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Plastic can either be 'synthetic' or 'biobased'. Synthetic plastics are derived from crude oil, natural gas or coal. Whilst biobased plastics come from renewable products such as carbohydrates, starch, vegetable fats and oils, bacteria and other biological substances.

The vast majority of plastic in use today is synthetic because of the ease of manufacturing methods involved in the processing ofcrude oil. However, the growing demand for limited oil-reserves is driving a need for newer plastics from renewable resources such as waste biomass or animal-waste products from the industry.

In Europe, only a small proportion (about 4 - 6%) of our oil and gas reserves goes towards the production of plastics, with the rest used for transport, electricity, heating and other applications ( Ref)

Most of the plastic in use today is derived by the following steps:

1. Extraction of raw materials (largely crude oil and natural gas, but also coal) - these are a complex mixture of thousands of compounds that then need to be processed.

2. Refining process transforms crude oil into different petroleum products - these are converted to yield useful chemicals including "monomers" (a molecule that is the basic building blocks of polymers). In the refining process, crude oil is heated in a furnace, which is then sent to the distillation unit, where heavy crude oil separates into lighter components called fractions. One of these, called naphtha, is the crucial compound to make a large amount of plastic. However, there are other means, such as using gas.

Figure 1. Pictorial representation of how plastics are made (Figure is adapted from ref)

3. Polymerisation is a process in the petroleum industry where light olefin gases (gasoline) such as ethylene, propylene, butylene (i.e., monomers) are converted into higher molecular weight hydrocarbons (polymers). This happens when monomers are chemically bonded into chains. There are two different mechanisms for polymerisation:

The addition polymerisation reaction is when one monomer connects to the next one (dimer) and dimer to the next one (trimer) and so on. This is achieved by introducing a catalyst, typically a peroxide. This process is known as chain growth polymers - as it adds one monomer unit at a time. Common examples of addition polymers are polyethylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride.

Condensation polymerisation includes joining two or more different monomers, by the removal of small molecules such as water. It also requires a catalyst for the reaction to occur between adjacent monomers. This is known as step growth, because you may for example add an existing chain to another chain. Common examples of condensation polymers are polyester and nylon.
4. Compounding/Processing
In compounding, various blends of materials are melt blended (mixed by melting) to make formulations for plastics. Generally, an extruder of some type is used for this purpose which is followed by pelletising the mixture. Extrusion or a different moulding process then transforms these pellets into a finished or semi-finished product. Compounding often occurs on a twin-screw extruder where the pellets are then processed into plastic objects of unique design, various size, shape, colour with accurate properties according to the predetermined conditions set in the processing machine.

...

More detailed information on how plastic is made is provided in the following sections below:

1. Polymer vs. plastic

2. What are hydrocarbons?

3. How is synthetic plastic created from crude oil?

4. How is plastic created from naphtha?

5. What is the main ingredient in plastic?

6. Which was the first human made plastic?

7. What was used before plastic?

8. Can you make plastic without oil?

All plastics are essentially polymers, but not all the polymers are plastics.

The term polymer and monomer are derived from Greek words: where 'poly' means 'many', 'mer' means 'repeating unit' and the word 'mono' means 'one'. This literally means a polymer is made from many monomer-repeating units. Polymers are larger molecules formed by covalently joining many monomer-units together in the form of chains like pearls on a string of pearls.

The word plastic comes from 'plasticus' (Latin for 'capable of moulding') and 'plastikos' (Greek for 'fit for moulding'). When we say plastics, we are referring to organic polymers (synthetic or natural) of high molecular weight which are mixed with other substances.

Plastics are high molecular weight organic polymers composed of various elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and chlorine. They can also be produced from silicon atom (known as silicone) along with carbon; a common example is silicone breast implants or silicone hydrogel for optical lenses. Plastics are made up of polymeric resin often mixed with other substances called additives.

'Plasticity 'is the term used to describe the property, feature and attribute of a material that can deform irreversibly without breaking. Plasticity describes whether a polymer would survive the temperature and pressure during the moulding process.

Chemistry allows us to vary different parameters to tune the properties of polymers. We can use different elements, change the type of monomers, and rearrange them in different patterns to change the shape of polymer, its molecular weight or other chemical/physical properties. This allows plastics to be designed to have right properties for a specific application.

Most plastic in use today comes from hydrocarbons derived from crude oil, natural gas and coal - fossil fuels.
What is a hydrocarbon?
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds (can be aliphatic or aromatic) made up of carbon and hydrogen. Aliphatic hydrocarbons have no cyclic benzene rings while the aromatics have benzene rings.

