat content was the highest or second highest on record. Global Mean Sea Level from January to July 2018 was around 2 to 3 mm higher than the same period in 2017.

Sea ice: Arctic sea-ice extent was well below average throughout 2018 with record-low levels in the first two months of the year. The annual maximum occurred in mid-March and was the third lowest on record. The minimum extent in September was the 6th smallest on record, meaning that all 12 smallest September extents have been in the past 12 years. Antarctic sea-ice extent was also well below average throughout 2018. The annual minimum extent occurred in late February and was ranked as one of the two lowest extents.
Extreme Weather
Tropical Storms: The number of tropical cyclones was above average in all four Northern Hemisphere basins, with 70 reported by 20 November, compared to the long-term average of 53, leading to many casualties. The Northeast Pacific basin was especially active, with an Accumulated Cyclone Energy that was the highest since reliable satellite records began.

Two of the strongest tropical cyclones were Mangkhut, which impacted the Philippines, Hong Kong SAR and China, and Yutu, which brought devastation in the Mariana Islands. Jebi was the strongest typhoon to hit Japan since 1993, Son-Tinh caused flooding in Viet Nam and Laos, whilst Soulik contributed to flooding on the Korean peninsula. Hurricanes Florence and Michael were associated with huge economic damage and considerable loss of life in the United States. Gita, in the South Pacific, was the most intense and most expensive cyclone to ever hit Tonga.

Floods and rainfall: In August, the southwest Indian state of Kerala suffered the worst flooding since the 1920s, displacing more than 1.4 million people from their homes and affecting more than 5.4 million. Large parts of western Japan experienced destructive flooding in late June and early July, killing at least 230 people and destroying thousands of homes. Flooding affected many parts of east Africa in March and April. This included Kenya and Somalia, which had previously been suffering from severe drought, as well as Ethiopia and northern and central Tanzania. An intense low-pressure system in the Mediterranean Sea in late October brought flooding, high winds and loss of life.

Heatwaves and drought: Large parts of Europe experienced exceptional heat and drought through the late spring and summer of 2018, leading to wildfires in Scandinavia. In July and August, there were numerous record high temperatures north of the Arctic Circle, and record long runs of warm temperatures., including 25 consecutive days above 25 °C in Helsinki (Finland). Parts of Germany had a long spell of days above 30°C, whilst a heatwave in France was associated with a number of deaths. It was also an exceptionally warm and dry period in the United Kingdom and Ireland. A short but intense heatwave affected Spain and Portugal in early August.

Dry conditions were especially persistent in Germany, the Czech Republic, western Poland, the Netherlands, Belgium and parts of France. The Rhine approached record low flows by mid-October, seriously disrupting river transport.

Eastern Australia experienced significant drought during 2018, especially New South Wales and southern Queensland, with much of the region receiving less than half its average rainfall for the period from January to September. Severe drought affected Uruguay, and northern and central Argentina, in late 2017 and early 2018, leading to heavy agricultural losses.

Both Japan and the Republic of Korea saw new national heat records (41.1 °C and 41.0°C respectively.)

Oman reported one of the highest known minimum overnight temperature of 42.6 °C in June. Algeria saw a new national of 51.3 °C in July.

Cold and snow: One of the most significant cold outbreaks of recent years affected Europe in late February and early March.

Wildfires: Major wildfires affected Athens (Greece) on 23 July, with many fatalities. British Columbia in Canada broke its record for the most area burned in a fire season for the second successive year. California suffered devastating wildfires, with November's Camp Fire being the deadliest fire in over a century for the U.S.A.
Other Impacts
The provisional statement contained details of impacts of climate change, based on contributions from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Organization for Migration (IOM), UN Environment Programme (UNEP), UNESCO's Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), UN High Commission for Refugees UNHCR) and World Food Programme (WFP). This section will be expanded in the final statement, to be released in March 2019.

Exposure of agriculture sectors to climate extremes is threatening to reverse gains made in ending malnutrition. New evidence shows a rise in world hunger after a prolonged decline. In 2017, the number of undernourished people was estimated to have increased to 821 million, according The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2018, by to FAO, WFP, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the UN Children's Fund and the World Health Organization. Africa is the region where climate events had the biggest impact on acute food insecurity and malnutrition in 2017, affecting 59 million people in 24 countries and requiring urgent humanitarian action. Much of the vulnerability to climate variability is associated with the dryland farming and pastoral rangeland systems supporting 70-80% of the continent's rural population.

