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Question 1

1. There is nothing wrong with inner explanations, but events within a system (or the body, mind) are most likely difficult to observe, if at all.

2. It has been especially tempting to attribute the behaviour of a living organism to the behaviour of an internal agent.

3. Psychologists use a dualistic system of explanation in relation to the psychic inner causes; The ‘inner man’ is sometimes personified when troublesome behaviour is attributed to a “disordered personality”.

4.  Many believe that they can observe their “mental states” just as physiologist observe neural events (introspection)

5.  We are unprepared for the properties of the behaviour itself to be discovered, as we continue to convert properties of a process into what appear to be things.

Question 2

1. Neural causes / a science of the nervous system based upon direct observation rather then inference will describe neural states and events which immediately precede instances of behavior

Psychic inner causes / explain behavior in terms of an inner agent which lacks physical dimensions and is called ‘mental’ pr ‘psychic’ / a science of behavior learns very little since mental events are asserted to lack the dimensions of physical science.

Conceptual inner causes / the commonest inner causes have no specific dimensions either neurological or psychic / The practice of explaining one statement in terms of the other is dangerous because it suggests that we have found the cause and therefor need search no further

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Chapter 2: Section: Behaviour as a scientific subject matter

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Chapter 2: Section: Behaviour as a scientific subject matter

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Science and Human Behaviour - Questions for online (2)

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Main points:
- science is a set of attitudes.
-much of modern science would not be possible without quantitative observations and mathematical tools, which are needed to convert reports  into more general statements.
-honesty within oneself and others is essential to progress within science.
-scientists learnt value of remaining without an answer until one is found (avoid premature conclusions)

What is the true nature of science?
- it is a unique, intellectual process
-always evolving, subjective
-scientific knowledge that yields results.
-science is not restricted to any particular subject matter, so when we study physics and chemistry or biology, we study cumulative organized information which are the byproducts of science.

Important characteristics of science:
-objectivity, ethical neutrality, reliability.

What is need for scientific understanding of a subject to produce a model:
-Science advances from a collection of rules or laws, expanding into larger arrangements. Setting up a “model” of it’s subject matter, in turn helping to further new practices in dealing with particular cases.

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1)      List 4-5 main points you took from this section

2)      Under what conditions do we consider someone’s behaviour as a result of the environment and under what conditions do we tend to attribute it to internal factors within the person?
We tend to attribute "good" behaviors or their outcomes to the person's free will. In the contrary we have developed our scientific understanding of behavior enough to acknowledge that there are factors that influence, or "determine" (to a certain extent) a person's behavior, and we tend to attribute "bad" behaviors or "wrong-minded" people to those factors. We are in transition.

3)      Why does it matter whether we have a deterministic (scientific) or free will (theoretical) view of human behaviour?  How does it impact?
Having either a scientific or a theoretical view of human behavior impacts how we understand, act and try to change behavior, in the sense that “theories affect practices.” Despite accepting the assumption of determinism in part, Skinner says we still allow our sympathies and personal aspirations to rise to the defense of the traditional view. This confusion could also be responsible for what he describes as the “present unhappy condition of the world,” given that issues concerning the fundamental nature of human behavior were at stake in the political and social scenario of the time.

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Chapter 2: Section: Some objections to a science of behaviour

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Chapter 2: Section: Some objections to a science of behaviour

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1. List 4-5 main points you took from this section. . A prediction of what the average individual will do is often of little or no value in dealing with a particular individual

. Now is more of an important time than ever to try and understand the process involved in behavior

. We need to prepare ourselves for difficulties that will arise in behaviorisms and find ways to solve problems that arise in the study of behavioral sciences

. Human have restricted dimensions and the behavior changes and not predictable.

. Cant expect experts to know every single fact, they should rather have a general/broad understanding of the entire field and all different kinds of facts

. Behaviorism needs more solid ideologies to help further our knowledge and understanding of behavior and the science of behavior as a whole

2. a) When does resistance/objections to a science of human behaviour tend to occur?  What are some objections to behaviourism?
Objections to sciences as a behavior began to occur in the romantic evolution era which was the late 1800s into the 1900s. At this time Vitalism and romantic evolutionism were the two main ways of thinking that ruled over the majority of society.