Carbon ( C, atomic number = 6) has a valency of four, meaning it has four electrons in the outermost shell. It is able to pair up with four other electrons from any element of the periodic table to make up chemical bonds (for hydrocarbon, it will pair up with hydrogen). Hydrogen on the other hand ( H, with atomic number = 1) has only one electron in the valence shell so four of these H-atom are ready to be paired up with C-atom by forming a single bond to give a C-H ₄ molecule. CH ₄ molecule is called methane, which is the simplest hydrocarbon and the first member of the Alkane family. Similarly, if two C-atoms would bond together they can link with up to six H-atoms with three being on each C-atom to give a chemical formula of CH ₃-CH ₃ (or C ₂H ₆) known as ethane and the series goes on as follows.

Note that this type of bond with carbon and hydrogen is a saturated bond (sigma bond denoted as σ-bond). There can also be unsaturated bond where a pi bond (π-bond) is present along with sigma bond giving carbon-carbon double bonds ( alkenes) or have two π-bonds with a sigma giving carbon-carbon triple bond ( alkynes), which very much depends on the type of hybridisation between the elements.

Alkene family: Ethylene (CH ₂=CH ₂ or C ₂H ₄), propylene (CH ₂=CH-CH ₂), 1-butylene (CH ₂=CH-CH ₂-CH ₃), 2-butylene (CH ₃-CH=CH-CH ₃) and so on. (Note that the 1-butylene and 2-butylene are isomers of butylene).

Alkyne hydrocarbons: Ethyne (CH ≡ CH or C ₂H ₂), propyne (CH≡C-CH ₃), 1-butyne (CH≡C-CH ₂-CH ₃), 2-butyne (CH ₃-CH≡CH-CH ₃) and so on.
What are fossil fuels and where do they come from?
Fossil fuels are mainly crude oil, natural gas and coal that are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen elements and other minerals (Figure 1, ref). The generally accepted theory is that these hydrocarbons are formed from the remains of living-organisms called planktons (tiny plants and animals) that existed during the Jurassic era. The planktons have been buried deeper beneath the heavy layers of sediments in the Earth's mantle, due to compression from an enormous amount of heat and pressure. Dead organisms decomposed without oxygen, which transformed them into tiny pockets of oil and gas. Crude oil and gas then penetrate in the rocks that ultimately accumulate in reservoirs. The oil and natural gas wells are found at the bottom of our oceans and beneath. Coal mainly originated from dead plants ( ref).

Figure 2. Elemental composition of fossil fuels ( ref).

Scientists have also questioned this theory. A recent study in Nature Geoscience from Carnegie Institution in collaboration with Russian and Swedish colleagues revealed that the organic matter may not be the source of heavy hydrocarbon and that they could be existing already deep down in the Earth. Experts discovered that ethane and other heavy hydrocarbons could be made if the pressure-temperature conditions can be mimicked with those present deep inside the Earths core. This is to say that hydrocarbons can be made in the upper mantle that is the layer of Earth between the crust and the core. They demonstrate it by subjecting methane to laser heat-treatment in the upper layer of the Earth that then transformed into hydrogen molecule, ethane, propane, petroleum ether and graphite. The scientists then exposed ethane to the same conditions which reversibility produced methane. Above findings indicate that these hydrocarbons might be created naturally without the remains of plants and animals ( ref).

3. How is synthetic plastic created from crude oil?

Synthetic plastic comes from petrochemicals. When the source of oil beneath the surface of the Earth is identified, holes are drilled through the rocks in the ground to extract oil.

Extraction of oil - Oil is pumped from underground to the surface where tankers are used to transport the oil to the shore. Oil drilling can also take place under the ocean using support from platforms. Different size pumps can produce between 5 - 40 litres of oil per stroke (Figure 1).

Refining of oil - Oil is pumped through a pipeline that can be thousands of miles long and transported to an oil refiner (Figure 1). Spillage of oil from the pipeline during transfer can have both immediate and long-term environmental consequences but safety measures are in place to prevent and minimise this risk.