Out of the 17.7 million Internally Displaced Persons tracked by the IOM, 2.3 million people were displaced due to disasters linked to weather and climate events as of September 2018. In Somalia, some 642 000 new internal displacements were recorded between January and July 2018 by UNHCR, with flooding the primary reason for displacement (43%), followed by drought (29%), and conflict (26%).

UN agencies including UNESCO-IOC and UNEP are tracking environmental impacts associated with climate change include coral bleaching, reduced levels of oxygen in the oceans, loss of "Blue Carbon" associated with coastal ecosystems such as mangroves and salt marshes. Climate change also exposes peatlands currently protected by permafrost to thawing and possible increased methane emissions and loss of carbon, and the associated sea-level rise increases the risks of coastal erosion and salination of freshwater peatlands.

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Climate change signals and impacts continue in 2018 - World

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The long-term warming trend has continued in 2018, with the average global temperature set to be the fourth highest on record. The 20 warmest years on record have been in the past 22 years, with the top four in the past four years, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

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By the middle of the century, the average temperature in our country will increase, and the average rainfall will decrease, while the sea level will rise to a remarkable degree. Climate change is an ongoing, exceedingly important and very well-studied global phenomenon. Detailed models predict its development over the next decades in a quite clear manner. However, its effects are not just environmental. They are not limited to air temperature increase, or to the appearance of extreme weather events. Its consequences affect every aspect of human activity, from the tourism infrastructure and the agricultural production of a country, to the health of its population.

The Impact of Climate Change on Growth (In Greek)
The eight-member research team of diaNEOsis, led by Konstantinos Kartalis, Professor of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, and including, among others, Dimitris Oikonomou and Haris Kokkosis, Professors of the University of Thessaly, Manthos Santamouris, Professor of the University of New South Wales, and Elias Agathaggelidis and Anastasios Polydoros, environmental physicists at NKUA, analyzed the available data and arrived at a series of estimates about the impact of climate change on crucial sectors of the Greek economy for the time period 2046-2065.

How will the tourism product of the country be affected? What will the consequences be for its agricultural production? How much will the urban environment be impacted, and how grave will the danger for forests and cultural heritage monuments be? What will happen to the coasts? How severe will the impact on beaches, or ports be? How will public health be affected? The answers are shocking, and reveal a harsh truth. Our country is unprepared for a series of more or less unavoidable changes that will strongly affect its economic structure.

The study moves beyond describing the impact of climate change itself, assessing also the level of preparedness of the institutional framework of our country. The researchers have identified and recorded the government programs, official plans and studies in which climate change is dealt with superficially or even is completely ignored (a not so rare occurrence). The study arrives at a series of specific proposals for a radical revision of the country's institutional framework.

Here we present the basic conclusions of the study. But first, some important points about the consequences of climate change in Greece.

How does the climate change globally and in Greece?

Any changes in the Earth's weather patterns that extend for long periods of time (30 years or more) are collectively called "climate change". The term may seem self-contradictory: The global climate by definition changes constantly, and it has been well documented that it has changed dramatically many times during the long history of the planet. This current "climate change" is defined as the gradual increase of the temperature of the atmosphere that has been recorded over the past 150 years (the period for which there are available data), and which seems to be gradually accelerating over the last decades.

The global warming phenomenon has been extensively studied over the last decades, and remains at the top of the environmental agenda in almost every country of the world. It is monitored by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), an international scientific committee under the auspices of the United Nations, that coordinates scientist activities all over the world, and prepares reports about the phenomenon and its impact using the most valid and well documented data. The IPCC has published five extensive key reports (in 1990, 1995, 2001, 2007, and 2014), the so called "Assessment Reports", and a wide range of special reports. One of the special reports (Special Report on Emission Scenarios - SRES), that was published in 2000 and updated in 2014 (Representative Concentration Pathways - RCP), develops scenarios for the simulation of climate change taking into account demographics, economic growth, and technological developments. One of these scenarios (the moderate A1B, and in some cases its corresponding and updated form, RCP 6.0) was selected as the base scenario for the needs of this study.

