# data[].attributes.body
1. History

1. Evil Spirits

1. The mentally ill were seen as possessed

2. Trephining

1. an early form of treatment that was supposed to let the spirits escape

2. making holes in the skull

2. ​​Middle Ages

1. Hippocrates (Greece 500 B.C.) and Galen (Rome 200 A.D.) thought that mental illness had biological roots

1. Europeans still returned to belief in demon possession

2. mentally ill persecuted

3. ​​Enlightenment

1. ​Philippe Pinel (France) and Dorothea Dix (U.S.)

1. ​fought for humane treatment of the mentally ill

2. helped the development of kinder institutions

4. ​​Deinstitutionalization

1. ​1950s

1. ​development of drugs for the mentally ill

2. many people were released from mental institutions

2. ​intended to save money and benefit patients

3. many were unable to care for themselves

5. ​​​Preventative Efforts

1. ​Primary prevention

1. attempt to reduce the incidence of societal problems that give rise to mental health issues

2. ​Secondary prevention

1. ​working with people at risk for developing specific problems

3. ​Tertiary prevention

1. ​aim to keep people’s mental health issues from becoming more severe

2. Types of Therapy

1. ​Overview

1. ​Psychotherapy

1. ​psychoanalytic, humanistic, behavioral, and cognitive psychologists

2. ​Somatic treatments

1. ​biomedical

2. ex. drugs

3. ​Patients vs. clients

1. ​patients go to

1. ​​​biomedical psychologists, psychoanalysts

2. ​clients go to

1. ​other therapists

2. ​​​Psychoanalytic Theories

1. ​Psychoanalysis

1. ​a therapeutic technique developed by Freud

2. focuses on identifying the underlying causes of a problem

2. ​Other therapies lead to symptom substitution

1. ​after treated for one disorder, a new psychological problem arises

3. ​Hypnosis

1. ​patients are less likely to repress thoughts

4. ​Free association

1. ​say whatever comes to mind without thinking

2. supposed to elude the ego’s defenses

5. ​Dream analysis

1. ​patients asked to describe their dreams

2. manifest content

1. ​​​what the patient reports

3. ​latent content

1. ​the interpreted underlying meaning

6. ​​Resistance

1. ​protecting yourself from the painful process of psychoanalysis

2. ex. disagreeing with your therapist’s interpretations

7. ​Transference

1. patients redirect strong emotions felt towards others with whom they’ve had a troubling relationship onto the therapist

8. ​​​Insight therapies

1. highlight the importance of the patient gaining an understanding of his problems

3. ​​Humanistic Therapies

1. ​Strive to self-actualize

2. ​​Beliefs

1. ​people are innately good

2. people have free will

1. ​determinism- opposite

3. ​​Client/Person-centered therapy

1. ​therapist must provide unconditional positive regard

2. non-directive

1. ​therapists don’t tell clients what to do

2. help clients choose course of action

3. active listening

4. ​​Gestalt therapy

1. ​clients encouraged to get in touch with whole selves

2. stress importance of present

3. integrate actions, feelings, thoughts into a whole

5. ​Existential therapies

1. focus on helping clients achieve a subjectively meaningful perception of their lives

4. ​​Behavioral Therapies

1. ​Counterconditioning

1. ​Mary Cover Jones

2. an unpleasant conditioned response is replaced with a pleasant one

2. ​Systematic desensitization

1. ​Joseph Wolpe

2. teach the client to eliminate anxiety through relaxation

3. construct anxiety hierarchy

1. ​a rank-ordered list of what the clients fears, from least to most

4. ​in vivo desensitization

1. ​the client confronts feared objects or situations

5. ​covert desensitization

1. ​client imagines the feared stimuli

6. climb the hierarchy, using counterconditioning to replace fear with relaxation

3. ​Flooding

1. ​the client addresses the most frightening scenario first

4. ​Modeling

1. ​client watches someone else interact with feared object

2. client reenacts what he saw

5. ​Aversive conditioning

1. ​pairs a habit the client wants to break with an unpleasant stimulus

6. ​Operant conditioning

1. ​uses rewards and punishments to modify behavior

2. ex. token economy

5. ​​Cognitive Therapies

1. Concentrate on changing unhealthy thought patterns

2. ​Cognitive therapy

1. ​most often used to treat depression

2. aims to engage clients in pursuits that will bring them success

3. make beliefs about cognitive triad more positive

4. Aaron Beck

6. ​​Cognitive Behavioral Therapies (CBTs)

1. ​Rational emotive behavior therapy

1. ​REBT/RET

2. Albert Ellis

3. goals

1. ​show client that his failure is unlikely

2. show that even if client does fail, it wouldn’t be a big deal

3. expose and confront the client’s dysfunctional thoughts

7. ​​​Group Therapy

1. ​Family therapy

2. Meeting with a number of people experiencing similar difficulties

3. Self-help groups

1. ​don’t involve a therapist

8. ​​Somatic Therapies

1. ​Therapies that produce bodily changes

2. Psychopharmacology/ Chemotherapy

1. ​drug therapy

2. more likely to be used for severe disorders

1. ​especially schizophrenia

3. ​​Antipsychotic drugs

1. ​block receptor sites for dopamine

2. used for schizophrenia

3. ex. Thorazine, Haldol

4. side effect

1. ​tardive dyskinesia (muscle tremors)

4. ​​Chemotherapy

1. ​used for mood disorders

2. increase serotonin activity

3. lithium- for manic phase of BPD

4. for unipolar depression:

1. ​tricyclic antidepressants

2. monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors

3. serotonin-reuptake-inhibitor drugs

5. ​​Barbiturates

1. ​antianxiety drugs

2. types

1. ​Miltown

2. benzodiazepines

3. ​ex. xanax, valium

6. ​Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

1. ​bilateral

1. ​electric current passed through both brain hemispheres

2. ​unilateral

1. ​electrical current through one hemisphere

3. ​more effective

4. ​​worse side effects

1. ​memory loss

2. brief seizure

3. brief loss of consciousness

5. ​used for depression when other methods fail

6. ​​less common than chemotherapy

7. ​Psychosurgery

1. ​rarest treatment

2. last resort

3. purposeful destruction of part of the brain to alter a person’s behavior

4. prefrontal lobotomy

1. ​cutting the main neurons leading to the frontal lobe

2. calms behavior

3. makes you a vegetable

3. Kinds of Therapists

1. ​Psychiatrists

1. ​Can prescribe meds

2. Less trained in psychotherapy

2. ​Clinical Psychologists

1. ​earn Ph.D.s that require at least 4 years of study

3. ​Counseling Psychologists

1. ​Graduate degree in psychology

2. Deal with less severe problems

4. ​Psychoanalysts

1. ​Trained in Freudian methods

2. Don’t need medical degree

# data[].attributes.body
Social psychology is the study of how people think about influence and relate to other people

·        Self-fulfilling prophecy is when expectations cause individuals to act in ways that serve to make expectations come true

·        Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobsen conducted a study on self-fulling prophecy in 1968. (late-bloomers)

Attribution

Is the process by which we come to understand the causes of the others’ behavior and form an impression of them as individuals

·        Attribution theory views people as motivated to discover the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior

1.      Internal/ external

2.      Stable/ unstable

3.      Controllable/ uncontrollable

·        Fundamental attribution error observes overestimate the importance internal traits and underestimate the importance of external situations when they seek explanations of an actor’s behavior

·        False consensus effect overestimation of the degree to which everybody else thinks or acts the way we do

The Self as a Social Object

·        Self-objection- Apple of another person’s eye

·        Stereotype threat- fear of being judged based on negative stereotype about his or her group

·        Social comparison- process by which we evaluate our thoughts, feeling, behaviors, and abilities in relation to other people

Attitudes guide actions

·        When the person’s attitude is strong

·        When the person shows a strong awareness of his or her attitudes and when the person rehearses and practices them

·        When the person has a vested interest

Cognitive dissonance- concept developed by Festinger, is an individual’s psychological discomfort (dissonance) caused by two inconsistent thought (hypocrite)

·        Experimenter by Festinger and J. Merrill Carlsmith asked college students to engage in boring tasks ($20, $1)

Effort justification means rationalizing the amount of effort we put into something

Self- perception theory, Daryl Bem’s take on how behavior influences attitudes

·        Behaviors can cause attitudes, when we are questioned about our attitudes. We think back on our behaviors for information

Persuasion

Elements of persuasion, identified by Carl Hovland and colleagues include:

