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Governor's Palace (Williamsburg, Virginia) - Wikipedia

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The Governor's Palace in Williamsburg, Virginia was the official residence of the Royal Governors of the Colony of Virginia. It was also a home for two of Virginia's post-colonial governors, Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson, until the capital was moved to Richmond in 1780, and with it the Governor's residence.

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View women's glossary
View children's glossary

Banyan

A gentleman's banyan was a loose, informal robe to be worn instead of a coat. Influenced by Oriental fashion, these popular robes were also called Indian gowns, nightgowns, or wrappers. Cut either in a loose T-shape or as a long simplified coat, they were acceptable wear for home or informal business. Made most often of patterned materials, these useful garments could vary from light and cool to quilted and warm. (See also Negligé Cap)

Breeches

From the late 16th century until the early 19th century, most men wore breeches as their lower body garment. Through the centuries breeches were seen in many forms and lengths. In the early 18th century breeches were barely seen beneath long waistcoats and coats. By the mid-18th century they were more noticeable beneath shorter waistcoats and open coats, and so the cut of breeches became tighter and revealed the shape of the leg. Worn by all levels of society, breeches were made in a great variety of silks, cottons, linens, wools, knits, and leathers. (See alsoTrousers)

Coat

A coat was the uppermost layer of the 18th century man's suit, worn over waistcoat and breeches. Both the cut and the title of the fashionable coat saw several evolutions through the course of the century. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries a coat was a relatively straight loose garment, with the slight fullness in the knee-length skirts falling into folds over the backside of the hips. In the 1720s and 1730s the skirts of the fashionable coat grew in volume and were set into regular pleats. In the 1730s an alternative to the weighty full skirted coat was developed. This new fashioned coat, with narrow skirts set in pleats and other defining features, including a collar, was termed a Frock. Through the middle decades of the century both the coat and the frock were worn, coats being for fashionable full dress, frocks for fashionable undress. By the 1770s the distinctions in purpose and terminology were becoming blurred. None but the most conservative older man would be seen in a full-skirted coat. The frock had entered into fashionable full dress, and was by many simply referred to as a coat. In the closing decade of the 18th century and into the next, the frock dominated fashionable dress and language. (See alsoSuit)

Cloak

The cloak has been the most enduring of outer garments throughout the history of fashion. In the 18th century a man's cloak was made with a collar at the neck, a cape over the shoulders, and hung to the knee or below. The most usual form was circular. Cloaks were made of dense well-fulled wools, often dyed scarlet. Other choices in fabric included worsteds, camlets, and occasionally plaids. Cloaks were also known a "roquelaires" or "rockets." It was in the 18th century that a rival to the dominance of the cloak appeared in the form of the great coat. (See also Great Coat)

Cravat

The 18th-century man almost always wore some sort of neck cloth, whether fashionably dressed or at labor.The cravat was one of many forms of neckwear. It was a narrow length of white linen that could be adorned on its ends with lace, fringe, or knots. It was worn wrapped about the throat and loosely tied in front. The cravat was first seen in fashionable dress in the mid-17th century. It was derived from the "crabate" worn by Croatian soldiers serving with the French Army (ca. 1645-1650). By the mid 18th century it was worn in informal attire. (See alsoNeck Handkerchief and Stock)

Great Coat

Many men of the 18th century chose great coats as their protective outer garment in foul weather. Most often made of heavy fulled woolens, it served well to keep one warm and dry. Some men are known to have had accompanying waistcoats and leggings made in the same heavy wools. The great coat generally had a collar, a cape over the shoulders, deep cuffs, and was worn to knee length or longer. Occasionally, great coats were made in alternative fabrics of lighter weights, particularly oiled silk and linen. (See alsoCloak)

Hat

Towards the end of the 17th century the vast wigs then worn by some men made it impractical for them to wear the fashionable broad-brimmed hat unless necessary. Custom dictated, however, that hats should then be carried beneath the arm. Rapidly, the hat began to be folded to make it easier to carry. In the 18th century this habit and changing fashions led to many sorts of folded or cocked hats - cocked on one, two, or three sides. It was the hat with three sides cocked that dominated fashion and was seen in innumerable variations of adornment and proportion. While beaver felt was the preferred material others, including wool and camel's down, were available.

Hunting Shirt

During the second half of the 18th century a garment referred to as "a hunting shirt" began to appear in North America. The earliest and simplest form seems akin to the coarse shirts that European wagoneers and farmers wore as a protective coverall. In the years prior to the American Revolution this garment came to have a distinct American character. Several of the Independent Companies wore hunting shirts emblazoned on the breast with the motto, Liberty or Death, and several of the early colonial armies chose hunting shirts as their new uniforms. It is, however, with the frontier that this garment is most associated. Unfortunately, few examples of 18th or early 19th century hunting shirts survive and the contemporary written descriptions do not complete the picture. Reconstructions of this garment are largely conjectural.

Leggings or Spatterdashes

Since a man's breeches of the 18th century came to just beneath the knee, a covering for the lower leg was useful for warmth and protection. Leggings fully covered the lower leg from a few inches above the knee extending to cover the top of the foot. Spatterdashes covered the leg from the mid-shin to the top of the foot. Made of stout woolen or linen cloth or of leather, leggings and spatterdashes were worn by the sporting gentleman, laboring man, and the military.

Monmoth or Monmouth Cap

In the 17th and 18th centuries small knitted woolen caps worn by the laboring sort, sailors, and slaves were often referred to as "Monmouth Caps." The name is derived from one of England's great port cities and its particular associations with seafaring. Knitting of caps and stockings was a common pastime for sailors, they sold their wares in the dock streets for additional income.

Neck Handkerchief

The most informal sort of neckwear generally worn by sporting gentlemen, working tradesmen, and laboring slaves. It commonly was a square folded and tied around the neck. They were usually made of linen, cotton, or silk, and could be in white, plain colors, woven checks and stripes, or printed patterns. (See also Cravat and Stock)

Negligé Cap

The negligé cap was a small informal cap often, though not always, worn to accompany a banyan. For some men it served to cover a shaved head when the wig was removed, others wore them over their own hair. Made in a variety of materials, these caps were often embroidered. It could be constructed in different ways, the most usual of which was to be cut in wedge-shaped quarters with a turned-up band. (See also Banyan)

Shirt

The shirt was worn as a man's undergarment, covering the body from neck to knee. Most were made of white linen which could be very fine or very coarse. A gentleman's best shirt may have ruffles (ruffs) at the wrist and/or breast. A laborer's shirt was sometimes made of unbleached linen or small patterned checks and stripes. A plain shirt might serve as a nightshirt.

Shoes

Men's shoes were made in a great variety of styles and qualities. Fashionable low-heeled shoes or pumps were of softer leather, coarse common shoes of sturdier leathers. Black was by far the most usual color, and only occasionally were other colors seen. While buckles were the primary mode of fastening, ties were worn for utilitarian purposes. Boots of many sorts were worn for sporting, riding and working.

Stockings or Hose

Stockings of the 18th century were worn by men and women, and were most often knit. The knitting frame (machine) was developed in the late 16th century and many improvements during the 18th century increasingly forced hand knitters from their business. Fashionable stockings of silk or cotton were generally white, and at times were decorated with knit or embroidered patterns at the ankle, referred to as "clocks" or "clocking." More utilitarian stockings of linen, and particularly worsted wool, were seen in colors, with blue and gray predominating. Occasionally, coarse stockings for the low laboring sort and slaves were cut of woolen or linen cloth and sewn to fit the shape of the leg.

Stocks

A stock was a gentlemen's most formal neckwear. In fashionable dress it was universally of fine white linen pleated to fit beneath the chin. For martial purposes it was often constructed of black leather or woven horsehair. For the clergy the white linen stock had falling bands added. All of these forms were buckled behind the wearer's neck. (See also Cravat and Neck Handkerchief)

Suit

What is today recognized as a man's three-piece suit began to develop in the late 17th century and was well established by the 18th century. In the early 17th century most men wore as the outer layer of garments a tailored doublet and full breeches. In the middle of that century the vest was introduced to European fashion from Asia Minor. Looser forms of doublets left unbuttoned allowed the long vest to be seen beneath. As the 18th century began, the doublet gave way to the new coat and the vest began to evolve into the shorter waistcoat. Breeches, formerly covered by long vests, were then visible and were increasingly cut closer and tighter. Within the first decades of the 18th century a man's suit was recognized as coat, waistcoat, and breeches. At times it was thought fashionable, especially for formal dress, to wear all matching pieces referred to as a "suit in ditto." But often a man would choose a different waistcoat, or waistcoats, to accompany matching coat and breeches. It was most sporting to have none of the three garments alike, but well chosen. (See alsoCoat, Waistcoat, Breeches)

Trousers

During the 18th century breeches were worn by all levels of society; however, trousers were also worn by middling tradesmen, laborers, sailors, and slaves. Trousers were generally cut with a straight leg and were worn to the ankle or slightly shorter. As trousers were utilitarian garments, they were made mostly of durable linens. (See alsoBreeches)

Underdrawers

The primary male undergarment of the 18th century was a knee-length shirt, yet some men also chose to wear underdrawers. Made of linen or of woolen flannel, and always white, knee-length underdrawers served as separate linings to breeches. They aided in preserving the breeches and added an additional layer of warmth. The extent to which underdrawers were worn is not well documented. (See also Shirt)

Waistcoat

The 18th century man was almost never seen without his waistcoat. Not to have it on was considered "undressed." The waistcoat, or vest, of the 1770s was fashionably worn to the upper part of the thigh, opening in a "V" beneath the stomach. Waistcoats were made in all qualities of silk, cotton, wool, and linens. If adorned, it could be embroidered, printed, brocaded, quilted, tasselled, silver or gold laced, and was generally the most elaborate article of men's dress. When worn for utilitarian purposes it could have sleeves, be called a jacket, and worn outermost instead of a longer skirted fashionable coat.

Wigs

Throughout western history wigs have come and gone from fashion, but it is undeniably the 18th century that was the golden age of male wig wearing. In the second half of the prior century wigs had entered into court fashion in both England and France. In the early years of the 18th century the Full Bottomed Periwig reigned with its cascade of curls. As the century progressed, the proportion of the wig generally decreased and the variety of fashionable forms expanded greatly. By mid century wig wearing was available to most levels of society for the individuals who chose to do so. While certain styles of wigs became associated with particular professionals; the vast majority of wigs had no particular connotations. Made of human, horse, goat, or yak hair, the choice of material and styles changed constantly with fashion and personal preferences. In the closing decade of the century the wearing of wigs was less common amongst the young and fashionable sort, although some conservatives continued to wear wigs into the 19th century.

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A Colonial Gentlemen's Clothing: A Glossary of Terms

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View women's glossary View children's glossary Banyan A gentleman's banyan was a loose, informal robe to be worn instead of a coat. Influenced by Oriental fashion, these popular robes were also called Indian gowns, nightgowns, or wrappers. Cut either in a loose T-shape or as a long simplified coat, they were acceptable wear for home or informal business.

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Colonial Williamsburg Education Resource Library

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Colonial Williamsburg Education Resource Library

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by Linda Baumgarten

In the eighteenth century, children's clothing underwent a gradual evolution from constricting garments patterned after those worn by adults to apparel designed specifically for them. The practice of swaddling infants tightly was gradually discontinued early in the century. Very young children of both sexes wore dresses with close fitting bodices similar to those worn by women.

The bodices, which usually fastened at the back, often had leading strings or bands attached to the shoulders to help parents guide a young child who was learning to walk. Perhaps they also acted as a restraint on a lively youngster. Leading strings were occasionally retained on girls' dresses as a symbol of youthfulness long after their practical functions had been outgrown.

Toddlers sometimes wore padded pudding caps much like modern crash helmets to protect their heads if they fell. Most small girls and many young boys wore stays, especially with dress clothing, since it was believed that stays supported the back and encouraged proper posture. As late as 1771, Williamsburg milliner Catherine Rathell advertised "thin Bone and Packthread Stays for Children of three Months old and upwards." Not all children, particularly those of the laboring classes, were put in stays, however.

A philosophical movement toward less restrictive dress for children occurred during the second half of the eighteenth century, and by 1760 the already well-established fashion was for little boys and girls to wear white dresses called frocks that had sashes at the waist. Late in the 1700s, boys began to wear suits with long trousers rather than knee breeches, a fashion that won favor about twenty years before it was accepted by adult men for dress wear. Throughout the century, the time when a little boy went from skirts to pants, which was called, "breeching," occurred anytime from age three to seven and was symbolic of his first step toward becoming a "little man."
Article written by Linda Baumgarten, Curator of Textiles of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
The article is an excerpt from Eighteenth-Century Clothing at Williamsburg, available from our online catalog.

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by Linda Baumgarten In the eighteenth century, children's clothing underwent a gradual evolution from constricting garments patterned after those worn by adults to apparel designed specifically for them. The practice of swaddling infants tightly was gradually discontinued early in the century. Very young children of both sexes wore dresses with close fitting bodices similar to those worn by women.

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An introduction to 18th century clothing.

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Colonial Williamsburg | The World's Largest Living History Museum

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Experience the largest outdoor educational living museum in the country, through immersive and authentic 18th-century programming for our guests.

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Colonial Williamsburg Education Resource Library

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Recipes

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This beautiful deep amber Pear Marmalade was made by Journeyman Kimberly Costa. It is part of a desert course presented at the Wythe kitchen. Marmalades were not just for oranges. The word is used to describe thickly cooked fruits, that would commonly be called preserves today. There were also jams and conserves, but jellies were not clear fruit cooked in sugar, but gelatins. Common marmalades included the traditional orange, quince, pear, apple, apricot, raspberry, strawberry and peach.

With the arrival of Autumn comes root vegetables and a staff favorite: Roots a la Crème. This lovely dish was made by Apprentice Tyler Wilson. Any root vegetable will do, though the recipe goes best ...

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This week Journeyman Barbara Sherer celebrated Fall with a beauty of a salad. Modern folks often take salad for granted, forgetting that leafy lettuces are only available in the spring and fall months. No cucumbers and tomatoes in this salad either. The vegetables do not grow during the same season. Though there are a few raw recipes, vegetables tend to be cooked, including lettuce. This typical recipe for a salad comes from Adam's luxury, and Eve's cookery; or, the kitchen-garden display'd. In two parts. I... 1744, page 201.

Our second dish, A Pottage of Cheese, was made by Apprentice Tiffany Fisk. The recipe comes from The complete practical cook: or, a new system of the whole art and mystery of cookery ... by Charles Carter, 1730, page 33. This recipe ...

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Also baking this week was Apprentice Tyler Wilson. His recipe is a traditional Mince Meat Pie, which he has to make several times as part of his apprenticeship program. By the mid 18th century actual meat, usually beef, was actually an optional ingredient, with the apples, currants, raisins, sugar, spice, fat and brandy still included. Tyler chose to go the more traditional route and use thin slice of beef tongue in the pie. This recipe comes from The ...

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There are several recipes that Historic Foodways staff members create which prompt frequent requests for cooking instructions. Eggs in Paper Cases is one of them. This delightfully simple recipe is not only tasty, but fun and easy to do. The one mystery? The book neglects to tell one how to make, buy or even what the paper cases look like. We guess that's a mystery left to the mists of time. If you wish to have a little more fun, we suggest you create your own origami boxes for the recipe.

Enjoy!
Oeufs en Caises. Eggs in Paper-Cases.
From The Practice of Modern Cookery, by George Dalrymple, 1781.

Mix some chopt sweet-herbs with a piece of butter, pepper, and salt; put a little of this in the bottom of each case; break an egg into each case, ...

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Posted: September 30th, 2018 in Side dish

Please join Master of Historic Foodways on Friday, August 3, 2018 as we celebrate the arrival to our beer family- the Duke of Dilemma. Joining Frank will be Geoff Logan from Alewerks, the producers of our Historic Beers.