At this point, it is important to say a few words about the estimates of climate conditions, as there is a fair amount of misplaced debate on the matter. The models created by scientists over the last decades are not meteorological, neither are they aimed at meteorological prediction. On the contrary, they estimate the climate variables over time (temperature, rainfall, sea level, etc.), on the basis of the conditions that will exist in the atmosphere, and more specifically in relation to the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (mainly carbon dioxide). We know these models are reliable because it has already been proven that they work: For instance, if we apply them on the conditions prevailing on the planet a few decades back, they predict quite accurately the climate of the planet today.

It is also important to explain briefly what is at stake for our planet regarding climate change: In 1958 atmospheric carbon dioxide levels reached 280 ppm (parts per million). This year for the first time they exceeded 410 ppm. And when we say "For the first time", we do not mean "For the first time since 1958". The rich available geological data show that there has never been such a concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere for millions of years.

What does that mean? The more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the more pronounced the greenhouse effect becomes, that is, the more radiation emitted by the earth is trapped in the lower atmosphere, producing an increase in temperature. We can already see the consequences: The planet's temperature increases, heatwave days increase, extreme weather events become more frequent, rainfall in some areas is reduced, ocean water expands and polar ice melts faster, causing sea levels to rise. Of course, this is a simple and broad description of the situation, as the phenomenon is extremely complex and its manifestations multiple and interdependent.

The international community, as you may know, has mobilized to deal with the problem through founding IPCC, mentioned above, as well as through signing the historical Kyoto Agreement (that soon proved inadequate), and more recently the Paris Agreement. The latter has set a target: Planet temperature increase by 2100 should not be higher than 2 degrees Celsius above the average temperature of the planet during the beginning of the industrial revolution. For that to happen, there must be a reduction in the rapid accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere - specifically, carbon dioxide must not exceed 600 ppm by 2100. Almost all countries of the world have signed the Agreement, and many of them have taken courageous steps to achieve this goal. European Union (Greece included) is of course a pioneer of that effort, but other large countries, such as China, have also committed themselves to working in this direction. This is very important, since the effects of this phenomenon spread over the whole planet approximately to the same degree. The United States may emit more carbon dioxide than almost any other country, but its concentration in the atmosphere above the USA is approximately equal to that over the other countries of the world.

The IPCC scenario we have chosen to use for the predictions of this study is one of the most "realistic". It predicts that in the future there will be rapid technological developments that will limit the explosive increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. According to this scenario, humankind will fail to meet the Paris goal, but not by much. The group has chosen to study the impact of the phenomenon during the 20-year period 2046-2065, since it is allows for more accurate estimates. Further, it is close enough for us to be able to imagine the impact on our own life - a 12 year-old child will be a 41 year-old adult in 2046.

It is also important to note that these estimates are exactly that: Estimates. They, as well as their potential impact described below, are possible outcomes of climate change during the next decades. They are not the only ones. There are over-optimistic scenarios that predict rapid technological progress that could reduce carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. There are also pessimistic scenarios that see carbon dioxide explode to 1000 ppm, something that would lead to a temperature increase of 4 or 5 degrees Celsius, with indescribable, disastrous consequences for nature and human civilization.

However, some things are clear. Due to the nature of climate change, which evolves at a slow pace, all existing scenarios agree that, irrespective of what will happen in the next decades, temperature increase cannot be avoided. It may be lower or higher, but it is absolutely certain that it will take place. And some of the consequences of temperature increase, which we will examine below, are also unavoidable.

To summarize, then, it is estimated that the changes in Greece's climate will be the following:

1. The temperature is expected to rise by 2.5 degrees Celsius on average in relation to the period 1961-1990. Regionally, the increase may reach up to 3.8 degrees during the summer months. The increase will be higher in northern Greece and smaller in the southern Peloponnese, the south Aegean islands and Crete. This increase is expected to have dramatic consequences mainly in the urban areas, but also at wooded areas (which we will describe below).

2. Heat wave days (with temperatures above 35 degrees Celsius) are expected to increase by 15-20 annually by 2050. By the end of the century, "tropic days" (days with temperatures of more than 35 degrees Celsius during the day and more than 20 degrees Celsius during the night) are expected to number more than 50 annually in most areas of the country.

3. By contrast, the days with night frost will decrease significantly, especially in Northern Greece (by up to 40 days annually).

4. At the same time, it is estimated that rainfall will decrease by 12% on average (20-30% decrease during the summer months, especially in the south, and 10% decrease during the winter months).