·        The communicator (source)

·        The medium

·        The target (audience)

·        The message

Elaboration likelihood model- two ways to persuade: central route and peripheral route

Persuasion techniques:

·        Door-in-the-face

·        Foot-in-the-door

Resisting persuasion:

·        Inoculation- like giving a vaccine, a weaker version of information

·        Egoism- giving to another person to gain reciprocity

Aggression

Aggressive behavior often results when areas such as the limbic system are stimulated by electric currents

·        Frontal lobes implicated in aggression

·        Lower levels of serotonin have been linked to aggressive behavior

·        Testosterone

·        John Dollard, frustration-aggression hypothesis

·        Cultures of Honors- Dov Cohen

·        Medial violence

·        Solomon Asch- experiment on conformity (which line is the same as the other one of the three), pressure to conform is strong

-        Informational Social Influence: influence other people have on us, because we want to be right

-        Normative Social Influence: is the influence others have on us because we want them to like us

1.      Obedience- Stanley Milligram Shock experiment

Deindividuation- being part of a group reduces personal identity and erodes a sense of personal responsibility, give anonymity

Social contagion- imitative behavior involving the spread of actions, emotion, and ideas

Social facilitation- improvement in an individual’s performance because of the presence of others

Social loafing- each person’s tendency to exert less effort in a group because of reduces accountability for individual

Risky shift- tendency for a group decision to be riskier than the average decision made by the individual group members

Group polarization effect- the solidification and further strengthening of an individual’s position because of a group discussion or interaction

Groupthink- the impaired group decision making that occurs when making the right decision is less important than maintain group harmony

·        Irving Janis- decision making errors in history. Can be prevented if groups avoid isolation

Social identity- the way we define ourselves in terms of our group membership. You can identify with a country, social organization, religious group etc.

·        Henry Tajfel Social Identity Theory- our social identities are a crucial part of our self-image and a valuable source of positive feelings about ourselves

1.      In-group

2.      Out-group

Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan- resumes that were different stereo typically on how whiter or black their name sounded, but had the same qualifications in Boston and Chicago. White-sounding names were %50 more likely to be called for an interview

Explicit vs. Implicit racism- consciously aware and other hidden at a deeper level

·        Implicit racism- Implicit Associations Test is a computerized survey that assesses the ease with which a person can associate a black or white person with good things and bad things. Based on the idea that preexisting biases may make it easier to associate some social stimuli with positive rather than negative items

Muzafer Sherif- Robber’s Cave experiment

Eliot Aronson- jigsaw classroom, equal in ethnic composition and academic achievement

Close relationships

Mere exposure effect- the phenomenon that the more we encounter someone or something, the more probable it is that we will start liking the person or thing even if we do not realize we have seen it before.

·        Consensual validation- people are attracted to others who are like them. Since they share similar values, our attitudes and behavior validate ours

Social Exchange Theory- the view of social relationships as involving an exchange of good, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits

Investment Model- examines the ways that commitment, investment, and the availability of attractive alternative partners predict satisfaction and stability in relationships

# data[].attributes.body
·      Box #1 Personality

Personality- is a pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that describe the way a person is and adapts to the world.

Psychodynamic perspective emphasizes the fact that personality is primarily unconscious. Psychodynamic theorist believe behavior is only at the surface and to the have a good understanding of it one must explore the inner and outer meaning of the mind.

·      Box #2 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

In his theory, Freud believed that everything organized from sex (anything pleasurable). According the Freud the human sex drive was the main determinant of personality development. He felt psychological disorders, dreams, and all human behavior represent the conflict between the unconscious sexual drive and the demands of civilized human society.

Hysteria

Freud developed psychoanalysis by studying those who suffer from hysteria. Hysteria is physical symptoms that have no physical cause.

-For example: A person might be unable to see, even with perfectly healthy eyes.

Freud spent long hours listening to women talk ab out their symptoms, until one day he finally understood that the hysterical symptoms came from the unconscious psychological conflicts.

-Fraulein Elisabeth von R. Case Study.

Eventually Freud used his hysterical symptoms as his understanding for dreams and all human behavior. He used the work he analyzed from his patients to describe personality. Freud described personality as an iceberg, existing mostly below the level of awareness.

·      Box #3 Structure of Personality

Three parts of the iceberg:

1.    Id: the part the consist of the unconscious drives; the individual’s reservoir of sexual energy.

-Nick saw someone drop their money on the floor, but instead of returning it he kept it for himself.

2.    Ego: Deals with the reality of things happening in the world.

-Even though Nick wanted to keep the money, he gave it back to the person because he felt bad.

3.    Superego: The harsh internal judgement of our behavior; considers whether something is wrong or right.  Often reflected as the conscience.

-When Nick saw the money on the floor he turned in to the office hoping someone would claim it. He knows how it feels to lose money and didn’t want anyone to freak out.

The id and superego act as opposites. Both the id and superego do not consider reality, but the superego considers only whether the id’s impulses can be morally accepted. The ego acts as the mediator.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ViWoqIB2udA

The ego uses different strategies, called defense mechanisms, to deal with anxiety. Defense mechanisms such as:

-        Repression             - Regression               - Displacement

-        Projection               - Denial                       - Sublimation

Two points about defense mechanisms

1.    They are unconscious

2.    When used in moderation or on a temporary basis, defense mechanisms are not necessarily unhealthy.

·      Box #4 Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

Oral Stage- (First 18 month) pleasures center around the mouth. Chewing, sucking, and biting.

Anal Stage- (18-36 months) Children are experiencing toilet training, the child’s pleasures involve the anus and urethra and their functions.

Phallic Stage- (3 to 6 years old) Word comes from the Latin word penis. Pleasure focuses on the genitals as children discover that self- stimulation enjoyable.

The Phallic stage is important because it triggers Oedipus Complex, which is the boys despair to replace his father and enjoy the affections of his mother.

Latency Period- (6 years old to puberty) Child sets aside all interest in sexuality.

Genital Stage- (adolescent to adulthood) Sexual awakening and gaining the capability to love and work.

·      Box #5 Karen Horney, Carl Jung, and Alfred Adler

Karen Horney’s Sociocultural Approach: She discarded some of Freuds most popular ideas, calling them hypotheses. However, she did consider Freuds concept of penis envy. She pointed out that women might have penis envy because of the status society has for those who have one. She argued that sociocultural influences should be considered. Horney also believed that the need for security is the prime motive in human existence.

Carl Jung Analytical Theory: Jung shared the same interest in the unconscious, just like Freud. Jung believed personality goes back to the start of humanity.

-Collective Unconscious: The deepest layer of the unconscious mind shared by all human beings because of common past.

Jung say says that the collective unconscious contains archetypes, images and ideas that have meaning to a person. Jung used 3 archetypes to describe us as people.

1.    Anima- feminine side

2.    Animus- masculine side

3.    Persona- the mask we wear during social interactions

Alfred Adler Individual Psychology: In Alder’s individual psychology people are motivated by purpose and goals. In his approach, perfection, not pleasure, is the key motivator in human life. He thought that everyone strives for superiority by seeking to adapt, improve, and master the environment.

He also believes that the birth order can also influence how successfully a person could strive for superiority.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zj0DEebVqJA

·      Box #6 Maslow’s v. Rogers’s Approach

Humanistic perspective stresses a person capacity for personal growth and positive human qualities.

Abraham Maslow’s Approach: Believed we can learn the most about human personality by focusing on self-actualizers. Self-actualization is the motivation to develop ones’ full potential as a human being.  According to Maslow, a person at this level of their life will most likely tolerant other, have a nice sense of humor, and can pursue greater things.

Carl Rogers’s Approach: Believed we were born as raw ingredients and we need the right conditions to thrive.  He states that we are all born with natural capacities for growth and fulfillment, it’s just up to us to unlock it. We have a “gut feeling” that allows us to know what is good and what is bad for ourselves. And finally, he believes that we are born with the need to be loved or accepted by those around us. Rogers explains unhappiness by:

-Unconditional Positive Regard: the individual’s need to be accepted, valued, and treated positively no matter of his or her behavior.

-Conditions of Worth: The standards that the individual must live up to receive positive regard from others.

·      Box #7 Trait Perspective

Trait theories: personality consist of broad, enduring traits that lead to characteristic responses.

The Five- Factor Model of Personality: five traits that mainly describe personality.