Figure 3: Fractional distillation of crude oil

Distillation of crude oil and production of petrochemicals - Crude oil is a mixture of hundreds of hydrocarbons that also contains some solids and some gaseous hydrocarbons dissolved in it from the alkane family (mainly it is CH ₄ and C ₂H ₆, but it can be C ₃H ₈ or C ₄H ₁₀). Crude oil is first heated into a furnace then the resultant mixture is fed as a vapour to the fractional distillation tower. The fractional distillation column separates the mixture into different compartments called fractions. There exists a temperature gradient in the distillation tower where the top is cooler than the base. The mixture of liquid and vapour fractions gets separated in the tower depending on their weight and boiling point (boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid phase changes into gaseous). When the vapours evaporate and meet a liquid fraction whose temperature is below the boiling point of vapor, it partly condenses. These vapours of evaporating crude oil condense at different temperature in the tower. Vapours (gases) of the lightest fractions (gasoline and petroleum gas), flow to the top of the tower, intermediate weight liquid fractions (kerosene and diesel oil distillates), lingers in the middle, heavier liquids (called gas oils) separate lower down, while the heaviest fractions (solids) with the highest boiling points remain at the base of the tower. Each fraction in the column contains hydrocarbons with a similar number of carbon atoms, smaller molecules are towards the top and longer molecules nearer the bottom of the column ( Ref). In this way, petroleum is decomposed into petroleum gas, gasoline, paraffin (kerosene), naphtha, light oil, heavy oil, etc.

After the distillation step, the obtained long chain hydrocarbons are converted into hydrocarbons that can then be turned into many important chemicals which we use for the preparation of a wide range of products applicable from plastic to pharmaceuticals.

Cracking of hydrocarbon is the main process that breaks down the mixture of complex hydrocarbons into simpler low relative molecular mass alkenes/alkanes (plus by-products) by the means of high temperature and pressure.

Cracking can be performed into two ways: Steam cracking and catalytic cracking.

Steam cracKing uses high temperature and pressure to break the hydrocarbons long chains without a catalyst, whilst catalytic cracking adds a catalyst which allows the process to occur at lower temperatures and pressures.

The raw material used by the petrochemical industry is mainly naphtha and natural gas from oil refining operation in the petrochemical feedstock. Steam cracking uses the feedstocks from hydrocarbons mixture from various fractions such as reactant gases (ethane, propane or butane) from natural gas, or liquids ( naphtha or gas oil) (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Various chemicals obtained from fossil fuel after oil refining.

(Naphtha is a mixture of C ₅ to C ₁₀ hydrocarbons obtained from the distillation of crude oil).

For example, decane hydrocarbon is cracked down into products such as propylene and heptane where the former is then used to make poly(propylene) (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Representation of Cracking of decane to convert into propylene and heptane.

Raw materials molecules are converted into monomers such as ethylene, propylene, and butene and others. All these monomers comprise double bonds so that the carbon atoms can subsequently react to form polymers.

Polymerisation - hydrocarbon monomers are then linked together by chemical polymerisation mechanism to produce polymers. Polymerisation process generates thick, viscous substances as resins, which are employed to make a plastic product. If we look at a case of ethylene monomer here; ethylene is a gaseous hydrocarbon. When it is subjected to heat, pressure and a certain catalyst, it joins together into long, repeating carbon chains. These joined molecules (polymer) is a plastic resin known as polyethylene (PE).

Production of PE based plastic -poly(ethylene) is processed in a factory to make plastic pellets. The pellets are poured into a reactor, melted into a thick liquid to cast into a mould. The liquid cools down to harden into a solid plastic and produce a finished product. Processing of polymer also includes the addition of plasticizers, dyes and flame-retardant chemicals.
Types of polymerisations
Synthetic plastic is made by a reaction known as polymerisation, which can be performed in two different ways:

Addition polymerisation: Synthesis includes adding together monomers in a long chain. One monomer connects to the next and so on, when a catalyst is introduced, in a process known as chain growth polymers, adding one monomer unit at a time. Some addition polymerisation reactions are considered to create no side-products and the reaction can be performed in the vapour phase (i.e. gas phase) dispersed in a liquid. Examples: polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride and polystyrene.

Condensation polymerisation: In this case, two monomers combine to form a dimer (two units) by releasing a byproduct. Dimers can then join to form tetramers (four units) and so on. These byproducts are necessary to be removed for the success of the reaction. The most common byproduct is water, which is treated and disposed of easily. Byproducts can also be valuable raw materials that are recycled back into the feedstream.

Examples: Nylon (polyamide), polyester and polyurethane.

Plastic is often created from naphtha. Ethylene and propylene, for example, are the main raw material for oil-based plastic coming from Naphtha.
What is Naphtha?
There are different types of naphtha. It is a term used to describe a group of volatile mixtures of liquid hydrocarbons, obtained by the distillation of crude oil. It is a mixture of C ₅ to C ₁₀ hydrocarbons.

Naphtha is decomposed thermally at high temperature (~800 °C) in a steam cracker in presence of water vapor where it splits into light hydrocarbons known as major intermediaries. These are olefins and aromatics. Among the olefins, there is C ₂ (ethylene), C ₃ (propylene), C ₄ (butane and butadiene). The aromatics consist of benzene, toluene and xylene. These small molecules are linked together by into long molecular chains called polymers. When a polymer comes out of the chemical factory they it is still not in the form of plastic - they are in the form of granules or powders (or liquids). Before they can become an everyday use plastic they need to undergo a series of transformations. They are kneaded, heated, melted, and cooled into objects of various shape, size colour with precise properties according to the processing tubes.