5. Additionally, it is estimated that sea levels will rise by 20 to 59 centimeters, according to alternative scenarios.

6. Extreme weather events will be much more frequent.

7. Most regions of the country will be impacted negatively, but not to the same degree. Central Macedonia, Thessaly, Western Peloponnese and Attica will face the greatest problems.

However, why are these changes bad? How will these climate conditions impact the economic activity of the country? Researchers have identified their impact on a series of indicative sectors, and we present briefly some of the results below.

The impact

1. Agricultural production will be severely affected

The climate of Greece will become drier due to the decrease in rainfall by 20-30% in the summer and by 10% in the winter. Periods of no rainfall whatsoever will be getting longer, the moisture deficit will increase by up to 12%, and an increased tendency of soil conversion to dryland in 60% of arable land will appear. This does not mean that there will be no more agricultural production in the country -it just means that the quantities produced and the sort of crops that the ground can support will be affected. According to most scenarios, the areas of Thessaly and Central Macedonia will suffer a decline in agricultural production, while some scenarios project a positive impact for more temperate areas such as Crete.

Researchers have studied in more detail the impact on viniculture, and found that the wine producing areas that will face problems during the 20-year period of 2046-2065 are mainly located in Central and Southern Greece (because they will have the highest reduction of rainfall and a significant increase in moisture deficit).

By contrast, viniculture will temporarily be favored by the conditions in the wine-producing areas located at the mountainous areas of the country, on the west as well as the north of Thessaly. Specific varieties that until now grew only farther south will now be able to grow there. However, in the long term the increase in the number of hot days, along with the decrease of rainfall, will cancel out any favorable conditions since vineyards will need increased irrigation. It should also be noted that, according to the international literature, temperature increase may affect the quality of the wine produced in the whole country because the harvest will be coming up earlier over the years.

2. Tourism will be strongly affected

The news for tourism are not all negative. Since there will be more heatwaves in the summer, hotels - as well as all other buildings - will consume more energy for cooling, and many areas (mainly islands) will face water supply problems, but in many areas of the country temperature increase will probably lead to a lengthening of the tourist season. Also, the decrease in the number of days that will need energy for heating will reduce the costs for tourist facilities in winter destinations.

However, the remaining phenomena mentioned above will have a negative impact: There will be more heatwave days, rising sea levels, coastal erosion (more details on that below), increase of forest fires and extreme weather events. According to the European research project PESETA, it is estimated that, in case of an average temperature increase of 2.5 degrees Celsius, as is approximately assumed in the context of this study, there will be a 1% reduction of overnight stays in the country, and a €825 million revenue loss for the tourist industry annually.

Furthermore, some specific forms of tourism will be severely affected. All ski resorts of the country will face greater pressure, mainly those located at low altitudes and especially in the south (Mainalo and Helmos).

Of course, this is something that has already started happening internationally. In the Parnassus Ski Resort steps are already been taken to deal with the decrease of snow days. In Central Europe there are ski resorts - mainly those at lower altitudes - that have not opened at all over the past few years. It is estimated that a temperature increase of 2 degrees Celsius over the next decades will put 33% of European ski resorts out of business.

There will also be very significant problems in archeological sites exposed to the elements, especially those located in forest areas or on steep slopes that are vulnerable to erosion. Temperature increase and rainfall decrease will make forest areas of the country drier, and therefore more vulnerable to forest fires. It seems that for the 20-year period under discussion specific destinations protected by UNESCO, such as the Temple of Epicurian Apollo and Ancient Olympia will be in immediate danger.

Additionally, forest fires will pose significant danger for the natural environment of the country, its infrastructure, as well as its economy. During the decade of 2000-2010 there were 111,642 fires in Greece, that burned down 611,706 hectares. By 2050, high risk days each year are expected to increase by 15% to 70%, depending on the area, while the high risk season will be extended from 2 to 6 weeks per year.

3. The coasts

According to the predictions of IPCC (2007), by the end of the century sea levels are expected to rise by 20 to 59 centimeters. However, some researchers consider these estimates too conservative, and believe that existing models underestimate the threat for the Antarctic glaciers. On the basis of these scenarios, by the end of the century it is more probable for sea levels to rise by somehere between 80 centimeters to 2 meters. These quantities may sound small or negligible, but they are not. We have recorded the consequences of a possible sea level rise for various areas of the country in a series of easy to read maps. Below we see the effects on the coasts of Laimos in Vouliagmeni and Ornou in Mykonos. The main report (it is available in Greek here) contains more examples.