The pub crawl begins at Shields Tavern at 7:00 p.m. and will conclude at Chowing's Garden at 7:45 p.m. Along the way you will get to learn about the new seasonal line of beers, as well as tasting the final product.

The beer, apply named Duke of Dilemma, is a pale ale based on a recipe in from the Theory and Practice of Brewing, by Michael Combrune , published in 1762. It is a light refreshing traditional British style pale ale made with traditional malt and hops and a classic West country ale yeast.

Tickets are available for sale on the ...

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Posted: July 24th, 2018 in Research and Foodways News

Join us for an exciting weekend of beer and history! Beer is the oldest recorded recipe in the world. The ancient Egyptians first documented the brewing process on papyrus scrolls around 5,000 B.C. Then, beer eventually made its way from the Middle East across the Mediterranean to Europe, where it became an integral part of life and was valued both for its nutritional value and as a safe alternative to contaminated drinking water. Beer arrived in the New World with the first European colonists and Americans have been brewing ever since.

Ales through the Ages offers a journey through the history of beer with some of the world's top beer scholars. We will explore ancient ales and indigenous beers of the past, examine the origins of brewing and discover the ingredients brewers have used through time. Don't miss your ...

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Posted: May 21st, 2018 in Research and Foodways News

From time to time we'd like to let you know what's going on with Historic Foodways. March has been quite a busy month for us.

On Tuesday, March 13, 2018 we had a group of six graduate students from Washington College join us for a week of hands-on learning. The students were a part of a partnered program between Colonial Williamsburg and Washington College. During their visit, the students participated in a variety of hands-on learning experiences that centered on the life of a Revolutionary war soldier: from the foundry, coopers, and artificers to the shoemakers, blacksmiths and the Palace kitchen. During their two hours with Journeyman Kimberly Costa the students learned the importance of chocolate as, not only a breakfast drink, but for medicinal uses and military rations. The students went through all stages of making chocolate, ...

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Posted: March 29th, 2018 in Research and Foodways News
Kimberly Costa, Journeyman, Historic Foodways Sweetbreads en Gordineere
From The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy, Hannah Glasse, 1788 edition

Take three sweetbreads and parboil them, take a stew-pan and lay layers of bacon or ham and veal, over that lay the sweetbreads on with the upper side downwards, put a layer of veal and bacon over them, a pint of veal broth, three or four blades of mace, stew them gently three quarters of an hour; take the sweetbreads out, strain off the gravy through a sieve, and skim off the fat; make an aumlet of yolks of eggs in the following manner: beat up four yolks of eggs, put two in a plate, and put them over a stew pan of water boiling over the fire, put another plate over it, and it will soon be ...

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Posted: February 28th, 2018 in Research and Foodways News

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This beautiful deep amber Pear Marmalade was made by Journeyman Kimberly Costa. It is part of a desert course presented at the Wythe kitchen. Marmalades were not just for oranges. The word is used to describe thickly cooked fruits, that would commonly be called preserves today.

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Dining is social in the Colonial era

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Food played a very important part in the social lives of 18th-century Virginians. Aside from providing basic sustenance, dining was also one of the most important ways that colonial Virginians exchanged information. The dining process might last for two hours in some upper-class households.

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From Colonial Williamsburg

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Colonial Williamsburg Education Resource Library

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Lots of resources links on this page!

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Traditions : The Colonial Williamsburg Official History Site

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Colonial Williamsburg - Experience life in the 18th century at America's largest outdoor history museum

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Decorating with pineapples

No one knows for certain exactly how the pineapple became an essential element in the Christmas decorations of Colonial Williamsburg, but a look at the history of the sweet fruit provides an educated guess and a likely answer.

Native South American plant

The pineapple is native to South America and was likely imported to the Caribbean by native tribes, who brought the sweet fruit with them and transplanted it on several islands. Spanish explorers record finding the fruit and marveling at its sweetness in the 16th century. The Dutch took the plant to Surinam, where they cultivated it and eventually took it to Holland to try to grow it in greenhouses. In the 18th century, the British attempted to grow the tropical plant in specially built hothouses. Because the exterior of the fruit resembled the pine cone, and the sweet fruit was similar to the texture and taste of an apple, the name was changed from its original "anana" to pineapple.

Although we usually associate the pineapple with Hawaii, it is not native to those islands either, having been transplanted there from Jamaica by the British in 1886, a full 200 years after the fruit had been cultivated and consumed in Europe.

Christian and imperial significance

Each pineapple plant gives its own life to produce a single fruit, and since 1681, the pineapple has been recognized as a Christian symbol. Around this time, Christopher Wren began using pineapple finials on churches.

The pine cone has a long-held imperial significance. The Romans placed pine cones on their buildings and monuments to symbolize confidence in the administrative, judicial, and defensive power of the state, possibly following the practice of the Babylonians. Thus the use of pineapples on Wren's great public buildings may mimic the pine cones on Roman buildings, with the added luster of English colonial power. Pine cones are also a mechanism for displaying and spreading seeds, and thus bring to mind fertility, a valuable characteristic for any society, and certainly for an empire.

Shipments from Barbados and Bermuda to London

As the pineapple was making its way into Anglo-American culture, Captain Richard Ligon boarded the ship Achillis bound for the West Indies from London. In 1657, he published an account of his travels, including a history of the Island of Barbados. He devoted three pages to the pineapple. Diaries from the period mention gifts of pineapples presented to the king. And ships' manifests from the late 17th century contain lists of pineapples making their way from Barbados and Bermuda to England, often rotten upon arrival.

The sweetness and unusual appearance of the pineapple and its association with fertility and agriculture made it a sought-after delicacy in colonial America. When it was served to guests, they were naturally flattered at the honor, and thus may have evolved the idea that the pineapple was considered a sign of the highest form of hospitality.

Subject of artists

The fruit became the subject of artists, and in 1661, it became an integral part of the coat of arms for the colony of Jamaica - a silver shield with a red cross and five golden pineapples adorning it. An Arawak woman supports the arms on the left, and she is holding a basket of fruit, including the pineapple.

The fruit was again and again imprinted, impressed, painted onto or sculpted into all manner of objects, buildings, wallpaper, fabric, dishes, and mementoes.

Foundation collections include numerous items with pineapple motif

The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation's collections include a glazed earthen jelly mold with an impression of a pineapple on top, made around 1780, and a multi-tiered silver dessert tray with a large cast pineapple under a pagoda roof made in 1763. A tall clock made in Pulaski County, Va., in 1809 includes an inlaid pineapple 10 inches high made of mahogany, cherry, and pine. In the Louvre in Paris, a collection of 18th-century snuff boxes made in Dresden includes one with a top with a green and yellow pineapple in a field of other tropical fruits.

In Williamsburg, archaeologists found large shards of Wedgwood pineapple ware similar to the "green and gold glaze" tea, cream, and sugar set now on display in the DeWitt Wallace Museum of Decorative Arts.

Pineapple ware was popular for a short time in England in the 1760s, but by 1770 Josiah Wedgwood expressed relief that his overstocks had been sent to the colonies. But in Virginia, a century of devotion to the pineapple would not be eclipsed until the decorative arts of the Federal period began to displace natural forms in favor of Greek and Egyptian motifs.

Pineapple in colonial architecture

No one was a bigger fan of the pineapple than Virginia's William Byrd. For the James River door next to his impressive home at Westover, in 1730 Byrd ordered a carved door-surround from London. It featured a broken-scroll pediment with a pineapple in its center. Across the river from Westover, Brandon Plantation in Prince George County has a pineapple on the pinnacle of its pyramidal roof. Developed from a 1616 patent covering 7,000 acres on the James River, the site had a long and profitable trade connection with the West Indies, hence the prominence of the tropical pineapple.

Shirley Plantation, begun in 1725, has a geometric pineapple at the apex of its roof. Inside, two doorways feature pineapple woodwork dating from 1771. Over the bedroom door leading to the entry hall is a high-relief pineapple set inside a split pediment. And over the parlor door, is a pineapple between the volutes of a broken scroll. On the dining room mantle rests a silver tea caddy made in London in 1787. Its finial is an ivory pineapple with a little silver crown on top.

Lord Dunmore and the pineapple

Scotland's relationship with the pineapple may have evolved because of the fruit's pointed similarity to the thistle. Pineapples were grown in Scotland as early as 1732. But the laurels for creating the largest and most enduring pineapple fall to Scotsman John Murray, Lord Dunmore, the last colonial governor of Virginia. At his estate near Airth he constructed a formal garden and garden house, which he transformed into an architectural folly - a 37-foot tall pineapple.

Pineapples today

Thus, by the time Colonial Williamsburg began decorating with fresh greenery and fruit in the 1930s, the pineapple was already a well established design element in architecture, ceramics, and art. It only stands to reason, then, that beautiful fresh pineapples would become the centerpiece for the creative decorations for which Colonial Williamsburg is known today.

Information for the following story excerpted from "The Hospitable Pineapple" by Michael Olmert, originally published in the Winter 1997-98 edition of the Foundation's journal, "Colonial Williamsburg.".

Read more articles from the Foundation's journal, " Colonial Williamsburg ".

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No one knows for certain exactly how the pineapple became an essential element in the Christmas decorations of Colonial Williamsburg, but a look at the history of the sweet fruit provides an educated guess and a likely answer.

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by Libbey Oliver and Mary Miley Theobald
Photos by Erik Kvalsvik and Harry N. Abrams, Inc.

Book Tells Story of Decorating in the Colonial Capital

When it came to excessive eating and drinking during the Christmas season, Englishmen and colonial Virginians had much in common. A sumptously spread Christmas table had long been a mark of status in Great Britain and it was no less true across the sea. Colonial gentry, like their English counterparts, imitated the aristocractic penchant for dining tables crowded with food. Conspicuous consumption was at its height.

In the 18th century, Christmas offered unlimited opportunities for feasting. Then as now, people gathered with family and friends to celebrate the holidays with the very best they had to offer. Because the season always brought a flurry of weddings, there were wedding feasts to enjoy in addition to lavish midday dinners on Christmas and New Year's Day. In some Southern homes, Twelfth Night, January 6, was the more festive occasion. "It seems," wrote an Englishman traveling through Virginia shortly before the Revolution, "this is one of their annual Balls supported in the following manner: A large rich cake is provided and cut into small pieces and handed round to the company, who at the same time draws a ticket out of a Hat with something merry wrote on it. He that draws the King has the Honor of treating the company with a Ball the next year...The Lady that draws the Queen has the trouble of making the Cake."

A beautifully decorated table was the focal point of every feast. There were, however, rules. Rigid visual requirements governed the proper arrangement of dishes, from the first course to the last. Table settings did not escape the Georgian preoccupation with symmetry: Each platter had to be balanced with a similar one on the opposite side of the table. A family's reputation rose with the number of dishes presented. Twenty or 30 per course, all precisely ordered around a centerpiece of meats or desserts, was not thought excessive.

Hostesses vied for social status through their dessert tables, presented as the grand climax to a dinner party or as a midnight entertainment during a ball. The elaborate display of sweets showcased a lady's imagination, cooking skills, artistry, and housewifery accomplishments. Appearances mattered more than taste. A good hostess concentrated on creating an eye-catching centerpiece scene-usually edible-surrounded by a profusion of symmetrically arranged desserts. The goal was a spectacle that would astonish with its originality, linger in the memories of the guests for many years, and-not incidentally-move the hostess up another rung on the social ladder.

The wealthy few employed special cooks to create miniature landscapes out of sugar, pastry, and marzipan for their holiday tables. Tiny animals molded out of colored sugar or almond paste frolicked through edible garden scenes where everything from the flowers and hedges to the swans swimming on a mirror lake was made of sugar. No doubt the head cook for Norborne Berkeley, Baron de Botetourt, Virginia's royal governor, dazzled all of Williamsburg in 1769 with his pastoral scene complete with a miniature Chinese temple-quite the fad in those years-and various other dessert accessories.

Some hostesses chose to decorate with ornaments that would "serve year after year," such as figurines made of porcelain or marble-or wax, for the less affluent. Several Williamsburg shopkeepers were more than ready to oblige. Milliner Sarah Pitt advertised in the Virginia Gazette that she had imported from London "shapes, ornaments, and mottoes for desserts, of different sorts and figures." Guests who dined with President George Washington on Christmas Eve, 1795, remarked upon Mrs. Washington's lovely centerpiece with its plaster of Paris statuettes.

A classical mythology theme was popular at early federal dinners: Thomas Jefferson ordered four such figurines for Abigail Adams while he was in Paris. "With respect to the figures I could only find three of those you named, matched in size," he reported in a letter. "These were Minerva, Diana, and Apollo. I was obliged to add a fourth, unguided by your choice. They offered me a fine Venus," he said, "but I thought it out of taste to have two at table at the same time." He settled on Mars.

Although only the wealthiest of Virginia's gentry families could afford to entertain lavishly, modest versions of the dessert table appeared in homes of the "middling sort" as they tried to adapt the style to their own circumstances. Williamsburg ladies would have seen the most elaborate sorts of decorations when they were invited to the Governor's Palace with their husbands, as many were at Christmas in 1769 when "his Excellency the Governor gave a ball and elegant entertainment at the Palace to the Gentlemen and Ladies of this City." For their own homes, they could have purchased confectionery items such as copper molds and figurines from local shops to create a version appropriate to their social status. Any number of cookbooks gave recipes and "Directions to set out a Table in the most elegant Manner and in the modern Taste."

Dining customs changed slowly, but by the 19th century, the extravagances of earlier times were becoming outmoded. And by then, the introduction of the Christmas tree had pulled the decorating emphasis away from the dining table and into the parlor.
Libbey Oliver and Mary Theobald met in the 1970s when they worked for the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Oliver as floral services manager, Theobald in product development. Editor's note: The colonial Christmas story is told from the Williamsburg view in the book, Williamsburg Christmas: The Story of Decoration in the Colonial Capital. The volume from which this article is extracted takes readers back to the 18th century and on through to the 20th, exploring the sometimes surprising origins of today's Williamsburg Christmas decorating customs.
Read more articles from the Foundation's journal, "Colonial Williamsburg".

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When it came to excessive eating and drinking during the Christmas season, Englishmen and colonial Virginians had much in common. A sumptously spread Christmas table had long been a mark of status in Great Britain and it was no less true across the sea.

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by Mary Miley Theobald and Libbey H. Oliver

...with boughs of holly, fans of apple, ornaments of dried okra, pomegranate, oystershell, and all things natural

They didn't originate in Williamsburg--those fruit bedecked wreaths and swags that decorate America's front doors--nor did they begin during colonial times. No matter. Everyone from Augusta to Albuquerque calls them "Colonial Williamsburg door decorations" anyway and millions of people have visited the Historic Area during the Christmas season for the sole purpose of admiring them.

The custom of affixing fruits, vegetables, dried flowers, herbs, and other plant life to basic Christmas forms like wreaths, swags, and roping traces its roots to the early years of the twentieth century, a time when Christmas was growing in significance and the Colonial Revival was pulling decorative impulses back toward the eighteenth century. A 1926 issue of House Beautiful illustrates several fruit-laden wreaths and explains, "Of late years, besides the staple wreaths of plain greens to which we have long been accustomed, the holiday's emblems have blossomed forth,--or perhaps we should say fruited forth,--with richness of color produced by the use of either natural or artificial fruit as an embellishment. This idea was undoubtedly suggested by the gorgeous Italian carvings and terra cottas of the Renaissance..."

The magazine was referring to fifteenth-century Italian sculptor Luca della Robbia and his progeny, the family whose name has become synonymous with fruit and foliage swags. There is, however, another influence, one closer at hand: a sculptor with the improbable name of Grinling Gibbons who produced popular architectural wood carvings with festoons of fruit, flowers, and other bits of nature in borders and decorative motifs for English cathedrals and English royalty until his death in 1720.

