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A 504 Service Agreement is part of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act.  This Act ensures that a person cannot be discriminate against due to a disability.  It is used when individuals may not need accommodations in instruction but may need accommodations in environment in order to obtain a free and appropriate education. Section 504 requires that students with disabilities receive appropriate educational services designed to meet the individual needs to the same extent as the needs of students without disabilities are met. An appropriate education for a student with a disability under the Section 504 regulations could consist of education in regular classrooms, education in regular classes with supplementary services, and/or special education and related services. Disabilities could be mental or emotional, physical, or medical.  In order to be eligible for a 504 plan it must be determined that the disability must substantially limit major life activities, or there must be record of a disability that substantially limits activity, or there must be the thought that the disability will substantially limit activity. Major life activities include, but are not limited to, caring for one's self, performing manual tasks, walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, and working. The 504 Plan accommodates the needs of these students and provides them with opportunities that are necessary for them to be at the same level as their peers in the educational program. The facilities include wheelchair ramps, extra set of books, home instructions, specific diet lunches, blood sugar monitoring, tape recorder, or keyboard to take note, rearranging furniture, etc. Determination for a 504 plan is made by a team consisting of teachers, parents, and other appropriate school personnel. In some cases testing and evaluations need to be completed to determine eligibility. A 504 plan allows for instructional accommodations for students who do not qualify for special education services under IDEA 04 but still need additional help.

The major difference between a 504 service plan and an IEP is that is that the 504 requires only equal access to a free and appropriate education and does not require that progress be monitored, or for that matter, attained. The 504 allows only for a child with a disability to have the same access to educational opportunities as a child who does not have a disability.  The 504 does not require documentation of progress academically. An IEP, however, must not only provide equal access but also must prove academic progress with the accommodations in place. Students who qualify for services through IDEA 04 are entitled to an individualized education program, at any means, in the least restrictive environment while still meeting the requirements of a free and appropriate education.  They must also have goals included in the IEP and documentation of how these goals will be measured.  Many times students who do not qualify for services through IDEA 04 can be accommodated through a 504 service agreement.

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Students that are gifted and talented have characteristics differing from their age appropriate peers in that they usually, but not always, learn to read earlier with better comprehension, have large vocabularies at an early age, they can read and interpret nonverbal cues at an early age, they need to know the “hows and whys,” they enjoy working independently, they seem to have unlimited energy which can be mistaken for hyperactivity, they respond and relate well to adults and often prefer this interaction to age appropriate interaction, they prefer to learn and do things on their own, they have a higher than average IQ.
I would recommend that Juanita receive instruction in science in a grade appropriate level. While I do think it is important for students to have age appropriate social interaction with their peers I do not think they need to learn with them.  Juanita would be more challenged in a higher level science class.  She could then share what she has learned in her age appropriate classroom in the form of presentations or peer tutoring. In order to help eliminate Juanita’s careless mistakes she should be taught self-check skills so that she can go back and review her answers.  Perhaps writing the steps down in a checklist format would help her to remember to go back and review.  The teacher should provide extra resources that are content related in all subject areas so that Juanita has the opportunity to expand her knowledge at her own pace.  These extra resources could be in the form of computer games and research or as simple as higher level reading texts in the same subject/content area.  Juanita could be given opportunities to share extra information that she has learned.  Small groups could be utilized with teacher assigned tasks to each student so that Juanita doesn’t take over the whole project.  The teacher could also give all students the opportunity to present something they are an “expert” in so as not to single out Juanita. The teacher could also use Juanita’s interests and incorporate all subjects in the teaching such as including math reading and writing requirements in her area of interest in astrology.  If needed, Juanita could also go to a pull out gifted program where she would be given the opportunity to expand her knowledge and use higher level thinking in both current curriculum as well as areas of interest.  Juanita should have an IEP and be an active participant in the creation of this IEP.  An IEP would ensure the enhancement of current curriculum for each new teacher Juanita encounters.