Greece has a 16,000 km coastline. One third of all Greeks live at a distance of up to 2 km from the coast. Ninety percent of the country's tourism infrastructure are on coastal areas, and the same holds true for the 35% of productive arable land, all ports -by definition-, and most large cities.

The impact, as shown in the maps, is dramatic. If measures are not taken, the Laimos peninsula may become an island. Popular Greek beaches are in danger of disappearing. For instance, the south Ornos beach in Mykonos will be fully covered by the sea, and the waters will invade the land to a distance of 150 meters from the present coast, inundating roads and buildings. The buildings of "Small Venice" in the same island will face safety problems in case of a 0.5m rise, and will certainly be flooded in case of a 2m. rise. The estuaries of large rivers - such as Axios - will be transformed into sea bays. Ports and marinas will face serious problems, unless improvement and protection works are undertaken over the next decades.

Overall, according to an estimate (Sauter, 2013), there is a danger that rising sea levels may lead to the loss of 3.5% of the country's land. It is estimated that this may have a cost equivalent to 2% of the country's GDP.

However, apart for its economic and environmental impact, climate change will also have unavoidable consequences on public health. This is not a projection or a hypothesis -the effect of high temperatures on public health is a well-known and well-studied phenomenon. Already today, the temperature in the center of Athens is usually 6-10 degrees Celsius higher than the temperature in the northern suburbs. A further temperature increase will have dramatic consequences on the cost and quality of life in the city, as well as several known consequences on the health of vulnerable groups.

One need only think of this: The deadly heatwave that hit Central Europe in 2003 was at the time considered a once-in-a-1000-years phenomenon. According to the current estimates of the European Environmental Agency, average climate conditions in the 2040's will be approximately equivalent to the conditions of 2003.

The approximately 5.5 million Greeks who live in the 25 largest cities of the country, will face adverse thermal conditions due to the rising temperature.

In the municipality of Athens alone, 75% of the buildings are vulnerable to heat stress, since most of them were constructed before 1980. The cost of the energy consumed for cooling in the center of Athens during the summer months is already double the corresponding cost in Marousi. And it is expected to increase rapidly.

For illustration purposes, we should mention that if the average temperature rises by just 1 degree Celsius, the cost of the energy consumed by the country will increase by 600,000 euros per day. Studies and investment for covering these needs, mainly with renewable energy sources, are absolutely essential.

However, the impact on public health is estimated to be even more dramatic.

Studies have shown that for every 1 degree Celsius temperature increase above 34 degrees, daily mortality increases by about 3%. Recall that after 2046 Greece will have 15-20 more days like these in relation to the present. In heatwaves with daily temperatures higher than 42 degrees, daily mortality due to respiratory and heart conditions increases by 10% and 18% respectively. diaNEOsis' demographic study recently showed that, by 2050, 1 in 3 Greeks will be over the age of 65 - and therefore will belong to the vulnerable groups.

The health of millions of Greeks will be in danger because of the rapid increase in the number of days with very high temperatures.

What can be done?

Climate change is a huge problem of global proportions. The ways we can tackle it - or even the question of whether it can be tackled by now - is an enormous issue, perhaps the greatest challenge of this generation. As we have noted, the aim of the Paris Accord, which has been signed by almost all countries of the world (except for Syria, Nicaragua, and now the United States), is, by the end of this century, to limit the average temperature increase to 2 degrees Celsius above the temperature of the planet in the beginning of the industrial revolution. It is considered a very ambitious target, and even if it is achieved, climate change impact will be very severe in many places, and to a certain extent will be very similar to what we have described above.

What is certain is that right now our country is completely unprepared to face even that optimistic scenario. It needs infrastructure and a series of adjustments at the state apparatus level, as well as extensive training of its personnel. But it also needs something else, which is highlighted in the last part of the diaNEOsis study. It must take into account climate change in the formulation of its production model through long term planning. This has not been done.

The study puts forward a series of 26 general and 16 more specific proposals. Here we can only mention very briefly seven of the most important ones:

1. Transition to a low carbon economy by 2050. This means achieving a gradual independence from fossil fuels in favor of renewable energy sources, and emphasizing energy saving actions in transportation and housing (2030 being an important intermediate point: 27% of the energy consumed should come from RES, and use of primary energy should be reduced by 27% through an improvement of energy efficiency).