The linking of fruited "della Robbia" wreaths with Christmas and front doors seems to have started during the early years of this century in America's wealthier homes. To judge by the home and garden decorating magazines of the day, Christmas greenery of any sort on doorways was rare. Only the toney publications, loaded with advertisements for grand pianos, Packards, sterling silver tea services, and seven-week cruises, show photographs of homes with holiday trimmings--and even these are few and far between. It was left to Colonial Williamsburg to popularize this sort of decoration with the country's expanding and prosperous postwar middle class.

When Colonial Williamsburg first decorated for Christmas in 1936, the greenery was confined to a few plain wreaths and some running cedar to hang about the Governor's Palace and the Raleigh Tavern. Mrs. Louise Fisher, placed in charge of flowers and Christmas decorations, drove to the Library of Congress where she turned up English and American pictorial examples from the period to use as guides. By 1939 her "della Robbia" wreaths were attracting considerable comment and the "Williamsburg Christmas look" was launched.

The contest caught on. Many took it very seriously. In 1940 the second place winner, Mrs. Bela W. Norton, thanked the judges for her award and promised to try to do better next year. Some years winners were chosen by the Garden Club, at other times by a committee of locals, by visitors' ballot, or by the Governor's wife. Blue ribbons affixed to the houses proclaimed the five to ten winners and the public became so enamored with the contest that in 1969, the "Christmas Decorations Tour" was inaugurated.

Never mind that no one in the eighteenth century would have been caught dead with real fruit tacked to his front door. Anyone hanging fresh fruit outdoors in the middle of winter to rot or be devoured by squirrels would have been thought, at best, highly eccentric by his neighbors.

The practice that was adopted and adapted by Colonial Williamsburg in the early years of the restoration spread across the country by means of continual publicity in decorating magazines. Thousands of visitors, fascinated by the imaginative decorations, strolled the streets of Williamsburg snapping pictures of their favorite creations to try back home. Visitor queries resulted in how-to books and videos, workshops, and television demonstrations, until a virtual cottage industry of instruction and materials had sprung up.

The fact that these decorations are made, not purchased, helps put some badly needed distance between ourselves and the commercialization of Christmas and must, in the end, account for a lot of their enduring appeal. Made at home of natural materials -holly berries clipped from a tree, seed pods collected from a nearby field, pine cones found on the forest floor, magnolia leaves pinched from the back yard, and oyster shells gathered at the beach last summer -the decorations suggest a time when the holidays revolved not around plastic reindeer at the mall but around the sharing of one's blessings with friends and family.

The nature of the door decorations has changed noticeably over the past sixty years. Tastes have changed, of course--the pictorial themes so popular in the fifties and sixties are no longer in evidence--but it goes further than that. Conservation concerns led to the elimination of running cedar and mountain laurel. Authenticity concerns caused the banning of ribbon and bows, fake fruit, and any material not available to eighteenth-century residents of Williamsburg such as poinsettias, pepper berries, and eucalyptus. The gradual lengthening of the Williamsburg Christmas season from one week to four brought about a surge in the use of dried materials: peanut shells, dried flowers, dried peppers, and cotton bolls did not have to be replenished every few days like pears and lemons. "Freezing temperatures at night followed by the hot sun during the day can destroy some fruits faster than they can be replaced," explained one long-time Historic Area resident.

Other residents have begun using a "floral cage" to prolong the life of their fragile plant material such as ivy. This concealed container holds a chunk of floral foam that keeps the material wet and fresh for weeks.

Regular visitors to Colonial Williamsburg have seen quite a variety of door decorations over the years. The featured photographs were culled from thousands in the Williamsburg archives to illustrate some of these trends.
This article was originally published in the Winter 1996-97 edition of the Colonial Williamsburg Journal. Libbey Oliver and Mary Theobald have teamed to write Williamsburg Christmas, available online from Williamsburg Marketplace.
Read more articles from the Foundation's journal, " Colonial Williamsburg ".

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They didn't originate in Williamsburg--those fruit bedecked wreaths and swags that decorate America's front doors--nor did they begin during colonial times. No matter. Everyone from Augusta to Albuquerque calls them "Colonial Williamsburg door decorations" anyway and millions of people have visited the Historic Area during the Christmas season for the sole purpose of admiring them.

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by Susan Hight Rountree
Drawings by Elizabeth Hundley Babb

This article is reprinted from the book " Christmas Decorations from Williamsburg," available through www.williamsburgmarketplace.com.

Wreath of Boxwood or other Greens Made on a Flat Wire Wreath Frame

Supplies and materials needed:

flat 2-wire wreath frame (available in sizes from 10 to 36 inches)

#22 gauge spool wire

wire cutters

chenille wire or pipe cleaner

clippers

5-inch sprigs of conditioned boxwood or other plant materials (see below)

Note: Approximately 1 to 1 1/2 bushels of 5-inch boxwood are needed to make an 18-inch wreath.

STEP 1. Wrap the end of the spool wire securely around the outside wire of the wreath frame as shown. Leave the wire attached to the spool.

STEP 2. Hold 3 to 6 sprigs of boxwood (depending on fullness) close to the frame and wrap these cut ends tightly with the spool wire.

STEP 3. Wrap the wire around the boxwood and the frame several times so that the boxwood is securely fastened to the frame.

STEP 4. Hold another bunch of boxwood sprigs close to the one you have just attached to the frame and wrap these ends as in Step 2. Place the second bunch of boxwood on the frame, just overlapping the ends. Repeat Step 3 to secure the second bunch to the frame.

Continuing in the same direction, repeat Steps 2 through 4 until you have covered the frame entirely with boxwood. The last bunch of boxwood should be wired underneath the first bunch you attached by lifting the foliage end and wrapping the last bunch tightly under it. Cut the spool wire and wrap the end securely around the frame. This allows the first bunch of boxwood to cover the wire wrapped ends of the last bunch.

Be sure to keep the size of the clusters and the distance between them uniform. On the back make a hanger with a chenille wire or pipe cleaner and secure it to the wire frame. Trim any uneven areas of the wreath with clippers.

Double-Faced Wreath of Boxwood or Other Greens Made on a Flat Wire Wreath Frame

To make a double-faced wreath, secure the wire and follow Steps 2 and 3 above, first on one side, then turn the wreath over and secure bunches of boxwood on the back. Proceed to Step 4, wiring bunches on both front and back of the wreath form. Continue to cover both sides of the form. Follow the directions to attach the last bunches. Securely wrap a chenille wire or pipe cleaner hanger onto the frame.

Note: Although these instructions are for a wreath of boxwood, other plant materials can be used if boxwood is not available in your area. Just follow the same steps for conditioning the plant materials and for constructing the wreath. Short-needled pines and firs, hemlock, spruce, Alexandrian laurel, arborvitae, and cedar are but a few of the possibilities.

Pine Cone Wreath

To make a pine cone wreath, use a three-dimensional wire box wreath frame. This frame looks like a flat 2-wire wreath frame that is connected to a slightly larger flat wire wreath frame beneath. White pine cones are recommended for a base because they fit easily in the space between the top and bottom of the frame. Place the cones crosswise on the frame with the stem ends toward the center. Cones soaked briefly in water will close and thus will be easier to insert. Once the basic round shape is made, allow the cones to dry. When the cones dry, they will open and the wreath will be tight and full. You can then wire or hot glue the cones, pods, and nuts onto this base. Allow your materials to face in different directions, vary the colors evenly, and use the heaviest materials in the center of the wreath. This will result in a pleasing design.

Evergreens with woody stems: holly, magnolia, pines, boxwood, firs, cedar, arborvitae, and hemlock

Evergreens with non-woody stems: ivy, Alexandrian laurel, periwinkle, new growth aucuba, cleyera

Conditioning Foliage

Always use clean, well scrubbed, and disinfected containers. Household bleach will kill most bacteria and other organisms. Rinse well.

When cutting, it is best to carry pails of water so that the cut materials can go directly into water. Carry deep or small pails depending upon the materials being cut. Do not crowd the plant materials in the containers. Cut all stems at an angle. Remove any broken or dead stems and leaves. Allow the materials to condition overnight in a cool place before you arrange them. After conditioning, mist the materials frequently or use a floral shield.

When you return from cutting, recut the stems, slit them about 2 inches with a sharp knife, scrape off the lower bark, and pound the stem ends to increase the plant's water intake. Submerge your materials, if possible, in warm water mixed with floral preservative (or 1 tablespoon glycerine per quart of water for smaller amounts) in a set tub, large pail, or even a bathtub for large amounts. The next day, cut the pieces to length with stems cut at an angle, remove all foliage below the waterline, and put the freshly cut stems into clean water until ready to use.

After returning from cutting, recut the stems. Submerge the materials, if possible, in warm water mixed with floral preservative in a set tub, large pail, or even a bathtub for large amounts. After overnight conditioning, cut the stems at an angle to length, remove all foliage below the waterline, an immediately stand in warm water until they are ready to be used. Ivy may be soaked in liquid floor wax and dried on newspapers.

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This article is reprinted from the book " Christmas Decorations from Williamsburg," available through www.williamsburgmarketplace.com. Supplies and materials needed: flat 2-wire wreath frame (available in sizes from 10 to 36 inches) #22 gauge spool wire wire cutters chenille wire or pipe cleaner clippers 5-inch sprigs of conditioned boxwood or other plant materials (see below) Note: Approximately 1 to 1 1/2 bushels of 5-inch boxwood are needed to make an 18-inch wreath.

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Traditions : The Colonial Williamsburg Official History Site

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Colonial Williamsburg - Experience life in the 18th century at America's largest outdoor history museum

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by Mary Miley Theobald
photos by Dave Doody

A Feast for the Eyes and the Palate

A colonial Christmas celebration focused on food. For Virginia's landed gentry, that meant a lavish presentation of meats, game, fowl, and preserved fruits and vegetables crowding the dining table alongside preparations of fish and seafood taken from Tidewater rivers and the Chesapeake Bay. There were baked goods too, large cakes and small cakes-called cookies today-and a variety of sweetmeats, a term that encompassed jellies, candied fruits and nuts, marzipan, and other sugary delicacies.

The main meal was served in the mid afternoon on an elaborately arranged table dressed with a fine white linen or damask cloth. At an important dinner like Christmas, two courses of desserts would usually follow two courses of meat and vegetables, the main visual difference being the absence of a table cloth for the dessert couses. Between courses, guests retired to another room while servants or slaves cleared the table and set it again. At a Chrismas ball, guest would be treated to an evening "dessert table," a feast for the eyes as well as the palate. Obsessed with symmetry in architecture, garden, and decorative arts, colonial Virginians were no less mindful of their tabletop design-each dish of food was precisely balanced with a similarly sized dish on the opposite side of the table.

THE DESSERT PYRAMID, a decorating staple since the seventeenth century, could be found in one form or another on most colonial tables in the better sort of houses. A careful stacking of fresh fruits, small cakes, or sweetmeats into the shape of a cone or pyramid, this table decoration was meant to be consumed. Larger fruits like apples or pears could be balanced on top of one another, perhaps with a little sugar icing or a couple of plates of graduated sizes inserted between layers to keep them from tumbling off the table. Smaller fruits like berries or cherries could be poured into a tin mold shaped like a cone or pyramid, where they were cemented with icing before being turned upside down onto a serving dish and topped with sprigs of greenery. The custom of the dessert pyramid originated in Europe, where it was standard banquet fare, gracing tables in castles and palaces from the German states to the French court at Versailles.

The hostess's reputation-indeed, the entire family's social standing-rose or fell according to the number of elaborate dishes on the table. Twenty or thirty was not considered excessive for a single course. To make matters even more challenging, custom required the number of dishes to remain constant throughout the meal. Elizabeth Raffald, the "Miss Manners" of her day, minced no words in her household guide: "As many dishes as you have in one course, so many baskets or plates your dessert must have." It was an era of conspicuous consumption, when quality meant quantity and presentation mattered more than taste. In his 1726 Cooks and Confectioners Dictionary, cookbook author John Nott told hostesses to aspire to perfect symmetry in design and color. Make sure, he said, that the pyramids were "erected of an exact Proportion: So that the same Sorts of Comfits, and the same Colours may appear on every Side at the opposite Angles."

A third sort of dessert pyramid appeared on American tables about the middle of the eighteenth century. This centerpiece was built of stacked salvers-flat serving plates raised on a pedestal, usually made of glass in graduated sizes-and loaded with sweetmeats. English author Hannah Glasse describes an example in her popular 1760s recipe book, The Compleat Confectioner:

In the middle a high pyramid of one salver above another, the bottom one large, the next smaller, the top one less; these salvers are to be fill'd with all kinds of wet and dry sweet-meats in glass, baskets or little plates, colour'd jellies, creams, &c. biscuits, crisp'd almonds and little knickknacks, and bottles of flowers prettily intermix'd, the little top salver must have a large preserv'd Fruit in it.

THE FASHION FOR DESSERT pyramids in England and America faded somewhat during the nineteenth century but never disappeared. An illustration of a confectioner's shop in The Young Tradesman; or, Book of English Trades, published in 1839, depicts a professional confectioner making a fruit pyramid for his customer. Dr. James Rush of Philadelphia, son of the Dr. Benjamin Rush who signed the Declaration of Independence, welcomed guests to his new home in 1850 with a table decorated with fruit pyramids. In her Civil War memoirs, Constance Cary Harrison, wife of President Jefferson Davis's secretary, recalled a Richmond dinner at which there were "many little iced cakes and rosy apples in pyramids."

American domestic diva Catharine Beecher, a writer no less renowned in her day than her sister Harriet Beecher Stowe, author of Uncle Tom's Cabin, gave a new twist to the sweetmeat pyramid in her Domestic Receipt-Book of 1854. In Martha Stewart fashion, she described an ornamental pyramid made with a cone of stiff paper, buttered, and covered with a boiled sugar paste.

Set it on a table, and begin at the bottom, and stick on to this frame, with the sugar, a row of macaroons, kisses, or other ornamental articles, and continue till the whole is covered. When cold, draw out the pasteboard form, and set the pyramid in the centre of the table with a small bit of wax candle burning with it, and it looks very beautifully.

By "kisses" she meant dollops of meringue. The candlelight from inside the pyramid would have glowed through the sugar icing.

The Englishwoman who wrote the classic Book of Household Management in 1861 illustrated her dessert instructions with pictures of fruit pyramids on a "tazza or dish with stem," which is "now the favourite shape for dessert dishes." Young Isabella Beeton's book sold two million copies during the next few years, and after her death at twenty-nine, the publisher revised and reprinted it until the middle of the twentieth century. No English Victorian homemaker was without her "Mrs. Beeton's" to guide her in the management of her servants, her children, and her kitchen. Beeton's leave-nothing-to-chance approach to food preparation described how to prepare a strawberry pyramid:

Put in rows pyramidically, with the stalks downwards...The fruit should be gathered with rather long stalks, as there is then something to support it . . . the finest to crown the top.

As late as the 1923 edition, fruit pyramids are still in style.

The fruit looks best when arranged a little from the edge of the stand and piled pyramidically . . . red and white currants may be mixed with good effect: they should be piled in alternate layers to form a pyramid.

A FEW YEARS AFTER Beeton's 1923 edition appeared, John D. Rockefeller Jr. began Williamsburg's restoration. To furnish the 1700s buildings with correct and appropriate antiques and reproductions, historians set out to learn everything they could about the eighteenth-century Virginia lifestyle. When the decision was made to limit modern decorations at Christmastime, historians sought out authentic colonial-era methods to decorate Williamsburg's dining room tables.

Fruit pyramids were then, and are still, the most popular of Williamsburg table decorations. Because they were used most often during the holiday season, when the town bulged with visitors, they came to be associated with Christmas when, in the eighteenth century, stacked fruit pyramids were a year-round feature subject only to the availability of fruit. To make the pyramids sturdier and the arranger's job easier, a Colonial Williamsburg carpenter pounded nails into a conical shaped block of wood. No longer would the slam of a door or the accidental bump against the table send apples or lemons bouncing to the floor.