1.   Neuroticism- Feeling negative emotion more often than positive emotion.

2.   Extraversion- More likely than others to engage in social activity and experience gratitude.

3.   Openness- Very openminded and highly creative.

4.   Agreeableness- Helpful, softhearted, and trusting.

5.   Conscientiousness- Related to high school and college scores. These people tend to have discipline, are careful, and organized.

Tip to help remember the model is by using O.C.E.A.N

·      Box #8 Personality Assessments

Self- Report Test: is a test that directly asks whether specific items describe their personality traits such as

-I am easily embarrassed

-I love to read

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): widely used personality test. This test is used as a tool in hiring decisions.

http://scientologyocala.org/personality-test/

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): developed by Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan, it is designed to elicit stories that reveal something about an individual’s personality. The TAT consists of pictures and the test taker is asked to tell the story the picture is showing.

What do you see?

# data[].attributes.body
1. Overview

1. Personalities

1. ​The unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that characterize a person

2. Type A vs. Type B

1. ​Type A

1. ​tend to feel a sense of time and pressure

2. easily angered

3. higher risk for heart disease

2. ​Type B

1. ​tend to be relaxed and easygoing

3. ​some people are neither

2. Psychoanalytic (Freudian) Theory

1. ​Psychosexual Stage Theory of Personality

1. ​Phallic Stage

1. ​boys and girls notice their physical differences

1. ​girls develop penis envy (desire for a penis)

2. boys get castration anxiety (fear of castration by fathers or for misbehavior)

2. identification

1. when people emulate and attach themselves to an individual they believe threatens them

2. prevents boys from fearing their fathers

3. encourages boys to break away from attachment to mom and act like men

2. ​​latency

1. ​sexual feelings are repressed out of conscious awareness

2. turn attention to other issues

3. ​fixation

1. ​results from being undergratified or overgratified

2. oral fixation

1. ​overeat, chew gum, smoke

3. ​anal fixation due to traumatic toilet training

1. ​anal expulsive personality

2. → messy and disorganized

3. ​​anal retentive

4. → meticulously neat and organized

4. ​phallic fixation

1. ​excessive sexual assurance and aggression or

2. consumed by their perceived sexual inadequacies

5. result from the libido (psychic energy) getting stuck in one of the psychosexual stages

2. ​​Unconscious vs. Conscious

1. ​Unconscious mind

1. ​we don’t have access to the thoughts in it

2. we use lots of psychic energy to keep threatening thoughts in it

2. ​Conscious mind

1. ​contains everything we are thinking about at any one moment

3. ​Preconscious mind

1. contains everything that we could potentially summon to conscious awareness with ease

3. ​​The Personality

1. ​Consists of the id, ego, and superego

2. ​​The id

1. ​contains instincts and psychic energy

2. instincts

1. ​Eros- the life instincts.

2. ​​→ often evidences as a desire for sex

3. → directed by libido

4. Thanatos- the death instincts

5. → seen in aggression

3. ​propelled by the pleasure principle

1. ​it wants immediate gratification

4. ​in the unconscious mind

3. ​​​The ego

1. ​located partly in the conscious, partly in the unconscious

2. follows the reality principle

1. negotiates between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment

3. ​acts as a mediator between superego and id

4. uses defense mechanisms to protect the unconscious mind from the threatening thoughts in the unconscious

4. The superego

1. ​operates on both the conscious and unconscious level

2. sense of conscience about right and wrong

4. ​​Defense Mechanisms

1. ​Repression

1. ​blocking thoughts out from conscious awareness

2. ​Denial

1. ​not accepting the ego-threatening truth

3. ​Displacement

1. ​redirecting one’s feelings toward another person or object

4. ​Projection

1. believing that the feelings one has toward someone else are actually held by the other person and directed at oneself

5. ​Reaction formation

1. ​expressing the opposite of how one truly feels

6. ​Regression

1. ​returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior

7. ​Rationalization

1. ​coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence

8. ​Intellectualization

1. ​undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic

9. ​Sublimination

1. ​channeling one’s frustration toward a different goal

2. viewed as particularly healthy

5. Criticisms of Freud

1. ​Freudian theory

1. ​little empirical evidence supports it

2. ​​proving it is impossible

3. overestimates the importance of early childhood and of sex

4. has little predictive power

5. able to interpret both positive and negative reactions to the theory as                                          support

2. ​Feminists

1. ​Freudian theory is objectionable

2. penis envy

1. ​grew from the assumption that men are superior to women

2. if women were jealous of men, it was probably due to the advantages men had in society

3. ex. Karen Horney and Nancy Chodorow

3. ​womb envy

1. ​men’s jealousy of women’s reproductive abilities

2. Karen Horney

4. ​men don’t have stronger superegos

6. ​​Impact of Freudian Theory

1. ​Impact on culture greater than impact on contemporary psychology

2. Terms used in our language

1. ​ego, penis envy, denial, unconscious

3. ​Arts

1. ​Salvador Dali

1. ​paintings depict the unconscious

2. ​Woody Allen

1. films often feature a character undergoing psychoanalysis and playing out a Freudian drama

3. Psychodynamic Theories

1. Neo-Freudian (Psychodynamic) Approaches

1. ​offshoots of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

2. Carl Jung

3. Alfred Adler

2. ​Carl Jung

1. ​The unconscious has two parts:

1. ​collective

2. personal

2. ​Personal unconscious

1. ​contains complexes

1. the painful/threatening thoughts and memories that you don’t want to confront

3. ​​Collective unconscious

1. ​passed down through the species

2. explains certain similarities between cultures

3. contains archetypes

1. ​universal concepts we all share as part of the human species

2. ex. shadow represents the evil side of personality

3. → persona is people’s creation of a public image

4. evidence: fear of dark, importance of circle

3. ​​​Alfred Adler

1. ​Ego psychologist

1. ​downplayed the importance of the unconscious

2. focused on the ego

2. ​People are motivated by:

1. ​inferiority

1. ​the fear of failure

2. ​superiority

1. ​the desire to achieve

3. ​​Known for work on the importance of birth order in shaping personality

4. Trait Theories

1. ​Trait Theorists

1. ​Believe we can describe people’s personalities by specifying their main traits

1. ​these traits are stable and motivate behavior

2. ​​Nomothetic Approach

1. Belief that the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people’s personalities

1. ​Hans Eyesenck

1. introversion-extroversion and stable-unstable scale can fully describe personality

2. ​​The big five personality traits

1. ​extraversion

2. agreeableness

1. ​how easy to get along with

3. ​conscientiousness

1. ​high = hardworking, responsible, organized

4. ​openness to experience

5. emotional stability (neuroticism)

1. ​how consistent your mood is

3. ​​​​​Factor Analysis

1. Allows researchers to use correlations between traits to see which traits cluster together as factors

2. Example:

1. factor- conscientiousness

2. traits- punctuality, diligence, neatness

1. strongly correlate

4. ​​​Idiographic Theorists

1. ​Using the same set of terms to classify all people is impossible

2. People need to be seen in the few terms that best characterize them

5. ​Gordon Allport

1. ​Common traits are useful

1. but a full understanding of someone is impossible without looking at their personal traits

2. ​​​Types of personal traits

1. ​cardinal dispositions

1. ​play a pivotal role in everything you do

2. ​central dispositions

3. secondary dispositions

1. ​less apparent

2. describe less significant traits

6. ​​​Criticism of Trait Theories

1. ​Underestimate the importance of the situation

5. Biological Theories

1. ​Heritability

1. ​A measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited

2. Little evidence exists for specific personality traits

2. ​​​Temperament

1. ​Emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with the world

2. Infants seem to differ immediately at birth

1. ​thought to be born with different temperaments

1. ​these influence personality development

3. ​​​​​Hippocrates

1. Believed personality was determined by the relative levels of four humors in the body

2. The four humors (fluids)

1. blood

2. yellow bile

3. black bile

4. phlegm

3. One of the first people to recognize that biology impacts personality

4. ​​​Somatotype Personality

1. ​William Sheldon

2. ​​Three body types:

1. ​endomorphs (fat)

2. mesomorphs (muscular)

3. ectomorphs (thin)

3. ​Certain personality traits are associated with each of the body types

4. Showed correlation, but not causation

6. Behaviorist Theories

1. ​Principles

1. ​Personality is determined by the environment

1. ​reinforcement contingencies create personality

2. ​We can alter personalities by changing the environment

2. ​Criticism

1. ​Fail to recognize the importance of cognition

7. Social- Cognitive Theories

1. ​Albert Bandura

1. ​Personality is created by an interaction between:

1. ​the person (traits)