2. Amendment of the country's institutional framework so that all relative government programs and plans will incorporate the reality of climate change. Our first priority should be to change the Water Division Management Plans, especially for Thessaly, Western Greece, and Peloponnese.

3. Preparation of special plans for the areas and sectors that will mostly be affected by climate change (agricultural sector, tourism, etc.) within the next five years.

4. Establishment of some form of metropolitan administration in Athens and Thessaloniki that will develop and implement integrated plans for adapting to climate change. This is a problem that fragmented municipalities cannot tackle on their own.

5. Gradual improvement of the built environment in the cities, giving priority to the heat stressed areas, which usually are the poorest ones.

6. Amendment of the institutional framework on private investments, to support local productive activities that assist adapting to climate change (improvement of port infrastructure, renewable energy sources, construction materials, etc.).

7. Adaptation of the National Health System to the new challenges of worsening temperature conditions and the demographic composition of the population.

All proposed measures aim on the one hand to limit the damage from the future impact of climate change, and on the other to capitalize on the possible benefits that may exist in each case. These measures cannot be the same for the whole country - they have to be different in each area and sector. Attica's needs are very different from those of Thessaly, and completely different from those of Crete.

Another important fact is that the geographic placement of the administrative institutions of the country is not very useful for tackling such a phenomenon. The areas that face common threats are rarely located within the boundaries of one geographical region. Neighboring municipalities of Athens that face similar problems should not try to deal with them independently.

Finally, we must stress again that this diaNEOsis study describes a scenario that is generally considered moderate and "realistic", or even optimistic by some accounts. The impacts we describe above for the next decades are to a certain degree unavoidable. However, if things do not improve, they may be much worse. If efforts to curb emissions fail and other, more pessimistic scenarios turn out to be accurate, the average temperature increase of the planet will be significantly greater. Many scientists believe that human civilization is in no way prepared to deal with a temperature increase of 4 or 5 degrees Celsius by the end of the century.

Still, we have to start somewhere. The Greek government needs to acknowledge the seriousness of the problem and adapt its institutional framework and the country's entire economic model to accommodate the well studied, widely accepted and practically unavoidable realities of our near future.

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The Impact of Climate Change on the Greek Economy - Dianeosis

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What will the consequences be for the country's agricultural production? How will tourism be affected? How much will the urban environment be impacted, and how grave will the danger for forests and cultural heritage monuments be? What will happen to the coasts? How severe will the impact on beaches or ports be?

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Work in several European research projects has predicted changes in biodiversity due to climate change. Scientists estimate that even a slight temperature increase may have a noticeable effect on the ability of species to survive and reproduce in the areas in which they have been living to date. Also, in a period of only a few decades the change of climate could negate all efforts that have been made for the conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity. The effects of climate change on biodiversity are already becoming visible (such as changing patterns of distribution, migration and reproduction of various species).  Some examples also relevant for Greece are shown in presenting the rate of change of flowering , rate of change of meteorological balance , Projected changes in mammalian species richness.

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Climate change impacts in Greece in the near future

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Climate change impacts in Greece in the near future

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Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe (in German Kosmos – Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung) is an influential treatise on science and nature written by the German scientist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. Cosmos began as a lecture series delivered by Humboldt at the University of Berlin, and was published in five volumes between 1845 and 1862 (the fifth was posthumous and completed based on Humboldt's notes). In the first volume of Cosmos, Humboldt paints a general “portrait of nature”, describing the physical nature of outer space and the Earth. In the second volume he describes the history of science. Widely read by academics and laymen alike, it applied the ancient Greek view of the orderliness of the cosmos (the harmony of the universe) to the Earth, suggesting that universal laws applied as well to the apparent chaos of the terrestrial world. Humboldt goes on to suggest that when one contemplates the beauty of the cosmos, one can obtain personal inspiration and a beneficial, if subjective, awareness about life.

Cosmos was influenced by Humboldt's various travels and studies, but mainly by his journey throughout the Americas. As he wrote, “it was the discovery of America that planted the seed of the Cosmos.” Due to all of his experience in the field, Humboldt was preeminently qualified for the task to represent the universe in a single work. He had extensive knowledge of many fields of learning, varied experiences as a traveler, and the resources of the scientific and literary world at his disposal.