For instance, for polymerisation of ethylene into polyethylene (PE), initiators are added to start the chain reaction, only after the formation of PE, it is sent for processing by addition of some chemicals (antioxidants and stabilisers). After which an extruder convertsn PE into strings, thereafter grinders convert it into PE pellets. Factories then melt them into final products.

The main ingredient in most plastic material is a derivative from crude oil and natural gas.

There are many different types of plastics - clear, cloudy, solid colour, flexible, rigid, soft, etc.

Plastic products are often a polymer resin which is then then mixed with a blend of additives (See polymer vs. plastic). The additives are important as each of them are used to provide plastic with targeted optimum properties such as toughness, flexibility, elasticity, colour or to make them safer and hygienic to use for a particular application ( ref).

What type of plastic a product is made from can be sometimes be identified by looking at the number at the bottom of plastic containers. Some of the main types of plastic and the parent monomer is given below (Table 1). This table shows the types of plastic and the monomers that make up the plastic.

Table 1. Main polymer types, monomers and its chemical structures

Resin identification code

Polymers

Monomers

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

Ethylene glycol and Dimethyl terephthalate

High-density polyethylene

(HDPE)

Ethylene (CH ₂=CH ₂)

*(lesser branching between polymer chains)

Polyvinyl chloride

(PVC)

Vinyl chloride (CH ₂=CH-Cl)

Low-density polyethylene

(LDPE)

Ethylene (CH ₂=CH ₂)

*(excessive branching)

Polypropylene

(PP)

Propylene (CH ₃-CH=CH ₂)

Polystyrene

(PS)

Styrene

Other plastics including acrylic, polycarbonates, polylactic acid (PLA), fibres, nylon

Different monomers are used for a particular polymer.

For instance, PLA made from Lactic acid

*The monomer used in LDPE and HDPE is ethylene but there is a difference in the degree of branching.

Meso American cultures (Olmec, Maya, Aztecs, 1500 BCE) used natural latex and rubber to make containers and clothes water-resistant.

Alexander Parkes (UK, 1856) patented the first man-made bioplastic, called Parkesine, made from cellulose nitrate. Parkesine was a hard, flexible and transparent plastic. John Wesley Hyatt (US, 1860s) made a fortune with Parkes' invention. The Hyatt brothers improved plastic's malleability of cellulose nitrate by adding camphor and renamed the plastic as Celluloid. The aim was to produce billiard balls, which until then were made from ivory. The invention is considered as the earliest example of man-made bioplastic by many ( ref).

The first truly synthetic plastic was Bakelite made from phenol and formaldehyde resin. Leo Baekeland (Belgium, 1906) invented Bakelite that was coined as a 'National Historic Chemical Landmark as it completely revolutionized every industry present in modern life. It has the property of high resistance to electricity, heat, and chemicals. It has non-conducting properties, which is extremely essential when designing electronic devices such as radio and telephone casings. ( ref).

Before the birth of plastic, we were using wood, metal, glass and ceramic, and animal derived materials such as horn, bone and leather.

For storage purpose, mouldable clays (pottery) mixed with glass were used which meant the containers were often heavy and fragile.

Natural materials from the bark of the rubber tree - gum (latex resin) came into existence, the mix was sticky and mouldable but not useful for storage.

In the 18th century, Charles Goodyear accidentally discovered rubber - he added

In the 18th century, Charles Goodyear accidentally discovered rubber - he added sulphur into hot crude rubber that reacted and made rubber resilient which upon cooling became elastic i.e., it had the property to snap back into its original shape ( ref).

Yes, it is possible to create plastic from sources other than oil.

Although crude oil is the principal source of carbon for moden plastic, an array of variants are manufactured from renewable materials. Plastic made without oil is marketed as biobased plastic or bioplastics. These are made from renewable biomass such as:

Lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose,

Terpenes,

Vegetable fats and oils,

Carbohydrates (sugars from sugar cane etc)

Recycled food waste

Bacteria

However, it should be noted that bioplastics are not automatically a more sustainable alternative in every case. Bioplastics differ as per the ways in which they break down, and bioplastics also, as any material, require resources in their production.

Bioplastics such as PLA, for example, represent a biodegradable material that will degrade in certain environmental conditions, but may not bio-degrade in all sorts of climates. Therefore a waste stream of PLA based plastic is required. In the case of PLA it is a sensitive polyester that begins to degrade during the recycling procedure and can end up contaminating the existing plastic recycling stream ( ref).