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One of the main characteristics, and also the easiest to identify, of children with communication disorders is when the child is noticeably behind his or her peers in their speech and language skills. The difference can be notices in the child’s understanding of language, the child’s expressive language (actual speech), or both. Speech delays have the characteristics of stuttering (dysfluency), difficulty with creating the correct sound (phonological disorders), or with pitch or volume.  It may also be a combination of these.  Language disorders result in the child having difficulty understanding and using words in context both verbally and non-verbally and the characteristics of these are improper use of words, grammatical patterns, difficulty following directions and inability to express ideas.
Kathleen’s teacher should place Kathleen’s seat in an area where Kathleen would have clear visibility to the main instructional area of the room.  She should also place her between two peer tutors/mentors that Kathleen could follow if she is not understanding something.  The instructional content could be pre taught by her speech and language therapist and numerous opportunities could be given for peer tutoring which would give Kathleen the opportunity to interact socially with her peers as well.  Assessment should be time unlimited and given with the use of a computer program that would not only display the information for Kathleen to read but also have audio for Kathleen to also hear the questions.

In order to support Kathleen in reading comprehension her speech and language therapist could collaborate with the regular teacher and identify benchmark areas for her reading assignments to determine comprehension in small chunks as opposed to the overall comprehension.  For example, if Kathleen is to read a story, the teacher could present Kathleen with self-monitoring questions that need to be answered after reading the beginning, middle, and end of the story.  This would give Kathleen a purpose for reading.  This could eventually morph into self-directed metacognition strategies where Kathleen could think about what she needs to learn and develop her own monitoring techniques. The speech therapist should pre teach all new vocabulary and Kathleen should have all orally presented material also available in text.  Peer tutoring would give Kathleen the opportunity to discuss what was read.  Technology should available in the form of games and activities that Kathleen could do on her own as practice and reinforcement.
The teacher should also make every attempt to be over organized for Kathleen and provide her with a graphic organizer for all material being presented so Kathleen has a way to look back and self-monitor.  Most importantly, the teacher and speech therapist need to collaborate and do many mini assessments with Kathleen to determine comprehension in smaller bits as opposed to waiting to assess an entire lesson.

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The main characteristics of students with blindness and visual impairments were listed in the case study of "Robert."

Darrin should use a recording device or be allowed to use a laptop during class for lectures and note taking ease.  The teacher should record or have converted to braille any handouts or notes so that Darrin does not need to spend his time figuring this out. The school should provide Darrin with adaptive equipment such as taped, large print or braille for his text, an adapted computer, closed circuit TV and extra time to take tests.  The content that should be taught to Darrin should include an expansion of the current curriculum as well as transition services that will benefit him post-secondary.  An emphasis should be placed on compensatory skills for success in independent living.  Darrin's casemanager should work with him at home and in the community using the strategies he has learned in the classroom and applying them in the real world. Opportunities for vocational training should be offered in Darrin's areas of interest and Darrin should be placed in social situations with both students who do not have a visual impairment/learning disability and students who do to help to emphasise appropriate social cues. The school district should consider adaptive technology such as screen reading software which would read aloud everything on computer screens, including text, pull down menus, icons, dialog boxes, and web pages. Screen readers can run simultaneously with the computer programs. This would help Darrin to follow along easier and not need to hold things so close to his eyes.