So many visitors asked about the wooden form that Colonial Williamsburg began passing out directions for fixing finishing nails into a tapered block of wood. Nevertheless, many people, it seems, were unable or unwilling to make their own at home and requests for the finished product continued unabated. In 1956, Colonial Williamsburg began reproducing the forms in two sizes and selling them at its Craft House. Since then, more than 50,000 have been sold.

Although many kinds of fruit can be used to make a festive pyramid, the wooden forms have come to be known as "apple cones." The red and green apples do bring those favorite Christmas colors to the table or mantel. With these nail-studded cones, today's decorators can easily create fruit pyramids worthy of a Christmas dessert table at a royal governor's banquet.
This article was originally published in the Christmas 2005 edition of the Colonial Williamsburg Journal.
Read more articles from the Foundation's journal, " Colonial Williamsburg ".

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A colonial Christmas celebration focused on food. For Virginia's landed gentry, that meant a lavish presentation of meats, game, fowl, and preserved fruits and vegetables crowding the dining table alongside preparations of fish and seafood taken from Tidewater rivers and the Chesapeake Bay.

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The Revolution is ongoing. Keep up with what's happening behind the scenes, get tips on the best things to see and do now, and delve into surprising stories of life in the time of America's founding.

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Colonial Williamsburg | The World's Largest Living History Museum

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Experience the largest outdoor educational living museum in the country, through immersive and authentic 18th-century programming for our guests.

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Children's activities at the Geddy House

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At the James Geddy House in Colonial Williamsburg, youth interpreters frequently recreate different aspects of the life of colonial children, including education, music, dance, play, and daily chores. They bring the 18th century to life by dressing in period clothing and demonstrating typical activities of children of that period.

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Based on the Exercise of a Schoolboy*
George Washington, sometime before the age of 16, transcribed Rules of Civility & Decent Behaviour In Company and Conversation. (Original errors in numbering have been corrected; original spelling is unchanged.)
1st Every Action done in Company, ought to be with Some Sign of Respect, to those that are Present.

2d When in Company, put not your Hands to any Part of the Body, not usualy Discovered.

3d Shew Nothing to your Freind that may affright him.

4th In the Presence of Others Sing not to yourself with a humming Noise, nor Drum with your Fingers or Feet.

5th If You Cough, Sneeze, Sigh, or Yawn, do it not Loud but Privately; and Speak not in your Yawning, but put Your handkercheif or Hand before your face and turn aside.

6th Sleep not when others Speak, Sit not when others stand, Speak not when you Should hold your Peace, walk not on when others Stop.

7th Put not off your Cloths in the presence of Others, nor go out your Chamber half Drest.

8th At Play and at Fire its Good manners to Give Place to the last Commer, and affect not to Speak Louder than Ordinary.

9th Spit not in the Fire, nor Stoop low before it neither Put your Hands into the Flames to warm them, nor Set your Feet upon the Fire especially if there be meat before it.

10th When you Sit down, Keep your Feet firm and Even, without putting one on the other or Crossing them.

11th Shift not yourself in the Sight of others nor Gnaw your nails.

12th Shake not the head, Feet, or Legs rowl not the Eys lift not one eyebrow higher than the other wry not the mouth, and bedew no mans face with your Spittle, by approaching too near him when you Speak.

13th Kill no Vermin as Fleas, lice ticks &c in the Sight of Others, if you See any filth or thick Spittle put your foot Dexteriously upon it if it be upon the Cloths of your Companions, Put it off privately, and if it be upon your own Cloths return Thanks to him who puts it off.

14th Turn not your Back to others especially in Speaking, Jog not the Table or Desk on which Another reads or writes, lean not upon any one.

15th Keep your Nails clean and Short, also your Hands and Teeth Clean yet without Shewing any great Concern for them.

16th Do not Puff up the Cheeks, Loll not out the tongue rub the Hands, or beard, thrust out the lips, or bite them or keep the Lips too open or too Close.

17th Be no Flatterer, neither Play with any that delights not to be Play'd Withal.

18th Read no Letters, Books, or Papers in Company but when there is a Necessity for the doing of it you must ask leave: come not near the Books or Writings of Another so as to read them unless desired or give your opinion of them unask'd also look not nigh when another is writing a Letter.

19th let your Countenance be pleasant but in Serious Matters Somewhat grave.

20th The Gestures of the Body must be Suited to the discourse you are upon.

21st: Reproach none for the Infirmaties of Nature, nor Delight to Put them that have in mind thereof.

22d Shew not yourself glad at the Misfortune of another though he were your enemy.

23d When you see a Crime punished, you may be inwardly Pleased; but always shew Pity to the Suffering Offender.

24th Do not laugh too loud or too much at any Publick Spectacle.

25th Superfluous Complements and all Affectation of Ceremonie are to be avoided, yet where due they are not to be Neglected.

26th In Pulling off your Hat to Persons of Distinction, as Noblemen, Justices, Churchmen &c make a Reverence, bowing more or less according to the Custom of the Better Bred, and Quality of the Person. Amongst your equals expect not always that they Should begin with you first, but to Pull off the Hat when there is no need is Affectation, in the Manner of Saluting and resaluting in words keep to the most usual Custom.

27th Tis ill manners to bid one more eminent than yourself be covered as well as not to do it to whom it's due Likewise he that makes too much haste to Put on his hat does not well, yet he ought to Put it on at the first, or at most the Second time of being ask'd; now what is herein Spoken, of Qualification in behaviour in Saluting, ought also to be observed in taking of Place, and Sitting down for ceremonies without Bounds is troublesome.

28th If any one come to Speak to you while you are are Sitting Stand up tho he be your Inferiour, and when you Present Seats let it be to every one according to his Degree.

29th When you meet with one of Greater Quality than yourself, Stop, and retire especially if it be at a Door or any Straight place to give way for him to Pass.

30th In walking the highest Place in most Countrys Seems to be on the right hand therefore Place yourself on the left of him whom you desire to Honour: but if three walk together the middest Place is the most Honourable the wall is usually given to the most worthy if two walk together.

31st If any one far Surpassess others, either in age, Estate, or Merit yet would give Place to a meaner than himself in his own lodging or elsewhere the one ought not to except it, So he on the other part should not use much earnestness nor offer it above once or twice.

32d: To one that is your equal, or not much inferior you are to give the cheif Place in your Lodging and he to who 'tis offered ought at the first to refuse it but at the Second to accept though not without acknowledging his own unworthiness.

33d They that are in Dignity or in office have in all places Preceedency but whilst they are Young they ought to respect those that are their equals in Birth or other Qualitys, though they have no Publick charge.

34th It is good Manners to prefer them to whom we Speak before ourselves especially if they be above us with whom in no Sort we ought to begin.

35th Let your Discourse with Men of Business be Short and Comprehensive.

36th Artificers & Persons of low Degree ought not to use many ceremonies to Lords, or Others of high Degree but Respect and highly Honour them, and those of high Degree ought to treat them with affibility & Courtesie, without Arrogancy.

37th In Speaking to men of Quality do not lean nor Look them full in the Face, nor approach too near them at lest Keep a full Pace from them.

38th In visiting the Sick, do not Presently play the Physicion if you be not Knowing therein.

39th In writing or Speaking, give to every Person his due Title According to his Degree & the Custom of the Place.

40th Strive not with your Superiers in argument, but always Submit your Judgment to others with Modesty.

41st Undertake not to Teach your equal in the art himself Proffesses; it Savours of arrogancy.

42d Let thy ceremonies in Courtesie be proper to the Dignity of his place with whom thou conversest for it is absurd to act the same with a Clown and a Prince.

43d Do not express Joy before one sick or in pain for that contrary Passion will aggravate his Misery.

44th When a man does all he can though it Succeeds not well blame not him that did it.

45th Being to advise or reprehend any one, consider whether it ought to be in publick or in Private; presently, or at Some other time in what terms to do it & in reproving Shew no Sign of Cholar but do it with all Sweetness and Mildness.

46th Take all Admonitions thankfully in what Time or Place Soever given but afterwards not being culpable take a Time & Place convenient to let him him know it that gave them.

47th Mock not nor Jest at any thing of Importance break no Jest that are Sharp Biting and if you Deliver any thing witty and Pleasent abstain from Laughing there at yourself.

48th Wherein wherein you reprove Another be unblameable yourself; for example is more prevalent than Precepts.

49th Use no Reproachfull Language against any one neither Curse nor Revile.

50th Be not hasty to beleive flying Reports to the Disparagement of any.

51st Wear not your Cloths, foul, unript or Dusty but See they be Brush'd once every day at least and take heed that you approach not to any Uncleaness.

52d In your Apparel be Modest and endeavour to accomodate Nature, rather than to procure Admiration keep to the Fashion of your equals Such as are Civil and orderly with respect to Times and Places.

53d Run not in the Streets, neither go too slowly nor with Mouth open go not Shaking yr Arms kick not the earth with yr feet, go not upon the Toes, nor in a Dancing fashion.

54th Play not the Peacock, looking every where about you, to See if you be well Deck't, if your Shoes fit well if your Stokings sit neatly, and Cloths handsomely.

55th Eat not in the Streets, nor in the House, out of Season.

56th Associate yourself with Men of good Quality if you Esteem your own Reputation; for 'tis better to be alone than in bad Company.

57th In walking up and Down in a House, only with One in Company if he be Greater than yourself, at the first give him the Right hand and Stop not till he does and be not the first that turns, and when you do turn let it be with your face towards him, if he be a Man of Great Quality, walk not with him Cheek by Joul but Somewhat behind him; but yet in Such a Manner that he may easily Speak to you.

58th Let your Conversation be without Malice or Envy, for 'tis a Sign of a Tractable and Commendable Nature: And in all Causes of Passion admit Reason to Govern.

59th Never express anything unbecoming, nor Act agst the Rules Moral before your inferiours.

60th Be not immodest in urging your Freinds to Discover a Secret.

61st Utter not base and frivilous things amongst grave and Learn'd Men nor very Difficult Questians or Subjects, among the Ignorant or things hard to be believed, Stuff not your Discourse with Sentences amongst your Betters nor Equals.

62d Speak not of doleful Things in a Time of Mirth or at the Table; Speak not of Melancholy Things as Death and Wounds, and if others Mention them Change if you can the Discourse tell not your Dreams, but to your intimate Friend.

63d A Man ought not to value himself of his Atchievements, or rare Qualities of wit; much less of his riches Virtue or Kindred.

64th Break not a Jest where none take pleasure in mirth Laugh not aloud, nor at all without Occasion, deride no mans Misfortune, tho' there Seem to be Some cause.

65th Speak not injurious Words neither in Jest nor Earnest Scoff at none although they give Occasion.

66th Be not forward but friendly and Courteous; the first to Salute hear and answer & be not Pensive when it's a time to Converse.

67th Detract not from others neither be excessive in Commanding.

68th Go not thither, where you know not, whether you Shall be Welcome or not. Give not Advice without being Ask'd & when desired do it briefly.

69th If two contend together take not the part of either unconstrained; and be not obstinate in your own Opinion, in Things indiferent be of the Major Side.

70th Reprehend not the imperfections of others for that belongs to Parents Masters and Superiours.

71st Gaze not on the marks or blemishes of Others and ask not how they came. What you may Speak in Secret to your Friend deliver not before others.

72d Speak not in an unknown Tongue in Company but in your own Language and that as those of Quality do and not as the Vulgar; Sublime matters treat Seriously.

73d Think before you Speak pronounce not imperfectly nor bring out your Words too hastily but orderly & distinctly.

74th When Another Speaks be attentive your Self and disturb not the Audience if any hesitate in his Words help him not nor Prompt him without desired, Interrupt him not, nor Answer him till his Speech be ended.

75th In the midst of Discourse ask not of what one treateth but if you Perceive any Stop because of your coming you may well intreat him gently to Proceed: If a Person of Quality comes in while your Conversing it's handsome to Repeat what was said before.

76th While you are talking, Point not with your Finger at him of Whom you Discourse nor Approach too near him to whom you talk especially to his face.

77th Treat with men at fit Times about Business & Whisper not in the Company of Others.

78th Make no Comparisons and if any of the Company be Commended for any brave act of Vertue, commend not another for the Same.

79th Be not apt to relate News if you know not the truth thereof. In Discoursing of things you Have heard Name not your Author always A Secret Discover not.

80th Be not Tedious in Discourse or in reading unless you find the Company pleased therewith.

81st Be not Curious to Know the Affairs of Others neither approach those that Speak in Private.

82d undertake not what you cannot perform but be carefull to keep your promise.

83d when you deliver a matter do it without passion & with discretion, however mean the person be you do it too.

84th When your Superiours talk to any Body hearken not neither Speak nor Laugh.

85th In Company of these of Higher Quality than yourself Speak not til you are ask'd a Question then Stand upright put of your Hat & Answer in few words.

86th In Disputes, be not So Desireous to Overcome as not to give Liberty to each one to deliver his Opinion and Submit to the Judgment of the Major Part especially if they are Judges of the Dispute.

87th Let thy carriage be such as becomes a Man Grave Settled and attentive to that which is spoken. Contradict not at every turn what others Say.

88th Be not tedious in Discourse, make not many Digressigns, nor repeat often the Same manner of Discourse.

89th Speak not Evil of the absent for it is unjust.

90th Being Set at meat Scratch not neither Spit Cough or blow your Nose except there's a Necessity for it.

91st Make no Shew of taking great Delight in your Victuals, Feed not with Greediness; cut your Bread with a Knife, lean not on the Table neither find fault with what you Eat.

92d Take no Salt or cut Bread with your Knife Greasy.

93d Entertaining any one at table it is decent to present him wt. meat, Undertake not to help others undesired by the Master.

94th If you Soak bread in the Sauce let it be no more than what you put in your Mouth at a time and blow not your broth at Table but Stay till Cools of it Self.

95th Put not your meat to your Mouth with your Knife in your hand neither Spit forth the Stones of any fruit Pye upon a Dish nor Cast anything under the table.

96th It's unbecoming to Stoop much to ones Meat Keep your Fingers clean & when foul wipe them on a Corner of your Table Napkin.

97th Put not another bit into your Mouth til the former be Swallowed let not your Morsels be too big for the Gowls.

98th Drink not nor talk with your mouth full neither Gaze about you while you are a Drinking.

99th Drink not too leisurely nor yet too hastily. Before and after Drinking wipe your Lips breath not then or Ever with too Great a Noise, for its uncivil.

100th Cleanse not your teeth with the Table Cloth Napkin Fork or Knife but if Others do it let it be done wt. a Pick Tooth.

101st Rince not your Mouth in the Presence of Others.

102d It is out of use to call upon the Company often to Eat nor need you Drink to others every Time you Drink.

103d In Company of your Betters be not longer in eating than they are lay not your Arm but only your hand upon the table.

104th It belongs to the Chiefest in Company to unfold his Napkin and fall to Meat first, But he ought then to Begin in time & to Dispatch with Dexterity that the Slowest may have time allowed him.

105th Be not Angry at Table whatever happens & if you have reason to be so, Shew it not but on a Chearfull Countenance especially if there be Strangers for Good Humour makes one Dish of Meat a Feast.

106th Set not yourself at the upper of the Table but if it Be your Due or that the Master of the house will have it So, Contend not, least you Should Trouble the Company.

107th If others talk at Table be attentive but talk not with Meat in your Mouth.

108th When you Speak of God or his Atributes, let it be Seriously & wt. Reverence. Honour & Obey your Natural Parents altho they be Poor.

109th Let your Recreations be Manfull not Sinfull.

110th Labour to keep alive in your Breast that Little Spark of Celestial fire Called Conscience.