Objection 1:

Seeing human behavior as having lawful scientific data is also a problem that skinner pointed out. This is because science is focused on examining broad problems this doesn’t work as well for behavioral sciences. Behaviorism mainly focuses on studying individuals; therefore, the issue here is science looks at general problems that effect lots of people where as behavioral sciences to be effective needed to be much more individually tailored to the specific person

Objection 2:

The use of statistical data of a general population or medians being used in behavioural sciences is also an objection skinner had to the discipline. As using a mean number or average and applying it to an individual as a prediction of behavior has no value. This is because the particular individual of study will be unique and most likely will not act the same way the average person does. Continually behavioral sciences that only study behaviour in groups will be of zero use. When studying a certain individual and predicting their behaviour from results of studying a group. It doesn’t help further our understanding of human behaviour and has no use really. his objection means that behaviourism follows a “case study” approach that gives physicist or observers fullness in information for them to create an action that may suit for an individual but not for the general population.

Objection 3:

The final objection focuses on this issues with the practical purposes of scientific analysis in behavioral sciences. When using scientific analysis in behavioral sciences, the observer has to accept the behavior they are studying is lawful. And that the current scientific approaches of the time will be able to show the overall rules that direct that particular behavior of study. Therefore, this means that even with scientific analysis the researcher wouldn’t be able to make any technological use of the rules he discovered; unless he/she was able to find a way to regulate the undeniable circumstances in the study. Even if we assume that behavior is lawful and that the methods of science will reveal the rules which govern it, we may be unable to make any technological use of these rules unless certain conditions can be brought under control.

b) What does the text say about the complexity of behaviour and our ability to understand it? (Principle of Indeterminacy)
The text talks about how complex human behaviour is and that a science of behaviour that wants to study lawful interactions will not be accepted by most as scientific. Furthermore, many studies done received rejection and statements of restrictions of the theory or study related to behaviourism. Skinner also said another problem with lawfulness in this discipline is our inability to to define or express lawfulness in a certain behaviour of a person as a whole. Therefore, he believed we need clearer principles of what human behaviour is to be able to make concrete statements on the principles. But because human behaviour was so complex there currently were no real rules, also there is no evidence supporting or saying that the human intellect can’t create, formulate, and comprehend basic principles of human behaviour. Yet in skinners our words he believed the knowledge required to “understand your own personal behaviour is beyond the realms of behaviours we currently understand.” Essentially, behaviourism needed more concrete rules of study, and principles. The behavior required in understanding one's own behavior must be something beyond the behavior which is understood. Until we are familiar and understand the principle, it may guide us towards comprehending the principles of human behavior.

PRINCPLE OF INDETERMINCACY - “States that there are circumstances under which the scientist cannot put himself in possession of all relevant information”. Therefore, if he/she’s choses to study/observe one event they lose the chance to observe/study another event. “Therefore, in our present state of knowledge certain events appear to be unpredictable.”

The principle of indeterminacy essentiality states that we cannot know everything about what we are studying and that if we chose to study one thing we lose our chance to study another thing.

And that because of this limited knowledge some certain stimuli in our life apper to be unpredictable. The human organism has limited elements and therefore the principle can be applied to human behavior in many ways.

The principle doesn’t see events as free, this can be applied to helping understand the complexity of behavior as the same principle can be applied to help explain behavior. It can be applied when looking at reflex actions in the human body which are automatic responses to external stimuli we cannot control.

The principle also states that even though we cannot control all of human behavior we can control certain aspects of it. Therefore, by controlling certain aspects of human behavior we can change a behavior or reinforce a behavior we want. This helped us to understand how humans learn behaviors and that some behaviors are already learned and are innate. Continually, human behaviour is to complex to study like a normal physical science.

The principle helped to show that behavioural sciences needs to be studied differently and has to find a way to show lawfulness in “behaviours in humans as a whole.” By doing this scientist would gain a better understanding of all human behaviours and would be able to broaden the studies of human behaviour.

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1)      List 4-5 main points you took from this section

2)      Under what conditions do we consider someone’s behaviour as a result of the environment and under what conditions do we tend to attribute it to internal factors within the person?

3)      Why does it matter whether we have a deterministic (scientific) or free will (theoretical) view of human behaviour?  How does it impact?

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Chapter 2: Section: Behaviour as a scientific subject matter

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Chapter 2: Section: Behaviour as a scientific subject matter

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1)      List 4-5 main points you took from this section.

2)      What things have you learned/ assumed about human behaviour that you may need to unlearn in order to adopt a behaviour analytic view of human behaviour?