2. the environment

3. the person’s behavior

2. ​This is based on triadic reciprocality (reciprocal determinism)

1. ​each of these three factors influence both of the other two in a constant loop like fashion

3. ​Also believed that personality is determined by self-efficacy

1. ​high = optimistic about their ability to get things done

2. low = feel a sense of powerlessness

3. affects actions

2. ​​George Kelly

1. ​Personal-Construct theory

1. ​in attempts to understand the world, people develop systems of personal constructs

1. consist of pairs of opposites

2. ex. smart vs. dumb

3. used to evaluate the world

2. ​behavior is determined by interpretation of the world

3. ​​based on a fundamental postulate

1. ​which states that behavior is influenced by cognitions, and we can predict future behavior with past behavior

3. ​​Locus of control

1. ​Julian Rotter

2. ​​Internal locus of control

1. ​feel as if you are responsible for what happens to you

2. correlated with higher health, political activity, and grades

3. ​External locus of control

1. ​believe that luck and other forces outside of your own control determine your destiny

8. ​​Humanistic Theories

1. ​Determinism

1. ​The belief that what happens is dictated by what happened in the past

2. Psychoanalysts and behaviorists

3. Doesn’t support the existence of free will

1. ​an individual’s ability to choose his own destiny

2. third force

1. ​arose in opposition to determinism

3. ​central to humanistic psychology

2. ​​​​Principles

1. ​People are innately good

2. People are able to determine their destinies with free will

3. Focus on importance of self concept and self esteem

1. ​these have a positive correlation

4. ​Self concept

1. ​a person’s global feeling about himself

3. ​​Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

1. ​People are motivated to self-actualize

1. ​reach their full potential

2. ​Maslow

1. ​hierarchy of needs

3. ​​​Roger’s self theory

1. ​​​people need unconditional positive regard to self actualize

2. unconditional positive regard

1. ​blanket acceptance

4. ​​​Criticism of Humanistic Theories

1. ​Theory of human nature too optimistic

9. Assessment Techniques

1. ​Projective Tests

1. ​Used by psychoanalysts

2. Involve asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuli

1. ​Rorschach inkblot test

1. ​involves showing people a series of inkblots and having them describe what they see

2. thematic apperception test (TAT)

1. ​consists of cards with a picture of people in an ambiguous situation

2. people are asked to describe what is happening in the cards

3. ​​People’s interpretations should reflect their unconscious thoughts

4. Scoring is complicated and unreliable

1. ​it relies on the therapist’s interpretations

2. ​​​​Self-Report Inventories

1. ​Questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselves

2. Used by many types of psychologists, ex:

1. ​humanistic

2. cognitive-behavioral

3. trait theorists

3. ​MMPI-Z

1. ​Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory

2. widely used

3. some have “lie scales” built in

3. ​​Radical Behaviorists

1. ​Observing behavior is the only way to measure personality

4. ​Reliability vs. Validity

1. ​Reliability

1. ​consistency

2. ​Validity

1. ​accuracy

5. ​​Barnum Effect

1. ​People have the tendency to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of personality

2. Named after P.T. Barnum

1. ​circus owner

2. “There’s a sucker born every minute.”

# data[].attributes.body
1. Research Methods

1. Cross-Sectional Research

1. Uses participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over the life span

2. Produces quick results

3. May be affected by historical events or cultural trends

2. ​Longitudinal Research

1. ​Examines one group of participants over time

2. Time consuming

3. Precisely measures the effects of development on a specific group

2. Prenatal Influences on Development

1. ​Genetics

1. ​Determine which abilities we are born with

1. ​ex: process of developing motor skills

2. ​​Teratogens

1. ​Can cause harm if ingested by the mother

1. ​they can pass through the placenta barrier

2. ​Alcohol

1. ​FAS (fetal alcohol syndrome)

1. ​mental retardation

2. malformed skull

3. caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy

2. ​fetal alcohol effect

1. ​caused by moderate drinking

2. learning disabilities

3. behavioral problems

4. not all symptoms of FAS

3. ​​Psychoactive drugs

1. ​newborns can share their mother’s drug addiction

1. ​withdrawal symptoms can lead to death

4. ​​Polluting chemicals in the environment

3. Motor/Sensory Development

1. ​Reflexes

1. ​Reflexes

1. ​inborn, automatic responses to specific stimuli

2. ​Reflexes humans are born with

1. ​rooting reflex

1. when touched on cheek, baby turns head and seeks to put the object in his mouth

2. ​sucking reflex

1. ​when object is placed in baby’s mouth, he will suck it

3. ​grasping reflex

1. a baby will try to grasp an object that is placed on his hand or foot

4. ​moro reflex

1. ​when startled, baby will fling out and then retract his limbs

2. makes self as small as possible

5. ​babinski reflex

1. ​when a baby’s foot is stroked, he will spread out the toes

6. ​we lose these reflexes later in life

2. ​​The Newborn’s Senses

1. ​Hearing

1. ​babies can hear before birth

2. minutes after birth, baby will try to turn head toward mother’s voice

2. ​​​Taste and smell

1. ​same basic preferences as we do

2. love sugar

3. ​Vision

1. ​not the dominant sense

1. ​hearing is

2. ​can see well 8-12 inches in front of them

1. ​everything else is a blur

2. normal vision by 12 months old

3. ​prefer face like objects

3. ​​Motor Development

1. ​Roll over

1. ​five and a half months old

2. ​Stand

1. ​eight- nine months

3. ​Walk alone

1. ​fifteen months

4. ​The effect of environment is slight

4. Parenting

1. ​Attachment Theory

1. ​Attachment

1. ​the reciprocal relationship between caregiver and child

2. ​Harry Harlow

1. ​raised baby monkeys with two artificial wire frame figure “monkeys”

1. ​one figure was fitted with a bottle the infant could feed from

2. the other wrapped in soft material

2. ​when frightened, infants preferred soft mom

1. demonstrated the importance of physical comfort in formation of attachment

3. ​monkeys raised by real mothers were less frightened in new situations

3. ​​​Mary Ainsworth

1. ​observed infants’ reactions when placed into strange situations

1. ​parents left for a short time and returned

2. ​three reaction categories

1. ​secure, avoidant, anxious/ambivalent attachments

3. ​secure attachment

1. ​66% of babies in experiment

2. explored novel environment while parents were present

3. distressed when parents were absent

4. came to parents when they returned

4. ​avoidant attachment

1. ​21% of participants

2. resist being held by parents

3. explore novel environment

4. don’t go to parents for comfort when they return

5. ​anxious/ambivalent attachment

1. ​12% of participants

2. may show extreme stress when parents leave but resist their comfort when they return

2. ​​Parenting Styles

1. ​Authoritorian

1. ​set strict standards for their children’s behavior

1. ​no discussion about the rationale behind them

2. ​punishment is used more than reinforcement

2. ​Permissive

1. ​don’t set clear guidelines for their children

2. rules are constantly changed

3. rules are usually not enforced

4. easy to get away with almost anything

3. ​Authoritative

1. ​set consistent standards for their children

1. ​reasonable and explained

2. ​encourage their children’s independence

3. praise as often as they punish

4. ​Children produced

1. ​authoritative parents

1. ​more socially capable

2. perform better academically

2. ​permissive parents

1. ​emotional control problems

2. more dependent

3. ​authoritorian parents

1. ​less trusting

2. more withdrawn from peers

5. Stage Theories

1. ​Continuity vs. Discontinuity

1. ​Continuity

1. ​develop at a steady rate from birth to death

2. ​Discontinuity

1. ​development happens in fits and the rate is variable

2. stage theories

1. ​discontinuous theories of development

2. ​​​Sigmund Freud

1. ​We develop through four psychosexual stages

1. ​sexual (to Freud)

1. ​how we get sensual pleasure from the world

2. if we fail to resolve a significant problem in our lives in one of these stages, we become fixated in the stage

1. ​remain preoccupied with behaviors associated with that stage

2. ​​Oral stage

1. ​infants seek pleasure through their mouths

1. ​put many objects into mouth

2. ​fixation

1. ​overeating, smoking, childlike dependence on things and people

3. ​​Anal stage

1. ​develops during toilet training

2. fixation

1. ​retentive- overly controlling

2.  expulsive- out of control

4. ​​Phallic stage

1. ​babies realize their gender

2. Oedipus complex and Electra complex

3. fixation

1. ​problems in relationships

5. ​​Latency stage

1. ​period of calm

2. low psychosexual energy

3. most psychologists don’t regard it as a separate stage

4. age 6- puberty

6. ​Genital stage

1. ​focus of sexual pleasure is genitals

2. remain for rest of life

3. fixation

1. ​normal

3. ​​​Erik Erikson

1. ​A neo-Freudian

1. a theorist who believed in the basics of Freud’s theory but adapted it to fit his own observations