Finis

*Washington, George. Rules of Civility & Decent Behaviour in Company and Conversation: a Book of Etiquette. Williamsburg, VA: Beaver Press, 1971.

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colonial williamsburg family vacation packages

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George Washington, sometime before the age of 16, transcribed Rules of Civility & Decent Behaviour In Company and Conversation. (Original errors in numbering have been corrected; original spelling is unchanged.) 1st Every Action done in Company, ought to be with Some Sign of Respect, to those that are Present.

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The Historic Trades and Skills community at Colonial Williamsburg uses 18th-century tools and techniques to apprentice in and eventually master more than 20 historic trades and skills. These world-renowned experts not only make goods and provide services to the Historic Area, they also consult and produce for other cultural institutions around the world. You will not find a trades community with so many experts in one place anywhere else.

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colonial williamsburg family vacation packages

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The blacksmith shop and armoury reflects the activity present during the Revolution, with trades working together in support of the American war effort. The site re-creates the industrial complex owned and operated by James Anderson, appointed public armourer in 1776 by the General Assembly of the newly independent Commonwealth of Virginia.

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colonial williamsburg family vacation packages

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The earliest documented cabinetmaker in Williamsburg was Peter Scott, who first appears in the records in 1722. Scott was a member of Williamsburg's City Council and operated a shop until 1775. Seven masters operated individual shops in Williamsburg by that time.

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colonial williamsburg family vacation packages

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Today, coopers are often called "barrel makers," but a barrel is only one kind of cask, one made by what was known as a "tight cooper." Other casks included the firkin, kilderkin, hogshead, butt, rundlet, tierce, puncheon, and pipe. The tight cooper assembled clear white oak staves split from the dense center of a tree.

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Press powerful in colonial times

Thomas Jefferson's "Ideas on American Freedom" was first printed on Clementina Rind's hand-pulled press.

It was a document Jefferson had drafted at Monticello for the guidance of Virginia's delegates to the Continental Congress. The colony's House of Burgesses considered the composition too radical for official endorsement, but a group of Jefferson's friends persuaded the Widow Rind to issue it as a pamphlet. Thus A Summary View of the Rights of British America appeared in August 1774. The future author of the Declaration of Independence later wrote:

"If it had any merit, it was that of first taking our true ground, and that which was afterwards assumed and maintained."

It was just one Revolutionary demonstration of the printer's power to spread incendiary views. But it still may be the most historically important job to come off a Williamsburg press since William Parks set up the first one in 1730.

Parks started Virginia's first newspaper

Parks came from Maryland to do government printing and commercial work. Six years later, he started Virginia's first newspaper. With the advice and investment of Philadelphia's Benjamin Franklin, Parks opened Virginia's first paper mill in 1743. Four years later, he became the first printer in the 140-year-old colony to publish a volume on its beginnings - The History of the First Discovery and Settlement of Virginia by William Stith. Success in the printing business required diversification.

Print shop served multiple purposes

Parks' double-bay-windowed shop served as a stationer's, a post office, an advertising agency, an office supply shop, a newsstand, and a bookbindery. He sold magazines and books, maps and almanacs,and even sealing wax! His press printed broadsides and business forms, laws and proclamations, tracts and blank record books. In the 20th century, while excavating the site of Parks' shop, archaeologists found lead border ornaments used for French and Indian War currency.

Archaeologists also uncovered hundreds of bits of metal type, apparently of Dutch origin. Colonial printers imported cases of type from European foundries, but molding casting replacement letters on site from lead and antimony took no extraordinary skill.

Hours of labor required to produce Virginia Gazette

Parks' Virginia Gazette, published weekly from 1736 to 1750, was perhaps his most durable achievement, and among the most labor intensive. Setting type for one page of the weekly newspaper required 25 hours of hand labor.

"The Hands employed by the Printer are the Compositor and Pressman, which are two distinct Branches, the one knowing little of the other's Business," wrote a Parks contemporary. "The Compositor is he who arranges the Letters and makes up the Forms; the Pressman only works at the Press, takes off the Impression, and requires no other Qualification than Strength and a little Practice."

A compositor gathered type, sorted by letter, size, and kind, from a compartmented box. He set each letter on an iron rule, called a "composing stick," to form words and lines. The type had to be set "backwards," as printing reversed the images.

When several lines were done, the compositor set them in wooden cases called galleys. Sometimes woodcuts were added to illustrate notices and advertisements. The galleys were tied with string, gathered and locked in a page-size iron frame, or "chase," and secured to the stone bed of the press. A carriage carried the chase back and forth beneath a pressure plate, or "platen."

A fellow called a "beater" used two wood-handled, wool-stuffed, leather-covered ink balls to spread a mixture of varnish and lampblack evenly on the type. Moistened sheets of paper were laid in a cushioned frame that hinged down on the chase, and the carriage was run in. Mounted on a screw about the size of a man's forearm and operated by a long-handled lever, the platen was lowered by the pressman, or puller.

Each sheet was squeezed against the type under about 200 pounds of pressure to receive its impression, then set aside to dry before the other side was printed. Each impression required about 15 seconds. The workday lasted up to 14 hours.

Williamsburg residents supported production of the newspaper

A community of about 2,000, Williamsburg had plenty of readers to keep the press going. Parks' newspaper was succeeded by another Virginia Gazette, and by the time of the Revolution three newspapers competed under the same name. A Virginia Gazette still serves the city of Williamsburg today.

Books required more labor and time to produce

Books were more time-consuming and complicated to produce. They were printed in signatures of four, eight, 12, or 16 pages - two or more pages on each side of a sheet that, when folded and cut, presented the text in the proper order for binding.

A bookbinder compiled the signatures and beat them with a heavy hammer to make the sheets lie close. He arranged them on a sewing frame and stitched them together at the back fold with linen thread. As he sewed, he looped the strands around thick hemp cross threads, which created characteristic horizontal ridges across the spine and unified the assembly.

Book covers involved many steps and specialized craftsmanship

Dyed leather was drawn onto boards and glued to heavier endpaper to cover the volume. Sometimes the endpapers were marbled. All of the marbled paper used in Williamsburg seems to have been imported from England, where such work was a craft in itself.

Marbling required a small tank and a mixture of water and a syrupy gum. The marbler dripped vivid watercolors onto the surface and drew special combs across it to create distinctive swirls and eddies. An endpaper was laid on the surface to take up the watercolor, then removed and dried.

The covers of better books were made of fine leather that was tooled, stamped, and decorated with designs sometimes rendered in gold leaf.

In the historic area today, the Printing Office, Post Office, and Bookbindery are located in one area where press trades are interpreted and authentic reproduction items from Parks' reconstructed shop are offered for sale.

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colonial williamsburg family vacation packages

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Thomas Jefferson's "Ideas on American Freedom" was first printed on Clementina Rind's hand-pulled press. It was a document Jefferson had drafted at Monticello for the guidance of Virginia's delegates to the Continental Congress. The colony's House of Burgesses considered the composition too radical for official endorsement, but a group of Jefferson's friends persuaded the Widow Rind to issue it as a pamphlet.

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colonial williamsburg family vacation packages

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Various leathers and tools made by specialty trades and imported from England were readily available for sale from merchants' stores in Williamsburg, it was no trouble finding supplies in the city. With strange-sounding names such as "helling sticks," "petty-boys," and "St.

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colonial williamsburg family vacation packages

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Hammering the bowl shape against the stakes the silversmith "raised" the body shape by compressing the metal with hammer blows from the outside pushing it inward and upward. When the silver became brittle from working, he heated it red hot and plunged it into an acid bath to keep it malleable.

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colonial williamsburg family vacation packages

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The tailor's customer ran the full social gamut - from the wealthy and elite to field slaves, and all the folks in between. The only discernable differences in the clothing for rich or poor was in the quality of the fabric.

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colonial williamsburg family vacation packages

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Today's shop represents Edward Charlton, who practiced the trade for more than a half century and became one of the most important 18th-century wigmakers in Virginia. Many prominent men in Virginia, such as Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry and George Wythe frequented his shop.

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Colonial Williamsburg Education Resource Library

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The revival of Colonial style homes occurred from the late 1890s to the present. Traditional architectural forms appeared across the US in a variety of interpretations.

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From Colonial Williamsburg

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colonial williamsburg family vacation packages

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Colonial Williamsburg Education Resource Library

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Girl playing "hoops"

In colonial times, the time period between the early 1600s and the late 1700s, there were no electronic video games or huge stores full of manufactured board games and toys. Instead, children relied on their imaginations and simple materials found around their homes to come up with colonial toys and games. In colonial America, games for children were fun, innovative and competitive.

Ten Colonial Games

Just like in today's modern world, colonial kids sometimes played games indoors and sometimes outdoors. Families were often large so there was seldom a lack of playtime companions. Many of the most popular colonial games are still played today.

Related Articles

Hoop Play

The Historic Five Mile House's website says that colonial kids played hoops by racing metal or wooden hoops along the ground with their hands or sticks. The hoops were often salvaged from old barrels.The object of the game was to keep the hoop rolling as long as possible and get to the finish line first.

Game of Graces

The game of graces was another form of hoop play. In this game, players threw small hoops decked out in ribbons to one another, catching them on wands. This game was almost always played by girls since it was meant to make young ladies more graceful. To play, each player held two wands (or rods). Using both rods, one player positioned a hoop onto the rods and, using a scissor-like motion, sent the hoop into the air towards the other player. The other player caught the hoop with her two rods. The player who caught the hoop ten times won the game.

Ninepins

According to Colonialconnections.com, ninepins was brought to the colonies by Dutch settlers. The game is very similar to modern bowling. Ninepins could be played on a tabletop with small pins or on a lawn with larger ones. The only materials needed to play were nine wooden pins and a ball. These were set up in a diamond shape. Each player rolled the ball ten times to see how many pins he could knock down. The player who knocked down the most pins won the game.

Quoits

Colonialconnections.com also includes quoits on its list of colonial children's games. This game was basically a ring toss game and similar to horseshoes. Players had to toss rings made of metal, rope, leather or even tree branches, a set distance over a stake in the ground called a hob. Each player threw two rings per turn. Points were earned based on how the ring landed on the hob. The player with the most points won the game. Quoit sets could be large for outdoor play or small for tabletop play.

Battledores

According to the Library of Birmingham, battledores was an early form of badminton. Players would try to hit a shuttlecock with two wooden paddles, often while reciting rhymes. The paddles were often made of hornbooks, which were early reading tools made into the shape of a paddle. To play the game, two people hit the shuttlecock back and forth with their paddles as many times as possible without letting it fall to the ground.

Scotch Hoppers

Scotch hoppers was what colonial era kids called the modern game of hopscotch. It could be played indoors or out. The rules of the game haven't really changed over the years. To play, kids drew lines or "scotches" on the ground in square patterns. A stone (marker) was thrown onto a square and the player hopped through the course without hopping onto the square with the stone. After reaching the end, the player had to reverse course and return to the beginning square, being sure to pick up the marker on the way. Single squares were hopped on with one foot while two feet could land on squares that are side by side. For each consecutive turn, the marker was thrown into the next furthest square.

Blindman's Bluff

Blindman's bluff was a popular game for colonial children and adults. It was a game families could enjoy together and was popular on holidays and special occasions. Here's how the game was played:

One person put on a blindfold and was spun around several times to become disoriented. The remaining players formed a circle around the blindfolded player. The players in the circle walked around until the blindfolded player claps three times. At this point, the players stopped walking and the blindfolded player pointed to a player in the circle, having no idea who it was. That player stepped into the circle and the blindfolded player guessed who it was. If he was incorrect, he chased the player around the circle in order to catch him and he tried to determine his identity by touching his face or hair. Once he guessed correctly, he was no longer "it" and the person whose identity he guessed was the next to be blindfolded.

Jackstones

What we know today as the game of jacks was called five stones or jackstones to colonists. To play jackstones, colonial children used stones, seeds or other small objects similar in size as the equivalent of jacks today, according to The Holliston Historical Society. In place of the ball that accompanies modern day jacks, colonial kids used a round, smooth stone. To play, the stone was thrown into the air with one hand and a specific number of jackstones were scooped up with the same hand before the stone was caught. First, one jack would be picked up, then two, then three and so on.

Marbles

Colonial children enjoyed playing marbles. Claude Moore Colonial Farm, a living history farm, states on their website that colonial marbles were made baked or glazed clay, stones, glass or nut shells. To play marbles, players rolled or "shot" into another player's marbles in order to knock them out of a designated area. The player who knocked the marbles out of the area got to keep those marbles. Whoever had the most marbles at the end of the game won.

There are many variations on the colonial era game of marbles that continue to make this game a classic.

Jackstraws

Jackstraws was the precursor to the modern game of pick up sticks. Materials needed to play were pieces of straw (broom straws worked well) or sticks approximately six inches long. The sticks were dropped to create a pile and players had to remove the sticks one by one without moving any other sticks in the pile. If another stick was disturbed, that player's turn was over. Play continued until all sticks were removed. The person who had collected the most sticks at the end of the game was the winner.

Timeless Fun

Many of the games played over 250 years ago have stood the test of time. In addition to the games above, colonial kids enjoyed playing modern classics such as tag, jump rope, hide and seek and having sack races. No matter what time period they were born in, kids love to play and will find ways to do it. Without a doubt, colonial children's games will continue to be timeless favorites for years to come.

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In colonial times, the time period between the early 1600s and the late 1700s, there were no electronic video games or huge stores full of manufactured board games and toys. Instead, children relied on their imaginations and simple materials found around their homes to come up with colonial toys and games.

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Advice you can trust on everything you love to know. Get expert tips on beauty, wellness, hobbies, celebrations, family, relationships, pets, and more.

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Colonial Kids - Toys and Games and School - The 13 Colonies for Kids

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Yet, they still found time to play. In winter, in the Middle Colonies, kids had fun skating. In all the colonies, kids played with balls and bats and marbles and dolls. They played tag. In the south they played lawn bowling. In the north, they played shuffleboard. There were dances and parties.

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There's been a certain levity to the last couple of bookmaking projects featured on Bookmaking with Kids. So now for something a little more serious. Except that it's still fun. Bookmaking is always fun.

This is one of a series of projects that lets kids recreate book formats used in times past. In the process they learn a little something about the evolution of books over the centuries as well as the different cultures that developed them. Making historical book models is a wonderful lens for looking at the past.

A hornbook was what children of the 14th through 18th centuries used to learn their ABCs.

"When little children first
are brought to schoole
A Horne-booke is a necessarie toole."
- Nicholas Breton, 1612

It wasn't really a book at all: it consisted of a sheet of parchment or paper with the alphabet, phonics and a prayer printed or in manuscript, mounted on a small, wooden, paddle-shaped board and protected by a thin sheet of transparent animal horn that was attached with metal strips and nails.

The hornbook is an easy-to-make project that's suitable whenever Colonial America pops up in your curriculum. I've taught it to 2nd graders, 3rd graders and 5th graders. The larger of the two replicas pictured to the right is good for younger students. It consists of a piece of stiff paper held inside a plastic sheet protector by brads and attached to a wooden paint stirrer! How easy is that?! The smaller one, more historically accurate in shape, is cut from cardboard. The written sheet is held in place with clear sticky-backed plastic. And four brads secure strips of gold-colored paper that mimic the metal used in real hornbooks.

Some curious facts about hornbooks:

Hornbooks were made of many materials beside wood, including ivory, silver, leather, bone ... and occasionally gingerbread. When students learned a letter, they were allowed to eat it!

Children wore their hornbooks. There was a hole in the handle so they could be attached to boy's belt or a girl's girdle.

Because they were fairly indestructible and went everywhere with their owners, hornbooks were often used as bats when children were at play.

English and European hornbooks typically had a cross in the upper lefthand corner. But there were no crosses in New England hornbooks, because the Puritans abhorred the symbol of the cross.

Click the link for a diagram you can print as a template, links to useful web sites and other information.