But bioplastics can have many uses when designed with a proper waste stream in mind.

Bioplastics are potential materials for the fabrication of single-use plastic such as that required to make biodegradable bottles and packaging films. For instance, in 2019, a researcher from the University of Sussex created a transparent plastic film from fish-skin waste and algae; called MarinaTex ( Ref). Biopolymers have also been investigated for medical applications, such as controlled drug release, drug packaging, and absorbable surgical sutures ( ref, ref).

Maurice Lemoigne (France, 1926) discovered the first bioplastics made form bacteria, polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), from bacterium Bacillus megaterium. As bacteria consume sugars, they will produce the polymers ( ref). The importance of Lemoigne's invention was overlooked until the oil crisis hit in the mid-1970s spurred interest in discovering substitutes of petroleum-based products.

Henry Ford (US, 1940) used bioplastics made from soybeans for some car parts. Ford discontinued the use of soy plastics after World War II because of the surplus inexpensive oil supply ( ref).

The developments in metabolic and genetic engineering have expanded the research on bioplastic and applications for numerous types of bioplastics had become established particularly PHB and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), although there are many other interesting developments occurring all the time.

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How Is Plastic Made? A Simple Step-By-Step Explanation

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Plastic can either be 'synthetic' or 'biobased'. Synthetic plastics are derived from crude oil, natural gas or coal. Whilst biobased plastics come from renewable products such as carbohydrates, starch, vegetable fats and oils, bacteria and other biological substances. The vast majority of plastic in use today is synthetic because of the ease of manufacturing methods involved in the processing ofcrude oil.

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I believe that this decision is definitely one that has to be made from both a principal and practical standpoint. The world is quickly reaching the point of no return from climate change, and every country and its citizens have begun to feel the harsh effects. This has undoubtedly raised a lot more awareness about the severity of the situation, and the public has put more pressure on governments around the world to harms and slow down climate change.

Singapore and its government is no exception to this and in 2022's budget, it was announced that Singapore would aim to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2050. As a very developed and wealthy country, this is something that we have the responsibility to do. When we look at developing countries or less developed countries who have underdeveloped infrastructure and a weak economy, it is understandable as to why they would tend to rely more on fossil fuels like oil due to its high cost efficiency. However, in Singapore's case where we are a wealthy country, there are ways for us to slowly transition to cleaner sources of fuel to gradually reduce our carbon emissions.

Aside from that, if Singapore does not quickly reduce its carbon emissions to net 0 by 2050, then climate change will become a very serious problem. The effects of climate change will continue to grow over these years, and if we do not put a stop to our carbon emissions, then things will only get much worse. In order to prevent the world from passing the point of no return, and preventing Singapore from becoming too hot to bear, the government has to find a way to fight back against climate change, and achieving net zero carbon emissions is one way.

Because we are wealthy country with the capability to reduce our carbon emissions by slowly moving away from non renewable energy sources, and because of the harms that we will face if we do not quickly act against climate change, i support the decision to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2050.

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I support Singapore's decision, but I believe that it is very hard to achieve. singapore is is one of the world’s top three export refining centres
and the world’s third largest oil and oil products trading hub,
making it the undisputed oil hub in Asia. this would mean that if singapore would want to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2050, they would have to give up these achievements and large amounts of profits contributing to the economy. Furthermore, Singapore would then have to rely on renewable energy and sustainable practices to be able to achieve net zero carbon emissions. Multi-billion dollar investments have also put in place some of the world’s most technologically advanced refinery infrastructure and petrochemical plants in Singapore, and taking these away would push international investors away from Singapore, disrupting the growth of our economy. Also, global primary energy demand is expected to increase by 28 per cent in the period between 2020 and 2045 hence, even now Singapore is not even close to being carbon neutral, so how would it be possible to do so when it increases by 28 percent? It would take Singapore to lose a large portion of their economy that was invested into oil refinery, change the public's mindsets when it comes to sustainability and their practices such as reducing usage of air conditioners. In addition, each company and individual would have to compensate for their emission of carbon. These are so much Singapore has to sacrifice and I would doubt that we would achieve carbon neutrality by 2050

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I support the decision. First off, the government will raise the carbon tax rate by around 10 times by 2030, giving companies incentives to reduce their carbon emissions. Individuals will be coerced into using energy-efficient appliances and businesses will invest in decarbonisation solutions.

There are already multiple strategies that could help us reach our target such as raising the minimum energy efficiency of household products. These strategies will cause condumers and developers both to reduce their carbon emissions.