2. ​Psychosexual stage theory

1. ​eight stages

2. he thought our personality was profoundly influenced by experiences with others

3. ​Trust vs. Mistrust

1. babies need to learn that they can trust their caregivers to fulfill their needs and that their requests are effective

2. sense of trust or mistrust carries for life

4. ​Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

1. ​toddlers begin to exert their will over their bodies (autonomy)

1. ​potty training is an early effort at this

2. ​learn to control temper tantrums

3. if we learn how to control ourselves and our environment in reasonable ways:

1. we develop a healthy will

2. we can control our body and emotional reactions through following social challenges

5. ​Initiative vs. guilt

1. ​if trust and autonomy achieved:

1. ​natural curiosity about our surroundings

2. ask many questions

2. if our curiosity is encouraged, we will feel comfortable expressing it always

1. if not, we feel guilty and will not express it

6. ​​Industry vs. inferiority

1. ​in first grade, we are asked to produce work that is evaluated

2. if we perform as well as our peers, we feel competent

1. ​if not, inferiority complex!​

2. → anxiety about our performance in that area

7. ​​Identity vs. role confusion

1. in adolescence, our main social task is to discover what social identity we are most comfortable with

1. maybe try out different roles

2. identity crisis

1. if an adolescent doesn’t figure out a sense of self, they might have one later in life

8. ​​Intimacy vs. isolation

1. ​a. young adults figure out how to balance time and effort between work, relationships, and self

1. the patterns we choose become relatively permanent

9. ​​Generativity vs stagnation

1. ​we look critically at our life path

2. we try to ensure that our lives are going the way we want

1. ​if not, we try to change it by controlling others or changing our identity

10. ​​Integrity vs. despair

1. ​toward the end of life

2. we look back at our accomplishments and decide if we’re satisfied

1. ​if so, we can step outside society and offer wisdom

2. if not, we may fall into despair over lost opportunities

6. ​​​​Cognitive Development

1. ​Jean Piaget

1. ​Worked for Albert Binet, creator of the first intelligence test

1. ​noticed that children of the same age gave similar answers

1. hypothesis: they think in similar ways which differ from the ways of adults

2. led to theory of cognitive development

2. ​​Theory of cognitive development

1. ​children view the world through schemata

1. ​cognitive rules we use to interpret the world

2. ​assimilation

1. ​we incorporate our experiences into this existing schemata

3. when info violates our schemata, we accommodate and change our schemata

3. ​Four stages of thinking

1. ​sensorimotor stage

1. ​birth- 2 years

2. we explore the world through our senses

3. behavior is governed by reflexes until we develop our first cognitive schemata

4. major challenge- develop object permanence (objects continue to exist even when out of our sensory range)

2. ​preoperational stage

1. ​2 years- 7 years

2. object permanence prepares us to use symbols to represent real world objects

3. → the beginning of language

4. we speak our first words

5. we are limited in the ways we can think about the relationships between and characteristics of objects

6. egocentric in thinking- can only see world from their perspective

3. ​concrete operations

1. ​8 years- 12 years

2. we learn to think more logically about complex relationships between different characteristics of objects

3. concepts of conservation

4. → the realization that properties of objects remain the same even when their shapes change

5. → ex. volume, area, number

4. ​formal operations

1. ​12 years- adulthood

2. we gain metacognition (the ability to think about the way we think)

3. abstract reasoning

4. → hypothesis testing. someone in this stage can reason from a hypothesis

5. we can manipulate objects in our minds without physically seeing them

6. we can contrast ideas in our minds without real world correlates

2. ​​​Criticisms of Piaget: Information Processing Model

1. ​He underestimated children

1. ​many go through the stages faster and enter them earlier than he thought

2. his tests relied too heavily on language use

1. ​results biased in favor of older kids

2. ​​Information- processing model

1. ​a more continuous alternative to Piaget’s stage theory

2. our abilities to memorize, interpret, and perceive gradually develop as we age, not in stages

1. ex: attention span

2. → could explain some apparent cognitive differences Piaget attributed to different cognitive stages

7. ​​​​Moral Development

1. ​Lawrence Kohlberg

1. Described how our ability to reason about ethical situations changes over our lives

2. Asked children to think about specific moral situations

3. Heinz dilemma

1. Heinz must make a moral choice about whether to steal a drug he can’t afford to save his wife’s life

4. ​Responses to Heinz dilemma

1. ​preconventional

1. ​youngest children

2. focus on making the decision most likely to avoid punishment

3. moral reasoning limited to how the choice affects themselves

2. ​conventional

1. ​look at the moral choice through the eyes of others

2. make the choice based on how others will view them

3. try to follow conventional standards of right and wrong

3. ​postconventional

1. ​moral reasoning

2. examines the rights and values involved in the choice

3. self-defined ethical principles involved

4. the morality of societal rules are examined, not blindly accepted

2. ​​​Criticisms of Kohlberg

1. ​Carol Gilligan

1. ​Kohlberg developed the model based on responses of boys

1. ​gender differences in development of morals and ethics?

2. ​according to her research:

1. ​boys have a more absolute view of what is moral

2. girls pay more attention to the situational factors

3. recent research doesn’t support her theory of gender differences in moral development

8. Gender and Development

1. ​Biopsychological (Neuropsychological) Theory

1. Concentrates on the nature element in the nature/nurture combo that produces our gender role

1. behaviors that a culture associates with a gender

2. Look for more subtle gender differences

3. Women have larger corpus callosums

1. may affect how the brain hemispheres communicate

2. ​​Psychodynamic Theory (Freud)

1. ​Oedipus and Electra complex

2. Proper gender development:

1. child realizes that they can’t beat their same sex parents for the attention of the other parent

2. child identifies with the same sex parent instead

3. ​​Social-Cognitive Theory

1. Concentrate on the effects of society and our own thoughts about gender on role development

2. Social psychologists

1. look at how we react to boys and girls differently

3. Cognitive psychologists

1. focus on the internal interpretations we make about the gender messages we get from the environment

4. ​Gender-schema theory

1. we internalize messages about gender into cognitive rules about how each gender should behave

# data[].attributes.body
1. Overview

1. ​Motivation

1. ​Feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal

2. ​​Theories of Motivation

1. ​Drive Reduction Theory

1. ​Our behavior is motivated by biological needs

2. Needs

1. ​requirements for survival

2. food, water, shelter

3. ​Drives

1. ​our impulses to act in ways that satisfy our needs

2. ex: hunger

4. ​Homeostasis

1. ​a balanced internal state

2. our body seeks it

3. when we are out of it, we have a need that creates a drive

5. ​​Primary drives

1. ​biological needs (ex: thirst)

6. ​Secondary drives

1. ​learned drives

2. ex: we learn that money can get us food and water to satisfy our primary drives

2. ​​Arousal Theory

1. ​We seek an optimum level of excitement or arousal

1. ​we are motivated by activities that help us achieve our needed level

2. ​Yerkes- Dodson Law

1. we might perform well at an easy task with a very high arousal level

2. the same high level would worsen our performance on a difficult task

3. ​​Opponent-Process Theory

1. ​People are usually at a baseline (normal) state

1. ​we might perform an act that moves us away from this state

2. may be pleasurable at first, but eventually we feel an opponent process

1. ​(we want to return to baseline state)

3. ​with physically addictive substances, we get withdrawal

1. ​we are required to have more to return to baseline state

2. ​​Generally used to explain addictive behaviors

4. ​Incentive Theory

1. ​Incentives

1. ​stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning

2. ​We learn to associate some stimuli with rewards and others with punishment

1. ​we are motivated to seek the rewards

5. ​​Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

1. ​Physiological needs

1. ​to satisfy drives for hunger, thirst, and sex

2. ​Safety needs

1. ​to feel safe, secure, and out of danger

3. ​Belonging and love needs

1. ​to be accepted and belong

4. ​Esteem needs

1. ​to achieve and to gain approval and recognition

5. ​Self-actualization needs

1. ​to achieve your unique potential

3. Hunger Motivation

1. ​Biological Basis of Hunger

1. ​Lateral hypothalamus

1. ​causes us to eat

2. ​Ventromedial hypothalamus

1. ​satiety center

2. causes us to stop eating

3. ​Set-point theory

1. ​the hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain optimum body weight