This illustration shows all the elements that go into a hornbook. Click here for a PDF to download and print.

To be completely, exuberantly excessive on this topic-like me!-you could bake gingerbread hornbooks. I bought a wooden mold from this web site. The accompanying booklet is actually the best resource for kids that I've found on this subject! Checking back recently, I discovered that the craftsman who makes the mold now sells hornbook replicas, too. Interesting to look at but perhaps too pricey for a classroom purchase.

If you include baking in your hornbook activities, make sure to share this verse by Matthew Prior (1664-1721), in his poem Alma, describing gingerbread hornbooks sold at fairs:

To Master John the English maid
A Hornbook gives of Gingerbread:
And that the Child may learn the better,
As he can name, he eats the Letter:
Proceeding thus with vast Delight,
He spells, and gnaws, from left to right.

Finally, please let me know if you're interested in more historical book projects by clicking here and I'll put you in touch with my East Bay colleague Kathy, who has pioneered a curriculum that dovetails perfectly with elementary- and middle-school social studies.

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Hands-on History of Books: Hornbooks - Bookmaking With Kids

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There's been a certain levity to the last couple of bookmaking projects featured on Bookmaking with Kids. So now for something a little more serious. Except that it's still fun. Bookmaking is always fun. This is one of a series of projects that lets kids recreate book formats used in times past.

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Art Activity to Craft a Quill Pen

This is art project for kids over 6 years old using an old toothbrush. There are so many ways you can modify this art project based on your child's age and patience. However we ended up making quill pens and invited the kids to create and write.

Use old toothbrushes to make - great Thanksgiving craft idea

Use to make a self-painting robotic art

I got this idea from one my school- age cousins who apparently saw this on a tv show.

EDIT: Use the tutorial below to use the paper feathers as turkey feathers. Paint with appropriate colors and use them in a fun Thanksgiving Craft.

At first I had planned to do this activity in 2 steps. The first part as an art activity with my 4-year-old and the second part as a craft and finally end it with a fun creating/writing prompt. While attempting this art activity I realized that the first part was a bit too much for my preschooler soon to be kindergartener. But that little girl did NOT give up! He tried hard to get that angle right. What angle? You will see what I mean.

Materials { affiliate links}
On to the "how-to" for the art activity.
You will need strips of a thick paper (card stock) and a another clean card stock paper for the art itself.

Place a strip of thick paper in the middle of a clean thick paper and use your toothbrush to make bristle marks on the right side ( top to bottom) at an approximate 30-45 degrees angle.

You will get something like the second picture below.

Don't press too hard and make quick movements so that the bristles don't flatten the image.

Give it 20 seconds and move the strip of paper to the right and make the same marks on the left. Make sure you leave a tiny gap between the sets which will make the feather more realistic. That gap is where the shaft of the feather ( called rachis ) will go.

This is how the toothbrush feathers will looks like.

I made another set so we can have a writing tool for all the colors.

Once the paint dried I cut the feathers and attached them to bamboo skewers.

Just glue the skewers to the back of the feathers. I snipped the edges for the extra touch.

Now your fun writing tools are ready. Ooh the colors look so inviting!

I set the feathers out with some liquid water colors. They are the pretend ink!

Invitation to write and create the old-fashioned way: with Quill Pens!

My older one was pretty psyched with this activity. She has been talking about people writing with feathers for ever and that day she was too excited that her talks became a reality and SHE was writing with feathers! You could take this one step ahead and actually make quill pens. Here is a for that.

A beautiful rainbow that my preschooler made.

Another idea is to attach the feathers with some cute fastening material ( or use an old crummy rubber band ) and make pencil topper.

I sure think the quill pen art activity makes you travel back in time.

Looking for Non-toy gift ideas for kids this holidays? Try Kiwi Crate's wonderful subscription crate. Receive theme based kids filled with supplies needed to have a meaningful time with your kids. Great for gifting another child too.

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Art activity: Crafting a quill pen for writing

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Here is an art activity with an old toothbrush. Here I explain how to make quill pens and invite the kids to create and write. At first I had planned to do this activity in 2 steps.

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Lately I have been showing you some crafts to do for President's Day. Well, I'm going to continue with the President's Day crafting fun by showing you how to make a George Washington Wig. Made from cotton balls and a large paper shopping bag.... this craft turns out awesome. Plus, the craft is a lot of fun.... almost as much fun as the child will have running around wearing the George Washington Wig he/she just made. So, grab the materials needed and let's get started with this crafting fun.

Check out our other President's Day Crafts.

Materials Needed

Large Paper Bag

Pen or Marker

Scissors

Cotton Balls

Glue

Blue Ribbon

Step 1

Draw a number 5 like shape on large bag.

Step 2

Close the bag so it is not open. Now, cut out the shape you drew in last step so you cut thru both sides.

Step 3

This is the part that will go over your head.

Step 4

Glue cotton balls over the outside of bag.

Step 5

Tie ribbon around back for ponytail.

Awesome job... you just finished making your George Washington Wig for President's Day. Wasn't it fun to make?! Now, put on your wig and act like George Washington. Fun stuff!!

Technorati Tags: presidents day crafts, presidents day activities, George Washington, George Washington crafts, Washington Crafts, wig crafts, paper wig crafts, george washington's wig, george washington's wig crafts. cotton ball crafts, paper bag crafts

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How to Make a George Washington Wig for President's Day - Kids Crafts & Activities

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Lately I have been showing you some crafts to do for President's Day. Well, I'm going to continue with the President's Day crafting fun by showing you how to make a George Washington Wig. Made from cotton balls and a large paper shopping bag.... this craft turns out awesome.

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Fast facts about Colonial Houses and homes. Information about the the design and style of Colonial Houses. History, information and Facts about Colonial Houses.

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Kids learn about the housing and homes of colonial America including early cabins, plantations, farms, city dwellings, architecture, and other fun facts.

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The following section has some additional information about early American fireplaces, cooking and baking. Some of it repeats what was stated in the older section Early American fireplaces and cooking. This is because I was trying to put together some more information I found over the past couple years for a miniature colonial era room box I was going to make and got carried away. I found these pages misfiled on my laptop and decided to publish them here so I would always know exactly where they were.

CHIMNEYS
Chimney bases were of varying types and sizes, sometimes as big as 15 feet square. They would often have indentations in them for storing wine or preserves. They'd contain supports for the hearthstone above. Many bases were built in an arch which could be shallow or could be up to 7 or 8 ft. high. In one old house there were two chimneys with different bases. Another fireplace with a brick oven was in one of them. Here they did heavy work like dyeing or soap making, or sometimes roasting whole animals, freeing up the kitchen fireplace above. The other chimney base held a room which was used as a preserves closet with shelves.

A house with a large central square chimney would have a large kitchen fireplace and often 2 shallower, smaller ones on the 1st floor. A staircase would be built up along the 4th wall.

Occasionally kitchens would have a secondary fireplace next to the primary one, which would be used for heavy duty work like dyeing, soap making, etc.

The chimney would often have a slope above the main fireplace opening. This slope was called a shoulder. Often cupboards or shallow storage closets would be built into this space.

In the 1700's sometimes the interior of the parlor fireplace would often be plastered and whitewashed or decorated, sometimes including a painted faux baseboard to match the rest of the room.

Later, when stoves were installed, the fireplaces were often sealed up, allowing just the stove pipe in to access the chimney flue. Often a nice wooden mantel similar to the rest of the woodwork in the room would be added. As time went on people added paneling to their homes even in the kitchen. The brickwork would be paneled over and matching doors would be installed over the oven openings.

The 2nd floor of a central chimney stack house could have up to 3 shallow smaller fireplaces for heating.

Some chimneys had a flue for each fireplace, others had one flue, with openings for each fireplace. The former had a much greater draft and did a better job of carrying the smoke away. Over the years many fireplaces were made smaller, sometimes over and over again. This can possibly be attributed to the fact that there were fewer large logs available for burning as more and more trees were felled.

There were often smoke ovens or ham rooms somewhere within the chimney, and could be found anywhere from the cellar to the attic. Openings to smoke ovens could even be found in bedrooms or along staircases.

The smoke oven would have its own flue and some larger ones would have hooks or a pole from which to hang the meat to be smoked. A fire would be laid within the oven, often in an iron kettle. The fuel used was generally corncobs or hickory bark, which smoked but gave off no flame. A fresh fire was laid each day for 3 days to smoke the meat. If the oven was big enough to hold an entire animal it would be called a smoke room or ham room.

An addition to the chimney at the back of the house began appearing by the beginning of the 19th century called a set kettle. These were used for boiling water for washing clothes or any other purpose which required the boiling of a large amount of liquid.
Picture of a set kettle
Picture of a pair of set kettles

THE MAIN FIREPLACE IN THE KITCHEN
The fireplace in the main room, the "hall", was often up to 8 or 10 feet wide, 6 feet high and 6 feet deep. The fireplaces were often so high and broad that a settle could be placed at one side within them. This was a spot often allotted to small children or the elderly. If you think back to the story of Cinderella you can see how she managed to be sitting and sleeping in the ashes of the kitchen fireplace. It was a common custom in England to have a small window at the back of the fireplace. When window glass became more readily available in America, some fireplaces were built this way. Sometimes a wooden crane was hung at one end of the fireplace to hold a blanket which could screen people from the cold. Ink used to freeze in inkstands in rooms, it's been written also that sap oozing from a burning log froze before it caught on fire, so people tried every way they could to keep warm.
Chimney top openings were rather large, storms beat down them, and birds would fly in there to hide from the wind and make their nests. It was the law that chimneys had to be swept out every month or the owner would be fined. Generally small boys were sent up the chimney to do the job.

Cast iron fire backs were used to protect the back of hearth from heat from the fire. In large hearths the damage to these bricks was so great they sometimes had to replace them completely. Generally fire backs were not very big, from 15" wide and up to 36" or so for a very large fireplace.

BAKING IN THE OVENS
At first all cooking was done in and over the fire. The oldest houses had no ovens, though they were often added later.
When ovens were introduced, they were originally in the back wall of the fireplace or at one side of the opening within the fireplace itself, but this was not popular, as it made the oven harder to use.
Soon they began building the ovens as a separate unit beside the fireplace. The interior of the oven was a beehive shape, with a domed roof. The early ovens were @ 30" in diameter. In some cases the oven had its own flue. They had an arched door which was covered with a wooden panel. The panel was set close up to the bricks and rested in its handle. There was a small flue in the arch of the oven door that led to the chimney, which caused air circulation which helped the wood placed in the oven burn. Generally bundles of twigs, called faggots, were used to build the fire in the oven. When the bricks were thoroughly hot, the hot embers and ashes could be raked out and the oven could be used for baking. Loaves would be slid into the oven on a peel, and the bread was left to bake in the slowly cooling oven.
Sometimes oak or cabbage leaves would be laid on the floor of the oven in lieu of baking pans, depending on what was being baked.

The early wooden oven door panels would have been soaked in water so they wouldn't catch fire from the heat of the oven. Sometimes the gaps around the door would be filled in with strips of dough. When these strips were cooked the loaves inside were generally also done.

After the baking of the bread, the oven still contained just enough heat to bake a second round of cakes or biscuits. The very word biscuit means 'second-cooked'.

Part of the skill baking lay in being able to judge just how hot the oven was.
A cookbook from 1882 reveals that even then cooks had to use a mixture of observation and guesswork to deduce the temperature of their ovens:
If a sheet of paper burns when thrown in, the oven is too hot.
When the paper becomes dark brown, it is suitable for pastry.
When light brown, it does pies.
When dark yellow, for cakes.
When light yellow, for puddings, biscuits and small pastry.

Another oven set up was one in which an ash oven was used below the bake oven. A fire was built in the ash oven and the heat rose through a vent up into the bake oven. This oven cooled off more quickly, because the bricks didn't get as hot.

When tin doors became available they replaced the wooden panels. By the beginning of the 19th c. cast iron doors on hinges were becoming more common because they held the heat in better and didn't need to be constantly replaced.

Sometimes ovens were built in a separate secondary kitchen in back of the house, called a back kitchen, or in another building altogether called a bake house. These ovens were generally heated once a week, and all baking, and much stewing and drying, etc., was gathered together for the "baking day. Baking day meant a full forty-eight hours of heat that covered much more than plain bread baking.

Early in the day the oven would be used for baking breads, pies, cakes and pastries. As the oven slowly cooled it would be used for other jobs like drying feathers that were used for pillows and bedding, for bottling fruit, drying and preserving meats and fish for winter storage, drying herbs, making charcoal, and even drying firewood for the following week.
From an old description:
"I have known a very large brick oven, heated in the middle of the day with one good-sized faggot and a log or two of cord wood, still warm enough at eight or nine o'clock at night to make delicate small cakes and macaroons and custards, and dry apples, etc. It is a great convenience and economy in many families to have a means of preparing food for several days' consumption, and heating the brick oven weekly renders them entirely independent of bakers and confectioners."

To Heat a Brick Oven (with wood) - from an old book
"Lay a quantity of shavings or light dry fuel in the centre of the oven and some small branches of faggot wood upon them; over these place as many of the larger branches as will make a tolerably large fire, and set light to it. As the wood consumes, keep adding to it, throwing in stout pieces of faggot and, lastly, two or three moderately sized logs. From one to two hours will be required to heat the brick oven thoroughly. Towards the end of the time the fire (which has been in the centre) should be spread all over the floor of the oven so that the whole floor may be heated evenly.
When the fire is burnt out and the red pulsing ceases, scrape out the charcoal, letting it drop down through the slot at the oven door, and brush out the small ash with a broom of twigs.
Then take a large clean mop, dip it in hot water, and mop over every part of the inside of the oven, clearing out the last of the ash, and leaving a little steam within the oven. Leave the oven closed for some little time, to even the heat, before you open it and fill it.
If the oven seems too hot, it is better to close the door, and leave the bread to cook evenly, than to try to hurry the cooling by leaving the door open, as that cools unevenly. Once the bread is packed in, do not open the oven door till two hours have elapsed, and after drawing out the bread, have the rest of your linking ready to put in, and shut the oven again instantly. And so you may go on, till your oven is quite cold. Last of all put in the kindling you will want to make the fire the following week, so that you can be sure it is ready and dry." (1800)

COOKING ON THE HEARTH

One of the most important accessories of the 17th & 18th century kitchen fireplace was the crane. It was a wrought iron bracket that hung on the back wall and made to swing to and fro over the hearth. The simplest ones only swung back and forth, but some had up to 3 different movements. Pots hung from them with pot hooks or "tramells". Chains with large links were also used. Sometimes they were hung from a bar that spanned the chimney opening called a lug pole. These were originally made of wood. Generally most fireplace tools and cookware were similar to those in England going back to Tudor times. The earliest skillets brought over from Europe were shallow pans with slightly rounded bottoms and stood on 3 legs with a long handle. They varied from 6" to 12" wide. In the early days they were called "posnets" or "pipkins", and used for cooking in the embers. These skillets were more akin to what we today would call a saucepot.

Another form of skillet had a flat bottom and straight shallow sides. This flat bottomed skillet had a short handle and 3 short legs and was called a "spider". "Fry pans" were of iron with 3 foot long handles with holes at the tip of the handle so they could be hung up when not in use. The short handled frying pan came into being when stoves began to be more commonly used.
A pot had bulging sides and a cover. A kettle had sloping sides and no cover of it's own.
Pots, pans, and skillets were called "hollow ware". They began to be manufactured in the colonies @ 1725.