Cosmos was highly popular when it was released, with the first volume selling out in two months, and the work translated into most European languages. Although the natural sciences have diverged from the romantic perspective Humboldt presented in Cosmos, the work is still considered to be a substantial scientific and literary achievement, having influenced subsequent scientific progress and imparted a unifying perspective to the studies of science, nature, and mankind.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt)

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Expression of selected drought-related genes and physiological response of Greek cotton varieties

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Expression of selected drought-related genes and physiological response of Greek cotton varieties

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CSIRO PUBLISHING | Functional Plant Biology

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Functional Plant Biology is an international journal of plant function publishing high quality research papers in all areas of plant physiology, applied agricultural research and pure molecular biology

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Effect of water deficit on leaf phenolic composition, gas exchange, oxidative
damage and antioxidant activity of four Greek olive (Olea europaea L.) cultivars

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Effect of water deficit on leaf phenolic composition, gas exchange, oxidative
damage and antioxidant activity of four Greek olive (Olea europaea L.) cultivars

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Species adaptation in serpentine soils in Lesbos Island (Greece): metal hyperaccumulation and tolerance

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Species adaptation in serpentine soils in Lesbos Island (Greece): metal hyperaccumulation and tolerance

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Vascular plant diversity and climate change in the alpine zone of the Lefka Ori, Crete

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Vascular plant diversity and climate change in the alpine zone of the Lefka Ori, Crete

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Effect of repeated fire on plant community recovery in Penteli, central Greece

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Effect of repeated fire on plant community recovery in Penteli, central Greece

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Salt Tolerance Evaluation of Nine Indigenous Greek Olive Cultivars

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Salt Tolerance Evaluation of Nine Indigenous Greek Olive Cultivars

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The alien flora of Greece: taxonomy, life traits and habitat preferences

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The alien flora of Greece: taxonomy, life traits and habitat preferences

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Endangered Species List by Country, Region, Area, Island

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Search for endangered species by country, region, island, US State. Complete US endangered species also available.

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The country is generally characterized as mountainous, having an average elevation of 502 m. above sea level, and presenting more than 40 mountains peaks over 2,000 m. Only 33% of its area is lower than 200 m. in altitude. The remaining 67% is hilly or mountainous. The continental mainland part is crossed from north to south by Pindos, a mountain range which is regarded as the southern branch of the central European Alps. The highest peak in Greece is mount Olympus, 2,917 m. high, renowned from mythical times as the home of Gods. Its climate belongs to the «Mediterranean» type, being characterized by rains during 3 seasons (autumn, winter and spring), and drought accompanied by high temperatures in the summer. In the continental mainland there is wide variation in microclimates attributed to the pronounced mountainous profile and ranging from the mild Mediterranean type up to the harsh «Central European» climatic type, characterized by extremely low winter temperatures, broad annual temperature range, prolonged winters and a trend for uniform rainfall distribution throughout the year. Representative areas of this climatic type are common in northern Greece. Main factors affecting the climatic  types of Greece are the influence of the Atlantic ocean and the Asiatic continent, the profile of the land and the vicinity and continuous alternation of land and sea. Climatic differences of that scale even between neighboring sites, are encountered in only few parts of the world.

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Greece is part of the European continent. It is located in the eastern side of the Mediterranean basin, being the southern-most part of the Balkan peninsula. It has an area of 131,944 sq. km., of which 106,777 represent its continental mainland and 25,166 its islandic part. Greece extends from 34o 48 'N to 41o 45’ N degrees geographic latitude, and from 19o 22' E to 29o 38’ E geographic longitude. The country is surrounded from 3 sides by sea (by the Ionian sea in the west and by the Aegean sea in the east and south) and only in the north has terrestrial borders with other states (Albania, the F. Y. R. O. M., Bulgaria and the European part of Turkey). The Ionian sea separates Greece from Italy in the west and the Aegean sea from Turkey in the East. Its versatile coastal line is nearly 15,000 Km. long. Greece has a large number of medium to small size islands. Of them, 76 are of considerable size and inhabited.

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Greece holds a unique position with respect to the number of plant species and subspecies compared to other areas of the globe. This depends on the variety of habitats, as well as on geological history, climate conditions, and geographical position within the Mediterranean. Thus, it is noted for its high plant species diversity (5800 species and 1893 subspecies) and endemism (22.2% of all species present with 1278 species and 452 subspecies).