1. if we drop below the weight, it lowers our metabolic rate (how quickly our body uses energy)

2. ​when the set point is reached:

1. hypothalamus tells us to stop eating and raises metabolism to burn excess food

2. ​​​Psychological Factors in Hunger Motivation

1. ​Externals

1. ​more motivated to eat by external food cues

1. ​attractiveness or availability of food

2. ​​Internals

1. ​respond more often to internal hunger cues

3. ​The extent of the effect of each type of cue on us might be learned

4. Garcia effect

1. ​taste aversion to a food results after feeling nauseous after eating it

5. ​We prefer foods we were raised with

3. ​Eating Disorders

1. ​Bulimia

1. ​binging and purging

2. ​Anorexia nervosa

1. ​refuse to eat due to obsession with weight

2. starve themselves to below 85% of normal body weight

3. ​Obesity

1. ​severely overweight

1. ​often by over 100 pounds

2. excess weight threatens health

2. ​have unhealthy eating habits

4. Sexual Motivation

1. ​Sexual Response Cycle

1. ​Documented by William Masters and Virginia Johnson

2. Stages

1. ​initial excitement

2. plateau phase

3. orgasm

4. resolution phase

2. ​​Psychological Factors

1. ​Sexual desire can be present even when the capability to have sex is lost

2. Erotic material can spark physiological responses

5. Social Motivation

1. ​Achievement Motivation

1. ​Examines our desires to master complex tasks/knowledge and reach goals

2. ​​Some people have higher than others

3. Varies from activity to activity

2. ​Extrinsic/Intrinsic Motivation

1. ​Extrinsic motivators

1. ​rewards that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves

2. ex: grades, salary

2. ​Intrinsic motivators

1. ​rewards we get internally

2. ex: enjoyment, satisfaction

3. most effective to sustain a behavior for a long period of time

3. ​​Management Theory

1. ​Theory X

1. managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishments

2. ​Theory Y

1. managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this inner motive

2. studies show its more beneficial

4. ​​When Motives Conflict

1. ​Approach-approach conflict

1. ​you must choose between two desirable outcomes

2. ​Avoidance-avoidance conflict

1. ​you must choose between two unattractive outcomes

3. ​Approach-avoidance conflict

1. ​one event or goal has both attractive and unattractive features

4. ​Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts

1. you must choose between two or more things, each of which has both desirable and undesirable features

6. Theories and Emotion

1. ​James-Lange vs. Cannon-Bard

1. ​James-Lange Theory

1. ​we feel emotion because of biological changes caused by stress

2. William James and Carl Lange

2. ​Cannon-Bard Theory

1. the biological change and the cognitive awareness of the emotional state occur simultaneously

1. the hypothalamus sends signals to our cortex and autonomous nervous system about environment

2. ​Walter Cannon and Philip Bard

2. ​​Two-Factor Theory

1. ​Stanley Schachter

2. Both our physical responses and cognitive labels (mental interpretations)                                   combine to cause emotional responses

3. People who are physiologically aroused experience more intense emotions

7. Stress

1. ​Overview

1. ​Stressors

1. ​life events that cause stress

2. ​Stress reactions

1. ​how we react to these changes in the environment

2. ​​Measuring Stress

1. ​SRRS

1. ​social readjustment rating scale

2. measures stress using LCU’s

1. ​life changing units

3. ​any major life change increases the score

4. people who score high are more likely to have stress related diseases

5. Thomas Holmes and Richard Rae

3. ​​Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

1. ​Describes the general response animals and humans have to a stressful event

2. Stages

1. ​alarm reaction

1. the organism readies itself to meet the challenge by activating the sympathetic nervous system

2. ​​​resistance

1. ​body remains physiologically ready

2. hormones released to maintain readiness

3. if in this state for too long, the body will be depleted of resources

3. ​exhaustion

1. ​parasympathetic nervous system returns our body to normal

2. more vulnerable to disease

3. ​​Explains problems associated with extended periods of stress

4. ​​​Perceived Control

1. ​Control over events lessens stress

2. A perceived lack of control makes events more stressful

# data[].attributes.body
Concepts

the cognitive rules that we apply to stimuli from our environment

Prototypes

type of thought where our concepts are based on what we think is the most typical example of that particular concept

Images

type of thought where our concepts are based on the mental images we create in our mind of the inside world

Algorithm

a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula

Heuristic

rule that is generally, but not always true that we can just to make a judgement in a situation

Availability heuristic

heuristics that involves judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind

Representativeness heuristic

heuristics that involves judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his/her mind

Overconfidence

the tendency to overestimate how accurate our judgements are

Belief bias

the bias where we make illogical conclusions to confirm our pre-existing beliefs

Belief perseverance

the tendency to maintain a belief even when the evidence we used to form the belief is contradicted

Rigidity/mental set

the tendency to fall into established thought patterns

Functional fixedness

type of rigidity that involves the inability to see a new use for an object

Confirmation bias

bias where we tend to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is true

Framing

the way a problem is presented

Convergent thinking

thinking pointed towards one solution

Divergent thinking

thinking that searches for multiple possible solutions to a question

# data[].attributes.body
Memory

any indication that learning has persisted over time

Three-box/information-processing model

model that proposes that there are three stages that information passes through before it is stored

Sensory memory

the split-second holding tank for incoming sensory information

Iconic memory

type of sensory memory that is a split-second perfect photograph of a scene

Echoic memory

type of sensory memory that is a brief (3-4 sec) perfect memory of sounds

Selective attention

the process by which one can pick out different encoding for encoding

Short-term/working memory

the information one is currently working with and is aware of in one's consciousness

Chunking

the grouping of information to aid short-term memory (no more than 7 groups)

Mnemonic devices

memory aids

Rehearsal

the repetition of information to aid short-term memory

Long-term memory

permanent storage of information

Episodic memory

type of long-term memory that involves specific events, stored in a sequential series

Semantic memory

type of long-term memory that involves general knowledge, stored as facts, meanings, or categories

Procedural memory

type of long-term memory that involves the performance of skills, stored sequentially, but complicated to describe with words

Explicit/declarative memories

the conscious memories of facts or events that we actively try to remember

Implicit/nondeclarative memories

the unintentional memories we might not realize we have

Eidetic/photographic memory

the ability to recall memories with extreme accuracy

Levels of processing model

model that proposes that there are two levels of processing, rather than distinct stages

Shallowly/maintenance processed

processing that involves meaningless rehearsal that leads to short-term retention

Deeply/elaborately processing

processing information in a meaningful way that increases its likelihood of being stored in memory

Retrieval

the gathering of information out of memory so that it can be used

Recognition

type of retrieval that is the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory

Recall

type of retrieval that retrieves a memory with an external cue

Primacy effect

the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list

Recency effect

the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the end of a list

Serial position effect/curve

the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning or the end of a list, but forget items in the middle

Tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember information

Semantic network theory

theory that states that our brain forms new memories by connecting their meaning and context with meanings already in memories

Flashbulb memories

detailed snapshots of the moment and circumstances surrounding the moment shocking information was heard

Mood-congruent memory

phenomenon where there is a greater likelihood of recalling an item when our current mood matches the mood we were in when the event occurred

State-dependent memory

phenomenon where there is a greater likelihood of recalling events while in a particular state of consciousness

Recovered memory phenomenon

phenomenon where individuals claim to suddenly remember events they have "repressed" into the unconscious mind

Constructed/resconstructed memory

a false recollection of events

Decay

a cause of forgetting when we do not use a memory or its connections for a long time

Relearning effect

prediction that it will take less time to learn something again

Interference

a cause of forgetting where other information in your memory competes with what you want to recall

Retroactive interference

interference where the learning of new information interferes with the recall of older information

Proactive interference

interference where older information learned interferes with the recall of the more recent information

Hippocampus

part of the brain that encodes new memories

Anterograde amnesia

the inability to encode new memories

Retrograde amnesia

the loss of all memories before the trauma

Long-term potentiation

the strengthening of the connections between neurons through repeated firings

Phonemes

the smallest units of sound used in a language

Morpheme

the smallest unit of meaningful sound

Syntax

the arrangement of words in a sentence to make sense

Language acquisition

the process by which humans acquire the capacity to communicate in a language

Babbling

stage where innate babies experiment with phonemes

Holophrastic/One-word stage

stage where babies speak single words

Telegraphic speech/Two-word stage

stage where babies combine words into simple commands

Overgeneralization/overregularization

the misapplication of grammar rules

Nativist theory of language acquisition

theory that children are born with a language acquisition device

Language acquisition device

the part of the brain that allows rapid language learning

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

theory that the language we use might control or limit our thinking

# data[].attributes.body
Learning

long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience

Classical conditioning

type of learning where people and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli (ex: sound) with stimuli that produce reflexive, involuntary responses (ex: food) and will learn to respond similarly to the new stimulus as they did to the old one (ex: salivate).