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The intellectual characteristics of students who are deaf or hard of hearing are similar to those characteristics of students who are not deaf or hard of hearing.  These students typically score similar on nonverbal tests of intelligence. Difficulties in using assessment instruments designed for students who are deaf or hard of hearing has made assessment challenging but it has been proved that Children who are deaf or hard of hearing are not intellectually deficient. The academic characteristics of these students is that they often do score lower on the standardized testing.  This, however, may have more factors at play than achievement.  These studies do not take into consideration race, gender, socioeconomic class, and language proficiency.  Many students are also simultaneously learning ASL while trying to learn to read and write.  Much time is spent teaching literacy development so students spend less time in other subject material than their peers. The speech and language characteristics are as differing as each individual.  Factors that come into play are age of onset, type of hearing loss, degree of hearing loss, and language experiences.  With the appropriate intervention and assistive aids and support students can and do develop age appropriate speech. Often children who are deaf or hard of hearing are born to parents who are also deaf parents and are exposed exclusively to language they cannot perceive. Language delays may develop because of this.  Coupled with cultural differences and other languages, these students may end up being ill prepared for learning to read or write.  Early intervention is paramount to ensure delays are minimized.
Allison’s hearing loss is considered a conductive hearing loss that was caused by ear infections.  Typically this type of hearing loss does not diminish the clarity of sound but rather the loudness of sounds. Allison does not hear clearly until sounds reach a 40 decibel level.  She is considered to have moderate hearing loss. The teacher should provide multiple opportunities for Allison to use and practice literacy skills in all subject areas.  Some of these opportunities could be to read the content multiple times both out loud and independently and always making sure that Allison can see the teacher’s face.  The teacher, Allison and other students can act out the content.  Real pictures are also helpful in conveying meaning. Allison would benefit from an iPad or laptop where the teacher could use instant messaging and email.  Vocabulary could be taught prior to the lesson to help with content comprehension.
Allison’s general and special education teacher need to collaborate in order to ensure there is consistency in Allison’s education. They will both need to be trained in the use and care of Allison’s hearing aids so that if there is a problem they can assist Allison with correcting it.  The regular education teacher needs to be well planned in advance and provide Allison’s special education teacher with lessons and new vocabulary so that these words and concepts can be used in her speech and language service.  The special education and the regular education teacher should develop activities and lessons intended to nurture peer support and friendships to help Allison’s peers to understand and learn how to interact with her from the beginning.

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As with all disabilities, the characteristics of students with blindness and visual impairments are as varied as the individual. There are some general characteristics though and age of onset plays a major role.  There are two main types of blindness, congenital which is present at birth, and adventitiously which occurs after birth.  Students with blindness do have academic success and blindness has little to no effect on general intelligence.  Play and social interaction, however, does have delays as children do not have the visual influences and security that other children have.  Their social interaction is also limited both because of their own insecurities as well as a parent’s overprotectiveness.  Most children with blindness do not display any crucial differences in language development.  Robert’s social interaction could be improved by providing more opportunities for small group work on projects.  This would allow Robert to spend time with peers in a safe environment where he would be on an equal level.  Robert could also be connected to a club or group outside of school that he could also participate in throughout his post-secondary and adult years.  Robert is old enough that he should be consulted in any decisions regarding his education.  The teacher should speak to Robert to determine where the best possible seating position would be for him.

The teacher will need to get in the habit of announcing their physical location in the room to help the student know where to direct their attention.  The teacher should also make sure to always read out loud any materials on the board.

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Students diagnosed with autism typically have some common key characteristics.  Not all students will have the same characteristics and there are many characteristics of students with autism that are not as common.  The characteristics can be as individually different as the students themselves.  Some of the more common characteristics of students diagnosed with autism are little, if any, eye contact with others, tactile defensiveness, limited social interaction, social skills deficits, difficulty maintaining friendships with a preference to be alone, perseverates on one particular item or topic and repetitive play.  Although each of the five autism spectrum disorders has specific characteristics there does seem to be some generalities over all.  The overlapping characteristics seem to be difficulty in interacting with other people in a social contest, difficulty communicating with others and rigid and restrictive behavioral repertoire and imaginative skills such as insistence on elaborate routines and sameness, restricted play patterns or interests and stereotypical movements associated with autism such as rocking back and forth.
In order for Alex to be successful in the regular education setting his special education teacher and regular education teacher will need to effectively collaborate to ensure consistency.  If systematic instruction is to be used as one of the teaching strategies then both teachers will need to make sure they are both following the same sequence of teaching the lesson.
Alex would most likely benefit from instructional content strategies such as applied behavior analysis with discrete trial.  Skills could be broken down into small tasks to maximize success and minimize frustration.  The content would be individualized and documentation could be kept to determine what the next step would be.
Instructional procedure strategies such as applied behavior analysis and visual schedules to assist in learning procedures of the classroom would provide Alex with the predictability that children diagnosed with autism generaly benefit from.  Visual cues would provide the routine and consistency that many students diagnosed with autism require.  Applied behavior analysis could be implemented with rewards for when procedure is followed correctly.