Some citizens argue that achieving net 0 carmon emissions will use up a large portion of Singpore's resources and why are we doing so much when other larger countries are the main contributors to carbon emissions compared to small Singapore? I believe that achieving net 0 carbon emissions is good goal for Singapore as we are a small country and furthermore we are one of the most developed countries. As we are known worldwide, we should be a role model for other countries with our net zero carbon emissions. Furthermore, no matter how small an impact our actions have, it is still a contribution. If we do not stop climate change, then who will?

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I am very supportive. I believe that to achieve net zero carbon emissions, it means that the Singapore government will be attempting to transition towards renewable sources of energy rather than continueing to rely on fossil fuels as an energy source. This can benefit Singapore in a few ways. Firstly, Singapore's economy will be more stable. As evidenced by recent events, oil prices can fluctuate drastically. Price of oil can skyrocket, making countries reliant on oil for energy hardly hit due to the extra cost of oil. Furthermore, oil will only get more and more expensive due to it being a finite resource. Also, wth Singapore being one of the largest Petroleum refiners in the world, part of Singapore's economy is also dependent on this industry. However, with ever decreasing amonts of petroleum, such an industry would gradually become redundant in the future and is thus not sustainable. By transitioning to renewable energy, Singapore will be less dependent on fossil fuels and become less vulnerable to changes in the industry and fluctuations in its value. Secondly, doing so can improve the quality of environmental conditions in Singapore. Carbon emissions due to petroleum refining are ranked the second highest in the world. Singapore, being one of the largest petroleum refiners thus obviously also produce much carbon emissions due to it. By moving away from such an industry, air quality in Singapore would undoubtedly improve. Furthermore, during petroleum refining, chemicals such as arsenic, lead and fluorides that are toxic to animals and plants are released into water sources, thus polluting them. Therefore, by transitioning away from fossil fuels, Singapore would become more environmentally friendly and contribute lesser pollution and carbon emissions, improving the quality of Singapore's environment. Thus, I believe that with the transition from fossil fuels, SIngapore can recieve benefits that are sustainable for the future and so I support the Budget for 2022

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I am not that supportive of this decision. Net-zero pledges delay the meaningful reductions in greenhouse gases and provide cover to those unwilling to take immediate steps to limit emissions. Coorperations are using "Net-zero" to block effective climate policy and greenwash their image while maintaining business as usual.

This is not to say the carbon neutral is not good. Greenhouse gases such as Carbon Dioxide, if produced into the air, will linger for centuries to come. If these gases are not taken in by trees and microorganisms, it might eventually be breathed in by humans, taking a toll on our health. Air became polluted will also damage the ecosystem greatly, harming the organisms living in the environment.

However, Singapore's goal by achieving carbon neutral by 2050 is plain absurd, though 2050 is closer to us compared to 1990, it is still somewhat 28 years from now, and it does not really help in lifting the burden that humans have placed on our ecosystem's shoulders. There are still carbon emissions being released into the air for now. Governments need to cut carbon emissions right now and set a goal at a nearer date, like 2030 or 2035, it may be challenging, but this will push coorperations to quicker transfer their reliance on non-renewable energy to renewable and sustainable energy. The faster the conversion of energy and reduction of carbon emissions, the better we do in protecting our environment and preventing it from further damages.

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This decision to achieve zero net carbon emissions by 2050 is not only unreasonably long but also shows Singapore’s lack of commitment towards this goal. Singapore is a rich, prosperous and developed nation, with one of the highest GDP per Capitas in the world. Renewable energy sources have become more and more affordable and readily available. Singapore also already benefits from its previous initiatives to keep the city green and incorporate such greenery into the surroundings, and a well-maintained public transport network that connects all parts of the country. There is absolutely no excuse for the government not to have set a more ambitious target to achieve zero net carbon emissions faster, and this lack of ambition merely shows the world how uncommitted the country is, to the point where the goal is set for so late that the problem can be shelved and labeled “for later”. Singapore’s small size means that there are significantly less people who need to switch appliances such as gas stoves, and thus the relatively small power grid being changed will also incur less cost than many other places. Singapore’s reliance on fossil fuels can easily be redirected to other sources, such as solar panels, which have already come into use in some housing estates. Hence, the government could have done a much better job in setting this target, making it more effective and ambitious and thus better for the environment. However, with the current target, I am not at all supportive of what the government has decided upon.

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Bitumen is a low-grade of crude oil which is composed of complex, heavy hydrocarbons. In an oil reservoir, bitumen is a thick, viscous fluid and must be extracted from the ground. When extracting it, a lot of heat and effort must be used to upgrade it to a better product. Although bitumen is hard to extract from the ground, it can bubble naturally to the surface of the Earth in petroleum seeps. These seeps are places where fossil fuels and petroleum products leak out of the Earth instead of being trapped deep below the ground. In these seeps, bitumen, asphalt, and tar bubble up into pools. Additionally, bitumen is the main fossil fuel component of oil sands. When bitumen combines with asphaltines a solid is formed that is useful for paving roads.