Neutral stimuli

stimuli that only focuses attention

Unconditioned stimulus/US/UCS

original stimulus that elicits a natural, reflexive response

Unconditioned response/UR/UCR

the natural response elicited from the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response/CR

the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Conditioned stimulus/CS

the originally irrelevant stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response after association with an unconditioned stimulus

Acquisition

the acquiring of a new behavior that occurs once one responds to the CS without the US present

Delayed conditioning

acquisition with the presentation of the CS followed by the US

Trace conditioning

acquisition with the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US

Simultaneous conditioning

acquisition with the presentation of the CS and the US at the same time

Backward conditioning

acquisition with the US presented first, followed by the CS

Extinction

the process of unlearning a behavior, achieved when the CS no longer elicits the CR

Spontaneous recovery

phenomenon where the CR briefly reappears upon presentation of the CS after a CR has been extinguished and no further training has taken place

Generalization

the tendency to respond to similar CS'

Discrimination

the ability to tell the difference between various stimuli

Aversive conditioning

conditioning to avoid the US

Second-order/Higher-order conditioning

the brief use of a CS as a US to elicit a new stimulus (only possible once a CS elicits a CR)

Learned taste aversions

the aversion developed to certain foods due to illness after ingestion

Salient stimuli

easily noticeable stimuli

Garcia effect

the ease with which animals learn taste aversions that occurs whenever nausea is paired with food or drink

Operant conditioning

type of learning based on the association of consequences with behaviors

Law of Effect

law that states that if consequences to a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response connection will be strengthened, increasing the likelihood of that behavior; if consequences to a behavior are unpleasant, the stimulus-response connection will weaken, lessening the likelihood of that behavior

Skinner Box

a box that delivers food to animals with a lever to press or disk to peck

Reinforcer

any event that makes the behavior more likely to occur

Reinforcement

the process of reinforcing a behavior

Positive reinforcement

the addition of something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring

Negative reinforcement

the removal of something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring

Escape learning

the termination of an aversive stimulus

Avoidance learning

the avoidance of an aversive stimulus

Punishment

anything that makes a behavior less likely to occur

Positive punishment (usually referred to as punishment)

the addition of something unpleasant to make a behavior less likely to occur

Omission training/negative punishment

the removal of something pleasant to make a behavior less likely to occur

Shaping

technique that reinforces the small steps used to reach the desired behavior

Chaining

technique that links together separate behaviors into a complex activity

Primary reinforcers

reinforcers that are rewarding

Secondary reinforcers

reinforcers that we value

Token economy

system that uses tokens as rewards for performing desired behaviors

Premack principle

principle that states that more probable behaviors can be used to reinforce less probable behaviors

Continuous reinforcement

the reward of a desired behavior continuously

Partial-reinforcement schedules

the reward of a desired behavior intermittently

Partial-reinforcement effect

the phenomenon where behaviors will be more resistant to extinction if not reinforced continuously

Fixed-ratio schedule (FR)

schedule that requires a set number of responses before a response results in reinforcement

Variable-ratio schedule (VR)

schedule that varies the number of responses before a response results in reinforcement

Fixed-interval schedule (FI)

schedule that requires that a certain amount of time elapses before a response will result in reinforcement

Variable-interval schedule (VI)

schedule that varies the amount of time that elapses before a response will result in reinforcement

Instinctive drift

the tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior

Cognitive learning

type of learning that depends on processes not directly observable that argues conditioning has a cognitive component

Contiguity model (V1)

the Pavlovian model that postulates that the more times things are paired, the greater the learning that will take place

Contingency model (V2)

model that postulates that A is contingent upon B when A depends on B and vice versa

Observational learning/modeling

type of learning that occurs through the observation of a behavior

Latent learning

type of learning that becomes obvious only once reinforcement is given for demonstrating it

Abstract learning

type of learning that involves understanding concepts rather than learning simply to secure a reward

Insight learning

type of learning that occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem

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Hallucinogens or Psychedelics

Psychoactive drugs that change perceptions of reality

Opiates

Psychoactive drugs that depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

William James

Founder of functionalism by studying how humans use perception to function in our environment. He wrote the first psychology textbook--The Principles of Psychology.

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Ernest Hilgard

Founded the dissociation theory in which hypnosis involves not only social influences but also a special state of dissociation.

Mere Exposure Effect

When we prefer stimuli we have seen before over novel stimuli.

Hypnotic Suggestibility

Some people are more easily hypnotized than others.

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Manifest Content

The literal content of our dreams.

Latent content

The unconscious meaning of the manifest content.

Activation-Synthesis Dream Theory

Dreams are biological phenomena; theorizes that dream are nothing more than the brain's interpretations of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep.

Information-Processing Dream Theory

Theorizes that the brain is dealing with daily stress and information during REM dreams; theorizes the function of REM may be to integrate the information processed during the day into our memories.

Hypnosis

An unconscious social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

Posthypnotic Amnesia

When people report forgetting events that occurred while they were hypnotized.

Posthypnotic Suggestion

A suggestion that a hypnotized person behave in a certain way after he or she is brought out of hypnosis.

Role Theory of Hypnosis

Hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness.

State Theory of Hypnosis

Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness; we become more or less aware of our environments.

Dissociation Theory of Hypnosis

Hypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness voluntarily; one part or level of our consciousness responds to the suggestions of the hypnotist while another part or level retains awareness of our environments.
Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain and body, and induce an altered state of consciousness.

Agonists

Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters

Antagonists

Drugs that block neurotransmitters

Tolerance

A physiological change that produces a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect.

Withdrawal

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Stimulants

Psychoactive drugs that speed up body processes

Depressants

Psychoactive drugs that slow down body processes

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Sleep Stages

During our sleep cycles, there are four stages where our brain waves and level of awareness change.

Stage 1

During this stage, our brains produce theta waves.

Stage 2

During this stage, our brains show sleep spindles, which are short bursts of rapid brain waves.

Stage 3

During this stage, our brains begin producing delta waves.

Stage 4

During this stage, our brains produce the slowest brain waves--delta waves. It is also our deepest stage of sleep in which night terrors occur.

REM Sleep or Rapid Eye Movement

Stage when our brain waves appear as active and intense as they do when we are awake. This is when dreams occur. It is also known as paradoxical sleep.

Sleep Disorders

They cause continuous disruption in our sleep patterns

Insomnia

The most common sleep disorder. It's when a person has problems getting to sleep or staying asleep at night.

Narcolepsy

When people suffer from periods of intense sleepiness and may fall asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate times.

Sleep Apnea

It causes a person to stop breathing for short periods of time during the night, and the body slightly wakes up the person to gasp for air and continue sleeping.

Night Terrors

When a person in the middle of the night screams and moves around the area; it occurs in stage 4 sleep.

Dreams

The series of storylike images we experience as we sleep.

Freudian Dream Interpretation

Emphasizes dream interpretation as a method to uncover the repressed information in the unconscious mind.

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Consciousness:

Our level of awareness about ourselves and our environment.

Levels of Consciousness:

Differences in being aware of one's own existence, feelings, and thoughts and aware of environment.

Conscious Level

The information about yourself and your environment you are currently aware of.

Nonconscious Level

Body processes controlled by your mind that we are not usually (or ever) aware of.

Preconscious Level

Information about yourself or your environment that you are not currently think about (not in your conscious level) but you could be.

Subconscious Level

Information that we are not consciously aware of but we know must exist due to behavior.

Unconscious Level

Where some events and feelings that are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed.

Sleep

A state of consciousness where we are less aware of ourselves and our environment than we are when we are in our normal awake state.