3)      a) What is the usefulness of narration to a science of behaviour?

b)      In Skinner’s view, what do archeology, ethnology, sociology and anthropology contribute to our understanding of behaviour?

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Chapter 1: Section: The Threat to Freedom

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Chapter 1: Section: The Threat to Freedom

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1)  What does Skinner say about science and it’s application to human behaviour in this passage?

2) a) What does it mean to say that behaviour is determined rather than a result of free will or inner sources within humans?

Did you all agree to these answers? (Laura) yes we did

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Chapter 2: Section: Some objections to a science of behaviour

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Chapter 2: Section: Some objections to a science of behaviour

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1. List 4-5 main points you took from this section.

2. a) When does resistance/objections to a science of human behaviour tend to occur?  What are some objections to behaviourism?

b) What does the text say about the complexity of behaviour and our ability to understand it? (Principle of Indeterminacy)

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Chapter 2: Section: Why Organisms behave – some popular “causes” of behaviour

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Chapter 2: Section: Why Organisms behave – some popular “causes” of behaviour

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1. List 4-5 main points you took from this section.
- A "cause" = change in an independent variable"  "effect" = "change in a dependent variable."

When you discover, analyze the causes, one can predict behaviour, you can also manipulate and control behaviour.

Any visible event that occurs at the same time as a behaviour can be seen as a cause (linking false causes to human behaviour)

For example; astrology and numerology makes people assume how one may behave based on the birth chart/number (whatever the result is, is the cause of one’s characteristics and behaviours)

Another example; basing behaviour off one’s body type- basically generalizing certain personalities with certain physiques

Although these popular causes of behaviour can sometimes explain certain behaviours, it lacks proof and ability to experiment with it and analyze (so useless to study)

2. What are the popular causes of behaviour?

Numerology, which looks at letters of a person’s name for example.

Some causes of behaviour can be traced to the season a man is born, climatic conditions, and events in the sun.

Astrology & Numerology : both try to predict your behaviour types depending on very vague things that can’t be confirmed or disapproved properly. Astrology e.g. The position of planets when you are born; The season of birth (spurious causes)

How the individual physically looks (structure of individual) : people have stereotypes of how certain physical characteristics will determine how you will act. Our presumptions are too narrow to actually be correct; because there could be multiple reasons why people look the way they look. For ex: someone could have long hair because it’s a religious choice or for pure vanity

Genetics: plays a role in how a organism acts and uses their body e.e. Hereditary factors. e.g. The proportions of the body, the shape of the head, the colour of the eyes, skin, or hair, the marks on the palms of the hands, and the features of the face have said to affect practices in dealing with human behaviour.

Behaviour can be caused by both nurture and nature.

3. Have there been any additions to popular causes of behaviour you can think of since this book was written in 1951?
-Disorder, Disease, Disability, Upbringing: culture and religion, Environmental factors, Social interactions. --> Our relationship with other people.

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Chapter 3: Section: A functional analysis

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Chapter 3: Section: A functional analysis

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1)  List 4-5 main points you took from this section.
- The advantages of comparing human behave with lower species

- The ideas of independent variable and dependent variable
- Social force was an important part of controlling.

- Based on observable events that are a functional analysis.
- Interpreting physical situations by what it means

2)  a)   What is a functional analysis?
- A functional analysis demonstrates control over the behaviour thus providing the professional with reliable results. To predict and control individual organism, using cause and effect as the law of science. After that, we link it to behaviour system.

b)      What is the benefit of constraining ourselves to observable events and behavioural products?
- One of the benefits of observable events is that it can let humans have inner control and practical use through physical events. Also, we shall observe through data, and we do not need to have inner state or the outer force to it.

3)      a) What are the sources used to get material to be analyzed in a science of behaviour? List and describe them.
- Casual observations - generalization based upon them, useful for further study

- Controlled field observation - data sampled have high accuracy

- Clinical observation- Using interviews and testing, usually emphasizing disorders people have.

- Extensive observation- It is more rigidly control and good to use in the experimental method.

- Laboratory studies of human behaviour- Providing useful material that includes instruments that can improve behaviour or functions of the variable.

- Extensive results of laboratory studies of the behaviours of animals below the human level- Usually using animals to do experimental because it is simple.

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1. List 4-5 main points you took from this section.