Alex’s current educational placement in a regular education setting is appropriate as his teacher is already using two of the most effective strategies for the instructional environment for students diagnosed with autism, high structure with predictability and visual prompts. To address the communication issues with Alex, I would implement functional communication training, which will also help him socially.  I would also make sure to include parent training so the functional communication could continue at home and provide consistency and predictability.

Technology is instrumental in helping students with autism navigate many situations and settings in school.  An individual iPad could be downloaded with individualized Apps to assist the child in the needed areas.  Apps such as Tap to Talk could be used for the child that will not speak. Real life pictures could be used on the iPad for visual cues for procedure.  There are also games that could be downloaded and played with a peer to promote socialization and peer interaction.  Peer socialization and interaction could also be encouraged through the use of social thinking and social stories.  These individualized stories could be used during whole group instruction.  Role play of the social stories would also encourage peer interaction.  If the child diagnosed with autism did not want to role play or interact, they could be included by having them use the iPad to record the role play of the students and then the recording could be enjoyed as a group.

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The key characteristics of students with severe and multiple disabilities include but are not limited to:

Some have diminished cognitive functioning affecting abstract thinking, learning, attention, and memory.

Many have significant physical, health, and communication needs.

Significant developmental delays (including speech, personal-social skills, behavior, motor, learning, attention, memory, mobility, etc.)·

Difficulty learning self-care skills·

Need for repetition to acquire skills·

Difficulty in the transfer and generalization of skills

I believe that since David was able to communicate his desire to eventually move out of his parents’ home he should be consulted in the decision of whether or not to continue in an inclusive setting or transition to a more community based approach. David should be consulted on this on multiple occasions to ensure consistency in his wishes.  As the teacher I would first want to know David’s strengths and interests.  To obtain this information I would want to have a team meeting with David, his parents and family, previous teachers and possibly nurses that have provided consistent care for him.  In order to address David’s academic, social and emotional, communication and transition planning needs I would need to know the chronological level David functions at both intellectually and developmentally and also David’s abstract thinking and conceptual abilities.  This would be important in order to determine what teaching strategies to use.  Dynamic assessments would help in determining David’s current level and areas of need for academics.  Another area to consider in meeting David’s social and emotional needs are his social competence skills as well as his emotional desire regarding friendships.  It would be important to know if David is tactilely defensive, has an aversion to loud noises or sudden movement etc.  so that peers who will be spending time with David can better understand his needs.  Since David has already expressed his enjoyment in being with his peers he should be given as much opportunity as possible to participate in peer related activity both in instruction and in down time.  David communicates with assistive technology.  As his teacher, I would need to be trained and become fluent in David’s means of communication.  A plan would need to be developed and put in place to address David’s medical needs in the classroom in the event of an emergency.  Although his seizures are currently controlled by medication the teacher should know, and practice, the procedure for what to do in the event of a seizure.  As stated previously, David should be consulted on his transition planning.  Obviously he will need planning and transition services in order to live independently in areas such medical care and self-care skills due to limited mobility.  More importantly though, David’s areas of strength and interests need to be looked at to determine what direction he should proceed.  David clearly enjoys being with peers so perhaps a group living situation and gainful employment in a small group with the use of a job coach would be more to David’s liking.

In order to help David achieve his maximum potential I would use the strategies of direct instruction, peer tutoring and assistive technology.  The daily review presentation, guided practice and independent practice would give David the repetition to easily convert the information presented to long term memory.  Research has shown that individuals with severe disabilities have difficulty with working memory but not necessarily long-term memory and that repetition can help store knowledge in long term memory.  Peer tutoring would give David the social exposure he enjoys and thus may keep his interest and keep him motivated.  Due to David’s communication needs, the use of technology is crucial for communicating, teaching, practicing and assessing.