Families prided themselves on the amount of brass kettles they had. Very large kettles were called cauldrons and were usually of copper, brass or iron. They could be extremely valuable and would be passed on in wills.
There were always trivets, of assorted sizes, both high and low. Short legged ones for keeping things close to the fire, longer legged ones for thinks that needed to be simmered slowly further from the heat.
The "cat" was akin to the trivet. It was made of 3 wooden or iron poles that crossed in the middle, making a crotch in which to place a dish. It would stand securely with 3 arms facing up and 3 down.
Other fireplace implements are included tongs, shovels and forks, and bellows or borders which could be mechanical or simple tubes that were iron pipes the bottom of which rested in the embers. One would blow into the tube, thereby livening up the embers, but they were never very popular.
In the evening, before retiring, the fire would be raked into a pile and covered with a curfew which was usually made of brass or copper. It would be placed over the embers and bushed to the back wall of the hearth. In the morning it would be removed, the embers raked apart and fresh fuel laid on.
Other implements that were in use were toasting racks, ladles, skimmers toasting forks, warming pans, etc.

An unusual contrivance for turning a spit was an iron fan, set up in the chimney flue. It was kept in motion by the draft passing up the chimney. Chains went down from it to the spit in front of the fire and the revolving of the fan turned the spit.

A tin roasting oven was in use by 1790, and may have been invented as early as 1729. It was a half cylinder reflective oven, with a door that opened in the back so that you could check the meat and baste it. The meat juices were collected in the curved bottom and there was a snout at one end to pour them out when the meat was done. The meat was fastened to a spit that ran through the oven, with a hand crank at one end.. They could be anywhere from 1 foot to 4 feet long. There were also specialized roasters for birds, apples and rabbits.
Dutch ovens were also widely used, especially for bread baking. In some cases it was common to bake in an inverted iron cauldron with the ashes heaped around it or standing on the hearth with the top closed with a lid or iron plate.

In the south, bread was baked in a flattened cake form on the head of an iron hoe, the handle of which stuck out from the hearth into the room. The cake was generally made of corn meal or a corn meal mixture and came to be called hoe cakes. In the north similar cakes were baked on small wooden boards called bannock boards, thus called bannock cakes. The bannock would be propped up against a kettle or on its own handle if it had one and the bread would bake in front of the fire.

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The following section has some additional information about early American fireplaces, cooking and baking. Some of it repeats what was stated in the older section Early American fireplaces and cooking. This is because I was trying to put together some more information I found over the past couple years for a miniature colonial era room box I was going to make and got carried away.

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It is difficult to imagine how our earliest colonial ancestors fed themselves. The first colonists found no supermarkets, no restaurants, and no hotels or inns. There were no refrigerators, no canned foods, and ways of packing and preserving provisions were not as reliable as modern methods. These settlers were mostly on their own and neither the Pilgrims of Massachusetts nor the Cavaliers of Virginia coped very well during the first few years. However, the Plymouth colonists and those of Massachusetts Bay did become self-sufficient in a short number of years. Virginians remained dependent on supplies from England and did not become self-sufficient farmers until after tobacco was cultivated as a commercial crop by John Rolfe. Notably, both groups of colonists were also dependent on trade with and the expertise of Indigenous Americans.

While arriving in a new land in the late fall did not help, the reality is that the first colonists simply were not prepared to become hunters, fishers, and farmers overnight. The situation called for men and women used to hard labor. Instead, both the north and the south got refugees from the middle class - merchants, industrialists, trades people, and artisans who were not immediately needed, though they would have been valuable once the problem of feeding and housing everyone had been solved.

The fact that these early colonists brought their English preferences for consumable goods and were leery of trying new things exacerbated the problem of finding food. While the Dutch of New Amsterdam were impressed by the size of the lobsters in the ocean, Plymouth settlers thought that because lobsters piled up on the beaches in huge quantities they were only good for poor people who could afford nothing better. In 1623, when a group of new colonists arrived in Plymouth, Governor William Bradford was deeply humiliated because his colony was so short of food that the only "dish they could presente their friends with was a lobster ... without bread or anything els but a cupp of fair water." Storms on the coast also left tidal pools full of crabs that the colonists wouldn't eat, as well as the oysters and mussels that were available. Clams became accepted in time, but it is recorded that in the 1620's the Pilgrims fed clams and mussels to their hogs saying that they were "the meanest of God's blessings."

Other available fish included salmon that swam through the rivers each year, returning from the sea to spawn. Sea trout, eels, herring, mackerel and sea bass were also abundant. Of course, the first fishing vessels had to be built and sent from England. Game in the forests included deer, bear, moose, squirrel, raccoon, rabbit, fox, wolf, beaver, and otters. Birds were plentiful and the rivers and lakes had ducks, geese, swans and cranes.

The forests were full of edible mushrooms, nuts, blueberries, huckleberries, strawberries, gooseberries, blackberries, raspberries, elderberries, wild cherries, and currants. The shores were fringed with cranberry bogs, groves of wild beach plums, crab apples, and in Virginia sweet red and white grapevines spiraled up the trees. However, while the plants resembled species known in Europe, the colonists considered the new foods potentially poisonous until they had been examined carefully or had been taught about them by Indigenous Americans.

Since the colonists were unwilling to risk consuming unfamiliar foods, they divided up the remaining food supplies from England including hardtack, dried fish, cheese, and beer. But these supplies were soon exhausted and they started to use Indian corn (also called flint corn) even though it was new to them. The alternative was to starve.

What did colonists eat once they began farming? Much of early American cuisine was geared toward survival. It took time for rye, barley, oats, and wheat brought from Europe to adapt to new growing conditions in America. Since wheat and rye were initially scarce and soon were reserved for bread and pies, the colonists planted and used corn, or maize, for everything else. Two vegetables were also adopted by the early colonists - the American bean and the squash. In time, they added the potato, sweet potato, and Jerusalem artichoke to their diet.

Rough brown bread or biscuit was a staple, made from a mix of wheat flour and cornmeal. Breads were skillet-cooked, or risen and baked in a clay or loam oven. Fruit tarts were made the same way. Flour had to be ground from the grains. When wheat rust (a disease caused by fungi) became a problem, rye flour was substituted and the combination produced a crust so hard it could be used instead of a spoon to scoop up other foods. Colonists consumed white hard bread or hardtack (crackers). Oats appeared in many dishes from porridge - a soft food made by boiling oatmeal in water or milk - to "flummery," a jelly-like substance made of flour and oatmeal, flavored with spices and dried fruit.

Some of the seeds brought over by the Mayflower may not have flourished. The 1621 pea crop failed, but the barley survived and provided colonists with malt for beer. Beets, cabbages, carrots, lettuce, melons, onions, parsnips, radishes, and turnips were grown and often mixed together with other ingredients in hot or cold sallets (salads). When those ran short, settlers turned to oatmeal, pease puddings, and boiled mush (a thick porridge or pudding of cornmeal boiled in water or milk).

Corn was not eaten as sweet corn-on-the-cob or popcorn - it was roasted or "parched." There was no "Indian pudding" since there was no molasses. The early use of cranberries was restricted because sugar was scarce. Cranberries may have been used in stuffings that were called "puddings in the belly." Later, when sugar and other sweeteners were available, cranberries were made into jelly or preserves.

Another staple of the diet was called "pease porridge" which gradually developed into New England baked beans. Pease porridge was traditional cold-weather fare for New Englanders of all classes. In the 18th century, "pease" became known as "pea beans" (same crop, different name).

Everything was washed down with beer, aqua vitae (brandy or "strong waters") or water. Milk was not drunk whole, but as whey. Children drank beer. There was no cider - apples, pears, and other orchard fruits needed years to mature into fruit-bearing trees. Once the colonists began using native fruits, most of them were dried and preserved.

There is no exact record of animals on the Mayflower, but there were probably chickens, goats, and perhaps a few pigs. The records about cattle divisions show that cows arrived soon after the Mayflower on other ships. However, livestock was initially too precious to be killed for food since the live animals provided families with milk and fresh eggs. Also cream from cow's milk was churned into butter.

"Game made the settlement of America possible," says one historian. For a considerable time after the arrival of the first settlers, game was not only the main meat eaten by the colonists, it was often the main food. Game was relied on even after hogs and cows were more numerous.

When meat was available, New Englanders boiled it right along with the vegetables without seasonings of any kind. The sense of sameness in New England food was deepened by its dining habits. On Yankee tables, every dish arrived at the same time "all piled together, without regard to French doctrine of courses." A heavy pudding stuffed into a cloth bag could steam atop the vegetables and meat. Broth from this boiled dinner could reappear as "pottage" with the addition of minced herbs and some oatmeal or barley for thickening.

English cooking emphasized meats, with wild game and fowl most desirable. Meats were spit-roasted for hours above an open fire or boiled, and fish boiled or grilled. Bread, puddings, and beer shared the table. Foods and sauces were flavored using dried fruits (sugar supplies were nearly exhausted by 1621), and some spices. The colonists would have brought a supply of cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, ginger, cloves and pepper, but allspice from South America came into use later.

Virginians preferred to roast, simmer, or fry their food using spices such as marjoram, thyme, and savory to flavor it. While New Englanders filled up on their baked beans, colonists in the south resorted to fricassees - poultry or meat cut into pieces and stewed in gravy in an open pan. Chicken, rabbit, veal, venison, lamb, and fowl all found their way into fricassees. By the 18th century, fried chicken had already become a distinct regional dish. A staple of the poorer colonists in the south was a one-dish meal called a "mess," usually consisting of greens and salt meat (salt-cured meat), seasoned with wild herbs. Another was hominy or the corn porridge called mush.

The main drawback to meat was that it would not keep and therefore it was usually eaten during the winter. When the weather was hot, there was no point in killing game or livestock unless it could be eaten in the next meal or two. Preserving it by smoking, drying, or pickling it was not impossible, just more difficult.

Butchering game and livestock was back breaking work and definitely not for the squeamish. A hog, for instance, first had to be killed. Then the carcass was dragged to the scalding boards where boiling water was splashed on it, allowing the fat to spread and making it easier to shave and scrape off hair. Next, the carcass was hoisted onto poles hanging from a tree and gutted. The entrails, liver, heart, lungs, and stomach were collected in a tub and then buried.

The next job was to cut off the head. Some people liked fried hogs brains so those were saved. Then came carving up the carcass. First the shoulders were cut off which could be left whole, like hams, and put in the smokehouse. Next the belly and back were sectioned into loins, followed by the fine work of sectioning off the ribs for pork chops and tenderloins.

The last job, except for salting the hams and shoulders and bacon, was to separate the fat from the meat underneath. Bacon was carved off and the fat was sliced into sections from 6 inches to a foot long. It was a greasy job and hard to hold onto a knife.

Then it was time to render the lard and make sausage. The fat was diced into smaller pieces and placed in a large pot set over a fire. This was perhaps the most dangerous operation because boiling fat produced oil and grease that was highly flammable. If the grease fell in the fire, it would explode. The fat from an average hog could produce about ten buckets of lard.

If growing, hunting, fishing, trapping, and butchering the food weren't enough, it also had to be cooked. That chore fell to the women. (Over time, and as the colonies grew, wealthier families would have servants or enslaved people-both males and females-doing most of the cooking and household chores.) The first housewives would not have had cookbooks. However, they were probably aware of culinary trends - and trained in basic roasting, stewing, boiling, broiling, spicing, saucing, and other cooking techniques. Yet even the simplest of meals required many skills. Cooking was done over an open fire on the hearth and the first fireplaces were rather primitive affairs made of stones cleared from the fields. Thanks to incoming ships and more skilled workers, these first crude structures were soon replaced with fireplaces made of brick and mortar.

The first utensil the 17th century cook enjoyed - often the only one - was a large iron kettle with three short legs that allowed it to stand directly in the hearth over the flames or embers. Sometimes it was hung over the fire suspended by a hook made of green wood that would not easily catch fire. Sometimes the hook caught fire anyway or was used too long and broke, dumping the dinner into the flames. The kettle was heavy, too, weighing as much as forty pounds. Manipulating it was exhausting and dangerous and burns were commonplace. Other problems included embers hopping into the soup, which was likely to happen if hemlock or chestnut was used to make the fire. Both of these woods have a tendency to throw sparks. At other times, grease from meat spitted over the fire would drip into the flames and cause a larger fire.

The fireplaces were cavernous and cooks could stand in them, often regulating several fires at any given time. The cook needed to manage without kitchen timers and thermometers, regulating the fire temperature by lowering or raising the pots, turning the spit, adjusting the embers, and calculating the position of the sun. Baking was the most difficult because it required an oven and a supply of yeast. Yeast and fires both had to be kept going since it was difficult to start either of them again. Yeast had to taken from the top of fermenting ale or beer or a piece of dough from an earlier baking. If a fire went out, there were no matches. Someone would have to go with a fire pan to a neighbor, if one lived nearby, and borrow some of their coals. If this was inconvenient, a tinder box was used. Tinder was made by charring cotton or linen rags. Then the tinder was ignited by the sparks created when a piece of steel was struck with a piece of flint. Once the tinder was burning, a small sliver of wood or a homemade match (a piece of wood dipped in melted brimstone [sulphur]) was set on fire by the tinder and used to start the larger fire. If all conditions were right, it could take just a few minutes to start a fire this way.

The first permanent ovens were simply brick compartments built into the inside walls of the fireplace. Baking was a chore performed perhaps once a week to provide enough bread to last until the next baking day. If the oven was big enough, everything was put in at the same time, the bread that took the longest to bake was put in the back and smaller items were placed toward the front so they could be easily removed when done.

Clearly, cooking and fire-tending were time-consuming chores. Wives (and often the female children) were also involved in early-morning milking, egg gathering, and butter-churning, as well as planting and tending the gardens.

Keeping the household running was a difficult and challenging job. Wives bought, sold, or traded their produce or other staples for what they needed from other families in the village. As settlements grew, this often meant trekking on foot, horseback, or by wagon from one village to the next in order to obtain the needed items.

While the early days of the colonies didn't really involve a "cuisine," women played a vital role in the colonies. A family's very survival depended on the women of the family to literally keep the home fires burning and everyone fed.
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Cuisine | Bibliography

Anderson, Ken. "Hardtack." Accessed 6/3/19. http://www.kenanderson.net/hardtack/

Archaeology Magazine. "Thanksgiving at Plimoth Plantation: Kathleen Curtin." Accessed 6/3/19. http://archive.archaeology.org/online/interviews/curtin.html

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90.05.04.x.html

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It is difficult to imagine how our earliest colonial ancestors fed themselves. The first colonists found no supermarkets, no restaurants, and no hotels or inns. There were no refrigerators, no canned foods, and ways of packing and preserving provisions were not as reliable as modern methods.

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Education in colonial America varied by region. The New England colonies, Middle colonies, and Southern colonies each had their own principles that they deemed most important to a child's education. Each region's schools and methods were tailored to teach those principles to the next generation.
Schools in the New England colonies were based largely on religion. Religious principles were taught, prayers and scriptures were memorized and recited, and the primary purpose for learning how to read was to read the Bible.

In fact, the Puritans believed that illiteracy was the work of Satan to prevent people from being able to read the Bible. Accordingly, Massachusetts Bay passed a law in 1647 called the Deluder Satan Act. It required that all New England villages of 50 families or more hire a teacher for reading and writing. Towns that grew to 100 families were also required to set up a Latin grammar school to prepare young men for college. The teacher's salary was to be paid by the parents of the children who attended the school.

Children used quill pens and inkwells to write. Their primers and hornbooks were a precursor to today's textbooks. Primers were books that contained the alphabet, poems, rhymes, scriptures, numbers, and other useful information. Colonial children also used hornbooks, which were a type of primer. Hornbooks were made of wood and shaped like a paddle. A few pieces of parchment with basic lessons written on them were attached. A clear sheet of horn covered the parchment to protect it from damage.

Young children in the colonies sometimes attended private dame schools, which were similar to a modern day-care center. A woman, often a widow, taught children the alphabet, counting, and prayers as she went about her day. In most cases, this was the only formal education that girls received.