Production

In addition to being found naturally in seeps and the oil sands, bitumen can be produced by removing lighter fractions from crude oil during the refining process. Fractions that are removed are liquid petroleum gas, gasoline, and diesel.

Once crude oil has been extracted from the ground, the production of bitumen can begin. The crude oil is pumped from the storage tanks and through a system that increases the temperature of the crude oil to 200 °C. The oil then moves to a furnace, where it is heated even higher to approximately 300°C where it is vaporized partially into a distillation column. Here, the separation of the different components of the crude oil occurs. As lighter components rise to the top, heavy components-including the bitumen-fall to the bottom of the column. This process is known as fractional distillation. Finally, the bitumen is obtained by further distilling the residue in a vacuum distillation column. This type of bitumen is known as straight run bitumen. The grade of the bitumen depends on how much volatile material remains in the distilled bitumen-with more volatiles resulting in a less pure, more liquid product.

Most refined bitumen is used in the construction industry. Mainly, it serves its use in paving and roofing applications. 85% of all bitumen is used as a binder in asphalt for roads, runways, parking lots, and foot paths. Gravel and crushed rock are mixed with thick bitumen, holding it together and it is then applied to roadways. 10% of the bitumen used worldwide is used in the roofing industry as its waterproofing qualities help make roofs function well. 5% of bitumen is used for sealing and insulating purposes in various building materials such as carpet tile backing and paint.

In addition to these main uses, bitumen also has many minor uses. Other examples are soundproofing, explosives, mildew protection, a binder in briquettes, a backing to mirrors, shoe soles, fence post coating and soil stabilization.

For Further Reading

References

1. Wikimedia Commons.(May 14, 2015). Bitumen [Online]. Available: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bitumen#/media/File:Bitumen2.jpg

2. W.Leffler, M.Raymond. (May 14, 2015). Oil and Gas Production in Nontechnical Language, 1st ed. Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A.: PennWell, 2006.

3. Eurobitume. (May 14, 2015). What is bitumen? [Online]. Available: http://www.eurobitume.eu/bitumen/what-bitumen

4. Bitumina. (May 15, 2015). Bitumen Production [Online]. Available: http://www.bitumina.co.uk/bitumen-production.html

5. Bitumen UK. (May 15, 2015). Uses of Bitumen [Online]. Available: http://www.bitumenuk.com/images/library/files/reach_list_of_bitumen_applications_uses[1].pdf

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Bitumen is a low-grade of crude oil which is composed of complex, heavy hydrocarbons. In an oil reservoir, bitumen is a thick, viscous fluid and must be extracted from the ground. When extracting it, a lot of heat and effort must be used to upgrade it to a better product.

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Lubricating oil, sometimes simply called lubricant/lube, is a class of oils used to reduce the friction, heat, and wear between mechanical components that are in contact with each other. Lubricating oil is used in motorized vehicles, where it is known specifically as motor oil and transmission fluid.

There are two basic categories of lubricating oil: mineral and synthetic. Mineral oils are lubricating oils refined from naturally occurring crude oil. Synthetic oils are lubricating oils that are manufactured. Mineral lubricating oils are currently the most commonly used type because of the low cost of extracting the oils from crude oil. Additionally, mineral oils can be manufactured to have a varying viscosity, therefore making them useful in a wide range of applications.

Lubricating oils of different viscosities can be blended together, and it is this ability to blend them that makes some oils so useful. For example, common motor oil - shown in Figure 1 - is generally a blend of low viscosity oil to allow for easy starting at cool temperatures and a high viscosity oil for better performance at normal running temperatures.

Use in Vehicles

The use of lubricating oils in vehicles is vital to their operation. When an engine is properly lubricated, it needs to put less work into moving pistons as the pistons glide easily. In the long run, this means that the car is able to operate while using less fuel and run at a lower temperature. Overall, the proper use of lubricating oil in a car improves efficiency and reduces the amount of wear and tear on moving engine parts.

Since lubricating oils are such a valuable resource, there have been many efforts to recycle used oils. Used lubricating oil is recycled at "re-refineries", where water is removed from the oil in a process of dehydration. Impurities within the used oil - such as industrial fuel - are separated out and the oil is captured using vacuum distillation. This leaves behind a heavy waste that contains oil additives and byproducts. The extracted lubricating oil then undergoes a series of refining processes to remove other impurities. Once refined, the oil is separated into three different viscosities for a variety of uses.