Most importantly, as the teacher, I would advocate that we look heavily at David’s strengths and find ways to build on those as opposed to looking at filling the gap in his deficits.  As a society, I believe we tend to focus on the later in our efforts to create well rounded individuals when in essence what we really should do is help students become great at something so they can become happy, successful, and contributing members of society to the best of their ability.

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Children with intellectual disabilities, when compared to students without intellectual disabilities, present with differences in learning due to deficits in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior skills.  The major characteristics of these students are in attention, with problems attending to task, academically performing at a lower range, transfer knowledge to apply it to a new situation, difficulty generalizing and apply knowledge to new situations, delayed language and speech difficulties, and underachievement, particularly in reading.
Janetta is having difficulty following directions.  I would first ensure that Janetta does not have a hearing deficit.  If this test is unremarkable I would continue to use the buddy system and add training in attribution retaining.  This would show Janetta that she does have control of her experiences and prove to her that if she does follow directions there is a positive outcome.
To assist Janetta with making choices I would provide multiple situations to make choices with similar situations.  I would also work with Janetta with self-advocacy skills.  Perhaps Janetta could learn to ask for specific help and verbalize where she is having difficulty.  Janetta would also benefit from fostering independence such as life skills and self-care. To help with this, direct instruction would provide the review and practice that Janetta would need.
Janetta may succeed in a combined effort of teaching her reading readiness and writing.  Words could be incorporated in pictures that she could trace, specific contents of the room could have labels to give Janetta a visual, again, direct instruction of review, present, guided practice and independent practice would give Janetta the repetition she needs.  Functional reading may also appeal to Janetta since she could relate and apply it to things she is familiar with. Math instruction could also use functional math and relavant objects.  Janetta could play in a pretend grocery store and purchase items then pay for them.  The strategy of Kid Writing could be used with Janetta where phonics could be taught in the context of writing.  Janetta could draw a picture of a particular topic of her choice and verbally say what the picture is.  She could then use kid writing techniques and write what she thinks she hears being prompted with sounding out the words and having no wrong answer, as well as verbally prompts for spacing and punctuation.  After she writes her spoken words she could then read what she wrote.  Her own picture is her prompt.  The teacher could point out the correct sound and letter pairs and then write the actual word below.  Janetta could do this in a journal that she could get out at down times for something quiet to do and read this journal.  Her pictures should prompt her as to what the writing is.

It appears that Janetta seems to value people interaction and their feedback more than the outcome of attending to tasks.  Keeping Janetta in an inclusive setting is important so she has the peer interaction she craves.  As the teacher, I would try to figure out what motivates her and then play off of that with a token reward system.  I would definitely meet with the family and Janetta to determine what her strengths and abilities are so that instruction can build of those.  Technology in all areas could provide Janetta with the repetitive practice she needs and also give her satisfaction of completion.  Most importantly, I think Janetta’s likes need to be tapped into so that as the teacher I could motivate her. Janetta would benefit from having a paraprofessional, classroom aide or even volunteer, if permitted, to give her the prompts she needs.

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Andy would benefit from cognitive behavior modification in reading and math as this approach would actively involve him in the learning process.  Instruction should be done in short bursts and math games could be played to emphasize concepts and give Andy needed breaks from sitting.  Mnemonic strategies would assist Andy with remember steps to math problems.  In reading, Andy would benefit from direct instruction with clear, written directions that are verbally reviewed by the teacher throughout the instruction time.  These instructions should also be kept visible during the instruction.  Small group and one on one instruction would benefit Andy as it would limit the distractors of the classroom and allow the teacher to give Andy more attention. Drill and practice programs could also be utilized in school and at home to monitor his progress.

Andy’s parents and teacher need to communicate often.  A home based contingency plan would help Andy with homework and behavior in class.  Andy’s parents could provide some type of reward for completing homework and turning it in and also for following directions in school.  A notebook should be exchanged between Andy’s parents and the teacher daily to document assignments, expectations and behaviors.