In the more diverse Middle colonies, education took place at schools run by a distinct religious group. Besides reading and math skills, religious principles and culture were also passed down to the next generation. Overall, more emphasis was placed on apprenticeships and practical education in the Middle colonies than on traditional school subjects. Boys around the age of 12 learned the skills of a specific trade with an apprentice outside the home, who also provided room and board. Girls were taught at home by their parents or a governess, where they learned household skills such as sewing, cooking, gardening, and nursing. Wealthier families sent their boys to community schools, where they learned subjects such as mathematics, history, languages, and literature.

Social class heavily determined the quality and amount of education children received in the Southern colonies. Geography also played a part-plantations were so far apart from one another that community schools did not exist. In the upper classes, a governess taught girls in their homes just enough reading, writing, and mathematics to help them run their own household someday. After being taught basic subjects by a hired tutor, most young men were sent to England to complete their education. Some stayed abroad to attend medical or law school, but most returned to help their fathers run the family plantation. Children born in the lower classes received a very minimal education, but instead learned practical skills through apprenticeships that lasted between 3-10 years.
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Education | Bibliography

Education | Image Credits

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Education in colonial America varied by region. The New England colonies, Middle colonies, and Southern colonies each had their own principles that they deemed most important to a child's education. Each region's schools and methods were tailored to teach those principles to the next generation.

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Colonial Clothing
The plain and simple Colonial Clothing was a public expression of the beliefs of the Puritans which encompassed the notion of simplicity. Puritans practised strictness and austerity in their religion, lifestyle and conduct. The Colonial Clothing worn by Puritan men and women reflected their belief in austerity. Puritans were strongly opposed to sensual pleasures and were strong advocates of propriety, modesty and and decorum. Once again, the early Colonial Clothing of the Puritans reflected these beliefs.

Colonial Clothing for Men
The Colonial Clothing worn by Puritan men were quite heavy and made from materials such as wool, linen or leather. The items of Colonial Clothing worn by Puritan men included the following:

Long-length, loose linen shirts

Breeches which were short length pants that were fastened at the knee

Socks - long woolen socks were worn

A jerkin which was a sleeveless jacket which could be made of cloth or leather

A doublet which was a padded jacket with sleeves

Belts were sometimes worn

Plain leather shoes, usually without buckles

Hats - often quite large in a variety of style, usually wide-brimmed

Coats or capes were worn as protection from the cold and the rain

Colonial Clothing for Women
The Colonial Clothing worn by Puritan women were also quite heavy and made from materials such as wool and linen. The items of Colonial Clothing worn by Puritan women included the following:

Long-length, loose shift which was worn as an undergarment. The sleeves were sometimes removable and could be tied on

The shift was covered by petticoats

Long gowns or skirts with a jacket were worn as the outer clothing

Belts were sometimes worn

Socks - long woollen stockings

Plain leather shoes

All clothes were held in place by tying them with laces

An apron was usually worn over the women's clothes

The women wore their hair long but it would have been deemed unseemly for hair to be shown. Hair was therfore hidden under a close-fitting coif

Coats or capes were worn as protection from the cold and the rain

Colonial Clothing for Children
The clothing of very young children, both boys and girls were simple shifts. The Colonial Clothing worn by children over the age of seven were similar in style to those worn by adults. The items of Colonial Clothing worn by children therefore consisted of smaller versions of the clothes worn by Puritan men and women.

Colonial Clothing for Servants
The colonial clothing of servants clung on to the old traditional color of blue clothing as it had been for many years in England. The dye to produce the color blue in England (woad) was cheap and the color blue was always associated with servitude.

Colonial Clothing - Sumptuary Laws
English Sumptuary Laws had long dictated what colors and type of clothing individuals were allowed to own and wear - an easy and immediate way to identify rank and privilege. The Sumptuary Laws maintained class distinctions but also repressed luxury and discouraged extravagance, especially among the lower classes. The laws regulated ostentatious expenditure on dress and ornaments. Many of the Sumptuary laws that governed much of the dress worn in England were repealed in 1603 by King James I. The repeal of the Sumptuary Laws in England was a bad decision from the Puritan point of view and led to excess in apparel - the complete opposite of their view on Puritan Colonial clothing.

Colonial Clothing - Sumptuary Laws introduced in America
When the New England colonies were becoming established the Puritans introduced Sumptuary Laws specifying rules for colonial clothing in America. In 1651, both the magistrates and deputies of Massachusetts agreed on the following piece of legislation which included the following:

"...declare our utter detestation and dislike that men or women of mean condition, educations, and callings should take upon them the garb of gentlemen, by the wearing of gold or silver lace, or buttons, or points at their knees, to walk in great boots; or women of the same rank to wear tiffany hoods or scarves, which though allowable to persons of greater estates, or more liberal education, yet we cannot but judge it intollerable in persons of such like condition..."

The Puritan's views on the wearing of simple Puritan clothes were enforced by law in the American colonies therefore dictating the styles of colonial clothing.

Colonial Clothing - Meaning of Colors
The colors of the Colonial Clothing of the Puritans were sombre. The range of colors used in Puritan Colonial Clothing included russet (a reddish brown color), black, gray, brown, green, dull pale yellow and blue. Accessories such as collars, cuffs, aprons and handkerchiefs were usually white. The symbolic meaning of the color white was purity and virtue. There were symbolic meanings of other colors which the Puritans approved of in Puritan clothes and colonial clothing. So the actual color of Colonial Clothing reflected their strong religious beliefs.

Black Colonial Clothing symbolized humility and plainness and could be cheaply produced by using coarse, rough, un-dyed dark wool

The color blue was closely associated with servitude and was a popular color of colonial clothing worn by servants. Woad was a source of cheap blue dye. The Biblical meaning of blue symbolized heavenly grace

Cheap dyes made from the Madder root produced red-based colors including orange, russet and brown. The symbolic meaning of the color orange and russet was a symbol of courage. The meaning of the color brown was humility and poverty

Cheap dyes were used to produce Colonial clothing in the color gray. The meaning of the color gray was repentance. Gray is also associated with Lent and therefore closely associated with fasting and prayer

Cheap dyes were also used to produce the color green usually from lichen and vegetable dyes. The meaning of the color green was renewal of life and nature

Cheap dyes such as weld were used to produce a pale color yellow. The meaning of the color yellow was renewal and hope

If you look at pictures of Puritan Colonial Clothing the colors they wore will all be confirmed. The additional information regarding the symbolic and religious meaning of Puritan clothes and colonial clothing provides an insight into the beliefs of the Puritans and early colonists. The Puritans were strong advocates of propriety, modesty and decorum which are all words that can be associated with Colonial Clothing.

Colonial Clothing - Textiles
Different types of textiles were used not only to make clothing but also to make bedding, linens, curtains, ship sails and upholstery. Textiles used during the colonial era were made chiefly from wool and flax. Cotton was used less often for colonial clothing.

A material called serge, which was a durable twilled woolen fabric, was commonly used for bed curtains, upholstery and clothing. Linsey-woolsey, or wincey, was a strong, coarse fabric that was a combination of linen and wool and a popular textile for colonial clothing. During the colonial period, less than 50% of all households had spinning wheels used for spinning yarn from wool and knitting sweaters and stockings. Fewer than 10% owned looms that weaved yarn into textiles.

Colonial Clothing

Interesting Facts and information about Colonial Clothing

Facts and info about Colonial Clothing for men and women

Fast Facts and info about the colors and meaning of Colonial Clothing

Colonial Clothing - and educational resource for kids

Social Studies Homework help for kids on the Colonial Clothing

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Check out this site for facts about the Colonial Clothing of Colonial America. Colonial Clothing worn by men, women and children. Facts and information about the colors of Colonial Clothing,

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Love looking at beautiful houses? Ever wonder why they look the way they do? You're not alone, which is why we decided to get down to the nitty-gritty of several common architectural styles to learn where and when each came to be known, and the distinguishing details of each style, so you can identify them like a pro. The more you know, ya know? First up: American Colonial.
American Colonial architecture has a pretty self-explanatory origin story: We can trace its emergence as a common house style in the American colonies during colonial rule (1600s to mid-1700s). Throughout the United States, there are examples of Spanish, French, Dutch, and British Colonial architecture, since we had settlers from all of those countries inhabit parts of what is now the U.S. for varying amounts of time.

However, when you hear American Colonial architecture, you can assume it means British Colonial architecture in America. That's because (1) America was under British colonial rule for the longest time and in the largest area, and (2) British Colonial as a type of architecture "is much less defined than it sounds given the vastness of the British Empire and the highly varied responses its colonial architecture took within each colony," according to Andrew Cogar, architect and president of Historical Concepts, an Atlanta- and New York-based architecture firm that specializes in traditional-yet-modern residences that are inspired by historical precedent.

Before going any further, it's important to point out that architectural styles are not hard-and-fast rules. Two houses built "in the same architectural style, while they may share many similar attributes, can have highly varied results," Andrew says. Even within the American colonies, there are differences in the climates and building materials readily available that influence how homes are constructed-not to mention space constraints that determine how homes are designed in urban areas versus rural ones. As Andrew points out, though, "individual and regional distinctions aside, architectural styles share key attributes that are easily recognizable within each style."

What Defines American Colonial Homes:

Traditional American Colonial homes are fairly simple. Similar to the homes colonists lived in back in England, they're rectangular, typically two stories, and fairly symmetrical. They have steep, side-gabled roofs, which means the triangular portion of the roof is only visible from the sides; looking at the front door, you only see shingles. Traditionally built with wood and sometimes stone (AKA the materials available), these homes were only one room deep and two or three rooms wide, with either one massive, central fireplace or fireplaces at both ends of the house. They have a centered front door and the same number of small, multi-paned windows on either side of and above the door.

Andrew says that what he loves about this relatively plain house style is "the honest and earnest expression of detail and form," and that the overall look of an American Colonial house is much more dependent on the size and proportions of the roof "than it is from specific architectural detailing or ornament." He also notes that the American Colonial style is versatile, "and can feel just as much minimalist modern as it does traditional and historic, especially with the use of oversized glass door and window openings."

What Separates True American Colonial Style From 'Inspired' Ones:

True American Colonial homes stopped being built around the time of the American Revolution-popular building styles evolved with the dawn of a new country and the kicking of British influence to the curb-but the essence of American Colonial architecture continues to be a popular building style today across the United States. As Andrew points out, the lines defining each specific architecture style can get a bit blurred when a style experiences a revival. "While drawing heavily on their predecessor styles, revival styles take a previous generation's architecture and revisit it in their current cultural and technological style," he says, "effectively reinventing it for their own needs."
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Here's Exactly What An American Colonial-Style House Is

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Love looking at beautiful houses? Ever wonder why they look the way they do? We're getting down to the nitty-gritty of several common architectural styles in order to learn where and when each came to be known, and the distinguishing details of each style so you can identify them like a pro.

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The colonial meeting house was the central focus of every New England town. These structures were usually the largest building in the town. They were very simple buildings with no statues, decorations, or stained glass. Crosses would not even hang on the walls.

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History >> Colonial America

Places and Buildings in Town
Meetinghouse

One of the first buildings built in many colonial American towns was the meetinghouse. The meetinghouse served both as the Puritan church and as the meeting place for the citizens to discuss issues and make plans. Everyone in the town was responsible for helping to build and maintain the meetinghouse.

The Courthouse in Williamsburg
Photo by Ducksters

Courthouse

Larger cities would often have a courthouse where the local judge would oversee disputes and punish crimes. After hearing the evidence and testimony, the judge would quickly make his ruling and any punishments could be carried out immediately.

Gaol

The gaol was the town jail. The word "gaol" is pronounced just like "jail." People were held in the gaol while they awaited their trials or punishment. Prisoners might include criminals, debtors, and runaway slaves.

Magazine

The magazine was a building designed to hold the town's weapons including muskets, swords, pikes, and gunpowder. The magazine was often a stone or brick building to help make it fireproof as it stored the town's gunpowder.

The Magazine in Williamsburg
Photo by Ducksters

Church

The church was often the center of the town. Everyone in the town was expected, sometimes by law, to attend church on Sunday. Churches in Colonial America were generally fairly simple buildings.

Post Office

Major towns would have a post office where mail could be sent between the colonies. The mail was slow and unreliable at first, but was much improved by the late 1700s. The post office usually was home to the town printer and newspaper. It was a great place to get the latest news and learn what was going on in the region.

Tavern

Most larger towns had a number of taverns. Taverns were places to get a cooked meal and a drink. They were also important meeting places. Men would go to the tavern after work to discuss business and politics. A lot of plans for the American Revolution were made by patriots in taverns across the colonies.

Governor's House

Each colony had a special house where the governor lived. This was usually the largest home in the town. The governor's home was where town leaders often met to discuss issues and make new laws.

The Governor's Palace in Williamsburg
Photo by Ducksters

Market Square

At the center of the town was often a large open square where people could meet and trade goods. Farmers could set up booths to sell produce and small merchants could peddle their goods. Major outdoor events took place at the market square including holiday celebrations and athletic contests.

Coffeehouse

The coffeehouse was sort of an elite form of the tavern. Only gentlemen were allowed inside the coffeehouse where they would drink mostly non-alcoholic beverages such as coffee, tea, and chocolate. It was a place where wealthy and educated men made business deals and discussed intellectual topics.

Colonial Shops
Photo by Ducksters

Shops

Colonial towns had plenty of shops to buy all sorts of items such as shoes, tools, food, candles, clothing, paper, and furniture. Most shops specialized in one area like the wigmaker who made custom wigs or the apothecary who made medicines.

Interesting Facts about Places in a Colonial Town

Many early settlements, like Jamestown, were forts surrounded by walls for protection from the natives as well as other colonial powers like France and Spain.

Larger towns were able to establish colleges for higher education including Harvard (founded in Massachusetts in 1636) and William and Mary (founded in Virginia in 1693).

The millinery was a store that sold clothing accessories (hats, ruffles, shifts, aprons, cloth). It was one of the few stores that was typically owned by a woman.

The harbor was an important place of trade and business for many colonial towns that were located on the coast.

Activities

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Works Cited

History >> Colonial America

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Kids learn about the places and buildings in a typical town of Colonial America including the meetinghouse, magazine, gaol, post office, tavern, market square, and shops.

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Colonial Williamsburg Education Resource Library

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Featured Video - American Revolution - Colonial Holiday Traditions

Colonial Holiday Traditions

Discover how the holidays were celebrated by Jamestown settlers and Revolutionary War soldiers. These videos highlight colonial holiday traditions, which are featured in our annual special events "Foods & Feasts of Colonial Virginia" and "A Colonial Christmas."

Visit during the holiday season and save with the Web-only special History is Fun! for the Holidays Ticket.

Foods & Feasts of Colonial Virginia
During the Thanksgiving holiday, explore foodways of 17th- and 18th-century Virginia during the annual special event "Foods & Feasts of Colonial Virginia," a three day event beginning on Thanksgiving Day at Jamestown Settlement and the Yorktown Victory Center.

A Colonial Christmas
The annual special event "A Colonial Christmas" offers a glimpse of 17th- and 18th-century holiday traditions with special tours and interpretive programs throughout the month of December. From December 26 through 31, musical entertainment of the period is also included. Songs and sounds of the season will be performed during the week by musicians on fifes and drums, guitar, violin, recorder, and pipe and tabor.

>> Ship Shape! Activity Sheet

An Electronic Classroom Adventure for Teachers and Students The Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation partnered with WHRO in 2007 to create a series of five educational videos about Jamestown.

>> Eat Like a Powhatan Activity Sheet

These films envision the conversations of Generals George Washington and Charles Cornwallis, as they reflect on the American Revolution and their pivotal role in how it plays out.

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Colonial Holiday Traditions - History Is Fun

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Discover how the holidays were celebrated by Jamestown settlers and Revolutionary War soldiers. These videos highlight colonial holiday traditions, which are featured in our annual special events "Foods & Feasts of Colonial Virginia" and "A Colonial Christmas." Visit during the holiday season and save with the Web-only special History is Fun!