For a more in-depth look at the oil recycling process, click here.

For Further Reading

References

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Lubricating oil, sometimes simply called lubricant/lube, is a class of oils used to reduce the friction, heat, and wear between mechanical components that are in contact with each other. Lubricating oil is used in motorized vehicles, where it is known specifically as motor oil and transmission fluid.

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Natural gas is a colourless, odorless gas that is easy to burn (see flaring in Figure 1) and typically consists mostly (90% or more) of methane (CH ₄). Unprocessed natural gas, also called raw natural gas, is one of the main primary energy sources in the world, making up roughly 1/5 of the world's primary energy. After processing, most people still referred to the substance as natural gas, but this end use natural gas is sometimes referred to as consumer natural gas also referred to as sales gas or marketable gas. Consumer natural gas is a flexible energy currency and 15% of the world's end use energy comes from consumers burning natural gas in their homes or businesses. This is in addition the natural gas that gets turned into electricity.

In its unprocessed state, raw natural gas is composed of varying quantities of methane, ethane, propane, butanes, and pentanes. Often impurities such as oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, water and carbon dioxide are also present. Once natural gas has been processed for consumption, consumer natural gas is primarily methane with trace amounts of other molecules.

Like all fossil fuels, natural gas formed from the decomposing remains of animals and plants that lived millions of years ago. The high pressure and temperatures present deep underground facilitated the conversion of plant and animal matter to hydrocarbon fuels.

Consumer Natural Gas

Consumer natural gas (Sales gas) is a very flexible energy currency. It's used for many things, especially in the home. Some common examples are:

Many buildings, ranging from corporate offices to restaurants and even swimming poolsrely on consumer natural gas for heating. Additionally there are industrial uses, for example in the Canadian province of Alberta, residential and commercial usage account for only 25% of Alberta's usage. The remaining 75% of natural gas used in Alberta is consumed by the industrial sector in applications like petroleum refining, food processing, metal, plastic and glass industries, and the pulp and paper industry.

A growing use for consumer natural gas is the natural gas vehicle (NGV), which has lower emissions than diesel engines or gasoline engines.

As the demand for natural gas rises around the world, so does the need to transport it overseas. One method of transporting natural gas is in it's liquefied form, known as LNG, and this is done using large ships.

Extraction

According to Natural Resources Canada, Canada has a natural gas resource of 1,220 trillion cubic feet. While a little over 15% of that natural gas has been recovered, the rest is contained in four types of deposits, one is conventional and the other three are unconventional: Shale gas deposit, Tight gas deposit, and coal bed methane.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Natural gas has a high energy density (for a fossil fuel) and flexible applications, which make it a popular fuel. People advocating for natural gas often point to it as the cleanest burning fossil fuels. Even as a cleaner fossil fuel, natural gas is still made up of hydrocarbons and burning it releases and other pollutants ( NOx being a problem specifically). Natural gas use is often an improvement over coal, however, its combustion still contributes to air pollution and climate change.

Both natural gas extraction and electrical generation suffer from NIMBY ( Not in my back yard syndrome) opposition. NIMBY syndrome is when people consent to an idea, as long as they will not be directly affected by it. Click here for data on Canadian support for natural gas as an energy source.

With advances in fracking techniques, natural gas reserves are expected to last a long time. See the interactive graph below to explore how much natural gas is used in countries around the world.

Interactive Graph

For Further Reading

References

1. M. Gorissen. Photographer. Well test; Flaring. Flickr. 2015 [Accessed 29 July 2015]

2. S. Faramawy, T. Zaki and A. Sakr, "Natural gas origin, composition, and processing: A review", Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering, vol. 34, pp. 34-54, 2016. Available: 10.1016/j.jngse.2016.06.030 [Accessed 10 May 2020].

3. Canada Energy Regulator https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/nrg/tl/glssr-eng.html Accessed May 19th, 2020.

4. Alberta Energy. (2013). "What is Natural Gas?" [Online]. Available: http://www.energy.alberta.ca/NaturalGas/723.asp. [Accessed 21 October 2013]. This page has been taken down and the team hasn't found a suitable replacement source yet. Sorry.

5. "Natural Gas Facts | Natural Resources Canada", Nrcan.gc.ca. [Online]. Available: https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/science-data/data-analysis/energy-data-analysis/energy-facts/natural-gas-facts/20067. [Accessed: 10- May- 2020].

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Natural gas is a colourless, odorless gas that is easy to burn (see flaring in Figure 1) and typically consists mostly (90% or more) of methane (CH 4). Unprocessed natural gas, also called raw natural gas, is one of the main primary energy sources in the world, making up roughly 1/5 of the world's primary energy.