2. What are the inner causes of behaviour?  Describe each one and the argument for or against its causal power (reason why it is attributed to causing behaviour)

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Chapter 1: Section: The misuse of science + science as corrective

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Chapter 1: Section: The misuse of science + science as corrective

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1)      List 4-5 main points you took from this section
- Science has developed unevenly, by forcing upon the earlier problems first and due to which it is not prepared for the serious social problems that it follows .
-although it had greatly helped the world advance it had also set it back in the sense where it was used for highly destructive purposes such as building weaponry during the first and second word war,
"There is no point in advancing science any further unless it is a science of human nature"
-Need to apply the methods of science to human affairs and observe human behavior through an objective lens

2)      Does the possible applications of science justify avoiding scientific injury in certain areas?  Why or why not?
Science is not wrong it is the application of it.
I think that as long as there is a reasonable and morally justifiable code of ethics and regulation it is important to still investigate scientific theories that may help the advancement of mankind and technology in significant ways.

2) the text was written in 1951, find 1-2 passage in the text you would agree still apply today.  Why do you feel it is still relevant today?  Is it relevant to yourself? To humans in general?  To science?   One passage that is still relevant today and is relevant to myself, science and humans in general is the passage that reads “We must expect to discover that what a man does is the result of specifiable conditions and that once these conditions have been discovered, we can anticipate and to some extent determine his actions” I believe this quote is the basis of ABA and operant conditioning in the sense that both analyze ones behavior as being a direct result of stimuli in the environment or “conditions” and once we can determine the condition we can understand what the cause of behavior is and even change it.

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Chapter 3: Section: The variables of which behaviour is a function

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Chapter 3: Section: The variables of which behaviour is a function

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1) List 4-5 main points you took from this section.
-Prediction does not affect some ones behaviour
-For our prediction is to be accurate we must know the variables
-They must be a reason for the behavioural to accrue, for example drinking water the person must be thirsty
- The chain effect or the casual chain, for example wanting to eat feeling hungry then eating food

2)  a) What does it mean to say “The variables of which behaviour is a function?”
- It means that the behaviour is a fixed pattern of how we need to function based on our surroundings and expectation

b) What does it mean it then mean to say these lie outside the organism – in the immediate environment and its environmental history?
- It means that our behaviour lies on our surroundings like our how were raised and the history on how we should behave like our traditions

2) What is the causal chain?  What does it mean for our ability to predict behaviour?
- The casual chain is a chain reaction of a problem or a behaviour and the effects that follows it. The ability to predicts a behaviour is a biased on human nature, for example, I will cook dinner and my prediction my whole family will eat it, but usually in dose not end up that way some will eat because they are hungry and some wont eat because they did not like what I cooked

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Chapter 3: Section: Analysis of the data

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Chapter 3: Section: Analysis of the data

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1)      List 4-5 main points you took from this section.

- It is impossible to explain something for certain without having observed the event and its specific conditions regardless of knowledge about a subject.
- There are many ways in which data about human behaviour can be analyzed
-  You cannot look at one level of data analysis without understanding the components/levels before it.
- Analyzing behavior in a social environment

- Analyzing the functions of human behavior

- Changing behavior by manipulating the environment

- Formulation of the science of human behavior

- Behavior is predictable therefor controllable
- Complex examples of human behaviour drawn from certain established fields of knowledge are analyzed in terms of these simpler processes and relations. This procedure is called reductionism.

2)      What are the levels of data analysis?
- The analysis of behavior

The individual as a whole

The behavior of people in groups

Controlling agencies

The control of human behavior

a.     Classification of variables and survey of how behaviour changes with these variables.

b.     Broader view of the organism as a whole – internal activities that act as variables on behaviour.

c.      Analysis of interaction of two or more individuals in a social system.

d.     Analysis of control of behaviour in government, religion, psychotherapy, economics and education.

e.     Total culture as a social environment and analysis of general problem of behaviour control.

3) What is the most common objection to completing a functional analysis?  How can/should it be overcome?

The most common objection is that it simply cannot be carried out. This can be overcome with rigorous scientific thinking, treating behaviour like a dependent variable and accounting for behaviour in terms of observable and measurable physical conditions. It requires attention to detail and use of numerical data, as well as examining specific definitions and observing distinctions made.

To overcome this refection is necessary, thinking differently and scientifically, beginning with what has been developed so far in human behaviour, paying close attention to detail and rigorously defining behavioural processes.