A token economy system for Andy’s behavior could give Andy incentive for on task behavior.  Andy should be involved in determining the reinforcer and which behaviors will earn a token.  The teacher will need to use continuous, gently reminders and positive reinforcement to keep Andy on task.  Instructions should always be written down and visible for all of Andy’s tasks.  Tasks should be kept short with frequent breaks and opportunities to move around.

Andy’s classroom environment should be clear of unnecessary clutter.  Andy’s desk should be positioned where he would have a clear, unobstructed view of the teacher area.  He should not be near a window or a door leading into a hallway.  A study coral should be available to Andy within close proximity to his seat.  Andy can be taught on when he feels he needs the use of the study coral.  A table should be available for Andy to relocate if needed, giving him the opportunity to move about.  The classroom schedule should be posted on Andy’s desk as well as steps needed for transitions. Thought should be given to who Andy sits near.  Those children should be relatively calm children and also children who won’t be distracted themselves by Andy’s behaviors.

Andy’s written assignments and test should be broken down into chunks.  He should continue to use the computer and have extra time for tests.  Time needs to be allowed to determine if his Ritalin regime will be effective in assisting with some of his difficulties.  Andy could receive tests orally, with breaks given as the teacher sees necessary.  This would allow Andy to change tasks before frustration has occurred.

Education and community connections should be provided to Andy and his parents about ADHD an Andy’s rights regarding accommodations both in school and post-secondary.  Andy’s understanding of his diagnosis and needs will be key as he matures so that he can effectively advocate for himself in whatever setting he finds himself.  Organizational strategies will help Andy in his everyday routine. Should Andy choose a vocational program post-secondary a job coach would be crucial in helping Andy at the beginning of his position to organize the steps he needs to complete his job.

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Bobby would benefit from a functional behavioral assessment to determine the reasons for his challenging and non-compliant behavior.  A behavioral intervention plan could then be created and include a contingency contract made between the teacher and Bobby.  Including this strategy will give Bobby a vested reason for acting appropriately since he would have been a part of the planning.  This will also help Bobby with learning self-management techniques that he will need to acquire as he matures. Immediate positive reinforcement in the form of praise will go a long way with Bobby whose history suggests a lack of experiences.  The positive reinforcement will also create a more pleasant learning environment and give Bobby some good social exposure with peers.

The instructional strategy I would use with Bobby would be to first implement an RTI to determine a possible learning disability.  If there is no formal learning disability I would use both metacognitive and cognitive strategies to help bobby with his academics.  The cognitive strategies would help Bobby with his reading and make assignment completion more tolerable for him.  The metacognitive strategies would give Bobby the feeling of and ultimately the actual control of his independent work.  The metacognitive strategies will also benefit Bobby post-secondary in his adult life.
Bobby would benefit most from small group instruction, one – to – one instruction, and peer tutoring.  The small group instruction would be more accommodating to individualized instruction.  The small group would also provide Bobby with monitored interaction with peers where inappropriate behavior could be more easily identified.  Peer tutoring would not only give Bobby the practice he needs in reading but would also provide the opportunity for positive interactions and allow Bobby to practice needed communication and interaction skills.  Appropriate interaction in peer tutoring could also be included in the contingency contract if needed.
Bobby’s complaints of headaches and stomach issues should first be addressed by a physician.  Once all medical reasons for these complaints have been ruled out these issues could be addressed in his contingency plan.  Positive reinforcement should also be used greatly when Bobby is at school.  Bobby should also be observed for possible depression with an appropriate referral for evaluation if suspected.

Bobby’s socialization needs are being meet indirectly through many of the strategies in place to address behavior and structure.  Particularly peer tutoring and service learning which both give Bobby the opportunity for guided and monitored interaction with others.
Although Bobby is already in 8th grade, the team should give these strategies the opportunity to help Bobby achieve some success before addressing transition planning.  The mother, school and teacher will then need to work with Bobby to get a sense of what direction he would like to go post-secondary.  Once this is determined, goal setting should be completed.  If Bobby is to attend a postsecondary setting he and his teacher should work on learning strategies and self-advocacy skills.  If Bobby is not going to a post-secondary setting he should be given the opportunity for job sampling.  The service learning Bobby is already receiving can be of benefit with transition planning.