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THEME 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

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THEME 2: Complexity of plant biogeography

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Origanum dictamnus (Lamiaceae) | Cretan HerbalChem

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In our collection of aromatic plants offered, the plant dictamos stands alone as one of the most significant aromatic - medicinal plant of Crete; the relevant references date back to Antiquity, made by some of the experts of the time, such as Hippocrates, Theofrastos and Dioscouridis. All of them praise the medicinal properties of the plant. The name comes from the words Dictis (a mountain of Crete) and thamnos (bush), but it is also known with the popular names of Erontas or Erotas (Love), Dictamnos, Adichtamos. There is a certain theory which attributes the association of the plant with the greek term for love to the fact that in the older times the Dictamos was used as an erotic stimulant. Moreover, the plant tends to grow naturally in steep and difficult to approach terrain, making it a privilege only for those in love, who are willing to take the risk of trying to reach for it, to cut it off and to offer it to their sweetheart as evidence of their faith and love.

Healing and astringent properties

Soothes stomach and bowel pain

Treats bad breath

Helps treat gingivitis

Diuretic

Stimulates menstruation (helps treat amenorrhoea)

Soothing properties (advisable for nervous disorders, nervous headaches and other conditions of the nervous system)

Anthelmintic, anti-microbial and anti-spasm properties.

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εμπνευσμένο από τη φύση

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βιολογικό προϊόν

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κρητικά βότανα

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Dictamos (dittany of Crete, Cretan dittany or hop marjoram) - (Origanum dictamnus)

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In our collection of aromatic plants offered, the plant dictamos stands alone as one of the most significant aromatic - medicinal plant of Crete; the relevant references date back to Antiquity, made by some of the experts of the time, such as Hippocrates, Theofrastos and Dioscouridis.

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Chamomile (Matricaria recutita) As a Valuable Medicinal Plant

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Chamomile (Matricaria recutita) As a Valuable Medicinal Plant

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Scientific classification

Kingdom: | Plantae
Clade: | Angiosperms
Clade: | Eudicots
Clade: | Asterids
Order: | Lamiales
Family: | Lamiaceae
Genus: | Origanum
Species: | O. dictamnus

Binomial name
Origanum dictamnus L.

Synonyms

Amaracus dictamnus (L.) Benth.

Amaracus tomentosus Moench

Dictamnus creticus Garsault nom. inval.

Majorana dictamnus (L.) Kostel.

Origanum dictamnifolium St.-Lag. [Spelling variant]

Origanum saxatile Salisb. nom. illeg.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origanum_dictamnus

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Scientific classification

Kingdom: | Plantae
Clade: | Angiosperms
Clade: | Eudicots
Clade: | Asterids
Order: | Asterales
Family: | Asteraceae
Genus: | Matricaria
Species: | M. chamomilla

Binomial name
Matricaria chamomilla L.

Synonyms
Chamomilla chamomilla (L.)
Chamomilla recutita (L.)
Matricaria recutita L.
Matricaria suaveolens L.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matricaria_chamomilla?fbclid=IwAR166GLvfv1hO41a9E4IVriwAEMUkiktiP_0UP5gpGIGm-vCFd8Mou2reto

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The Mediterranean, a biodiversity hotspot, is rich in medicinal and aromatic plants covering an extensive area with different environmental conditions. The geographical position of Greece, its geomorphology, the presence of flora of past geological eras and the coexistence and interplay of biotic and non biotic factors have defined it as a region of high plant diversity and endemism, a fact that also impacts the category of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs). The past 30 years there has been a rapid growth of interest in MAPs as a result of the vital contributions these goods make to large numbers of rural communities. At the same time there is a shift within many developing countries from subsistence to commercial usage. MAPs are important factors in sustainable development, environmental protection and public health. In Greece, they are expected to play an important role in the country’s agricultural profile due to quantitative and qualitative advantages. MAP cultivation can help small-scale farmers strengthen their livelihoods and as a result, greater access to a wider range of assets can be achieved, and a capacity to build these into successful and sustainable activities. This review aims at profiling the current state of MAP cultivation in Greece, as well as their future sustainability prospects

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Υπουργείο Περιβάλλοντος και Ενέργειας