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Margret is a two year old girl and is a twin. She was considered a high risk pregnancy due to her many complications in utero. She was an early delivery and continued to need medical intervention as well as physical therapy. Margaret was, and still is, developmentally delayed in comparison to her twin and normal developmental expectations. She does, however, seem to be less and less behind as she grows. Margaret's parents are very supportive regarding her needs.

Margaret's biomedical/medical and established risk have identified her for intervention. Because Margaret was delivered prematurely she has a greater risk of developmental dalays. Pretentive interventions are crucial for Margaret's success. To determine the need for preventitive measures, Margret shouold participate in an age appropriate assessment such as the Battelle Developmental Inventory as well as obtain an informed clinical opinion. If her delay is not significant, Margaret could be served in the regular education setting with continued monitoring for potential future delays requiring intervention.

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Cody is a six year old, adopted boy, living with his mother, with limited sporadic contact with his father. Little is know about Cody's prenatal history or biological make up however developmental milestones have been unremarkable. Cody is being held back from first grade due to basic readiness skills. Father is willing to cooperate with the recommendations from the school. Mother is in denial about any academic difficulties or readiness and appears not willing to cooperate.

Cody has would be identified as eligible for early intervention services as a result of his unknown established risk and unknown conditions of biological/medical risk. With the unknowns in Cody's background prevention is crutial.

Cody's teacher should compete early screening assessments for literacy measures to assess his leteracy needs. Due to Cody's age, he may be better served with a referral for evaluation for special education services. His kindergarten teacher could present anecdotals and formal test/assessments that document his need for intervention.

Because of the discrepency of opinion between Cody's father and mother regarding his need, parent education and perhaps family counseling is crutial. Mother needs to be convinced of the need for intervention. This situation could be sticky and a determination of custody may need to occur if mom is not willing to participate even after parental education.

Until Cody's mom is on board, a Universal Design for Learning should be the approach of the classroom teacher. This way, Cody will still be recieving the need instruction without mom feeling that accomodations have been made and dad will feel that something is being done. This preventitive intervention can be used until and agreement is made by all as to the direction to take with Cody.

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Ricky was born to a very young mother who received no prenatal care.  His father was not in the picture.  Ricky's mother frequently left him alone as early as age two.  His life up until this point has had no routine or structure and most likely had lived in poverty.  He is now living with father and girlfriend in a supportive and structured environment and is enrolled in preschool.

Ricky's in utero and early childhood environment have placed him at risk for identification and early intervention services. The lack of prenatal care, the persistent neglect and unstable environment, and most likely impoverished living situation are all factors that play into his potential for academic failure. He would be identified as eligible for services due to conditions of environmental risk.

Because of the lack of appropriate adult interaction, Ricky's preschool will need to implement both literacy and behavioral measures. Ricky's preschool and IFSP should include exposure to early language and literacy skills such as access to board books and read alouds. The previous lack of structure would necessitate a social and behavioral control component. He most likely has no self-esteem, self-control or self-confidence. Of utmost importance would be the family involvement. Ricky has not had a family involvement so the father and girlfriend will need to be consistent and frequent. Communication and consistency between the preschool and home will help to alleviate confusion in the new structure Ricky will be exposed to.

Ricky's preschool should be a low child to teacher ratio. There should be a strong communication between the teacher and parents to maximize consistency in Ricky's routine. And, predictability will be very important. Secondary prevention techniques should be implemented for Ricky and his family.

One effective teaching strategy for Ricky would be dialogic reading. This teaching strategy will not only encourage the use of words, thus building vocabulary, but will also engage Ricky in a conversation and interaction with a caring adult which is most likely be absent in his short life.  Although because of his age the conversation will begin very short, it could quickly grow if this strategy is used both at school and home.