Sleep cycles

Our typical pattern of sleep

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Relative size cue:
technique where things closer to the viewer are larger
Interposition cue:
technique where objects that block view must be closer to us
Texture gradient:
technique where details can be seen up close but not far away
Shadowing:
technique that uses shading to imply depth and position
Binocular cues:
depth cues that depend on having two eyes
Binocular/retinal disparity:
the difference in image location resulting from the eye's different perspectives
Convergence:
the converging of the eyes that tells the brain that objects are close

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Constancy:
the ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite external factors
Perceived motion:
the ability to gauge motion
Stroboscopic effect:
the visual phenomenon where still images presented at a certain speed appear to be moving
Phi phenomenon:
the visual phenomenon where lights being turned on and off at a particular rate appear to be moving
Autokinetic effect:
the phenomenon where steady light in a dark room appears to be moving
Depth cue:
the ability to perceive the world in 3D
Visual cliff experiment:
experiment where the subject is placed on one side of a glass-topped table that creates the impression of a cliff
Monocular cues:
depth cues that do not depend on having two eyes
Linear perspective:
technique that uses lines that converge into a point

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Touch:
a collection of sense, perceiving pressure, pain, cold, and warmth
Gate-control theory:
theory that states that some pain messages have a higher priority than others
Chemical senses:
sense where nerves respond to chemicals
Taste/gustation:
the perception of flavor in the mouth
Papillae:
the bumps on the tongue where taste buds are located
Smell/olfaction:
the perception of odors/scents emitted by substances in the nose
Olfactory receptor cells:
the cells that absorb odors/scents
Olfactory bulb:
the brain structure that gathers messages from the olfactory receptor cells and sends the information to the brain
Vestibular sense:
the sense that tells us about how our body is oriented
Kinesthetic sense:
the sense that gives us feedback about the position and orientation of specific body parts
Psychophysics:
the study of the interaction between the sensations we receive and our experience of them
Absolute threshold:
the smallest amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time
Subliminal:
stimuli below our absolute threshold
Difference threshold/just-noticeable difference:
the amount of change needed in a stimulus before we detect a change
Weber's Law:
law that states that the change need in stimulus is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus
Signal detection theory:
theory that investigates the effects of distractions and interference we experience while we perceiving the world
Response criteria/Receiver operating characteristics:
how motivated we are to detect certain stimuli and what we expect to perceive
False positive:
state where we perceive a stimulus that is not present
False negative:
state where we do not perceive a stimulus that is present
Top-down processing:
the use of past experiences to build perception
Schmenta:
the mental representation of how we expect the world to be
Perceptual set:
a predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way
Bottom-up processing/feature analysis:
the use of only the features of the object to build perception
Gestalt rules:
principles that govern how we perceiver groups of objects

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Transduction:
the translation of incoming stimuli into neural signals (applies to all sesnses)
Cones:
cells in the retina activated by color
Rods:
cells in the retina activated by black and white
Fovea:
the indentation at the center of the fovea that contains the highest concentration of cones
Ganglion cells:
cells in the retina that generate action potential
Optic nerve:
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN):
the center for processing visual information from the eyes
Occipital lobe:
lobe that interprets messages from our eyes in the visual cortex
Blind spot:
the spot where the optic nerve leaves the retina has no rods or cones
Optic chiasm:
the point where the half the nerves from each retina cross to the opposite side of the brain
Feature detectors:
cells that respond to visual signals in the primary visual cortex
Trichromatic theory:
theory that hypothesizes that we have three types of cones in the retina, cones that can detect the primary colors of light
Opponent-process theory:
theory that states that the sensory receptors arranged in the retina come in pairs (red + green, yellow + blue, black/white pairs)
Afterimages:
the color image that appears when you look at a white or black space after you look at a color for a while
Color blindness:
the inability to perceive certain colors
Dichromatic color blindness:
colorblindness where people cannot see EITHER red/green shades OR blue/yellow shades
Monochromatic color blindness:
colorblindness where people only see shades of gray
Hearing/auditiory:
the perception of sound
Amplitude:
the height of the wave, which determines the loudness of the sound (decibels)
Frequency:
the length of the waves, which determines pitch (megahertz)
Pitch:
the tone's highness or lowness, determined by frequency
Sound waves:
waves/vibrations in the air that carry sound
Pinna/outer ear:
the opening of the ear where sound waves are collected
Ear canal/auditory canal:
the passage in the external ear from the pinna to the eardrum
Eardrum/tympanic membrane:
the thin membrane that vibrates as sound waves hit it
Ossicle:
one of the very small bones in the middle ear
Hammer/malleus:
small bone in the middle ear that transmits vibrations of the eardrum to the incus
Anvil/incus:
small bone in the middle ear that transmits vibrations of the eardrum from the malleus to the stapes
Stirrup/stapes:
small bone in the middle ear that transmits vibrations of the incus to the internal ear/oval window
Cochlea:
curved structure filled with fluid where sound waves trigger nerve impulses
Organ of Corti:
neurons activated by the movement of hair cells
Place theory:
theory that states that hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where the hairs are located
Frequency theory:
theory that states that hair cells fire at different frequencies/rates in the cochlea
Conduction deafness:
deafness that occurs when something goes wrong with the system of conducting the sound to the cochlea
Nerve/sensorineural deafness:
deafness that occurs when hair cells in the cochlea are damaged, usually by loud noise

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Transduction:
conversion of one form of energy to another. In sensation the process that transforms signals, like sights, sounds, and smells into neural impulses
Sensory adaptation:
the decreased response to stimuli due to constant stimulation
Sensory habituation:
the perception of sensations due to how focused one is on them
Cocktail party phenomenon:
the phenomenon of being able to focus on one stimulus while filtering out the other stimuli
Sensation:
the activation of our senses
Perception:
the process of understanding the sensations
Receptor cell:
cell that responds to a particular type of sense
Energy sense:
sense where nerves respond to energy
Vision:
the perception of visible light in the eyes
Visible light:
the small part of the electromagnetic spectrum that our eyes can see
Electromagnetic spectrum:
the entire range of electromagnetic energy
Cornea:
the protective covering that helps focus the eye
Pupil:
the opening in the center of the iris
Iris:
the muscles that control the pupil
Dilate:
the opening of the eye to let more light in
Accommodation:
the process by which light that enters the pupil is focused by the lens
Lens:
the curved flexible structure that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
Retina:
the screen on the back of the eye where neurons are activated by the different wavelengths of light

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-To ensure that the experimental and control groups were equivalent on some criterion, one could use group matching, first divide the sample and then randomly assign half of each group to each condition.
Situation-relevant confounding variables can also affect an experiment, for participants to be equivalent is not enough
Experimenter Bias- the unconscious tendency for the researchers to treat members experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis.
- A double-blind occurs when neither the participants nor the researchers are able to affect the outcome of the research.
- A single blind occurs when only the participants do not know to which group they have been assigned; this minimizes the effect of demand characteristics
Social desirability is the tendency to try and give answers that reflect upon them

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Experimental Method
Laboratory experiments are conducted in a lab, a highly controlled environment (main advantage)
Field experiments are conducted out in the world (more realistic)
Experiment was most preferred because only through a carefully controlled experiment can one show casual relationship, allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable and control for confounding variables
Confounding variable is any difference except for the independent variable, that might affect the dependent variable.
-Experiments can achieve this goal by randomly assigning participants to conditions and by using various methods of control to eliminate confounding variables.
Assignment is the process by which participants are put into a group, experimental or control.
Random assignment means that each participant has an equal chanced of being placed into any group

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Validity and Reliability
-Valid research is when it measures what the researcher set out to measure; it is accurate.
-Reliable research is when it can be replicated; it is consistent.
Sampling
-Participants for research go through a process to be selected, known as sampling.
Random selection is that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
- It also increases the likelihood that the sample represents the population and that one can generalize the findings o the larger population.
- Random selection is best done using a computer, a table of random numbers, or that tried-and-true method of picking names out of a hat.
Stratified sampling is a process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria.

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Research Methods:
Hindsight Bias- the tendency upon hearing about research findings to think that they knew it all along
-The goal of scientific research is to predict what will happen in advance.
Applied Psychology- the comparison of two different research methods in order to determine which method is better or to design and test an efficacy program
Basic Research- explores questions that are of interest to psychologists but are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications
Terminology
-A hypothesis expresses a relationship between two variables, which by definition, are things that can vary among the participants in the research.
-Dependent Variables rely on the Independent Variables
-A theory aims to explain some phenomenon and allows and allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting data that support the theory
- Operationalizing a variable is when you explain how you will come to measure a variable.
(Operationalization of variables raise many issues about the validity and reliability of research

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Vigorous and Diversified
Major works for contemporary psychologists are:
- Private practice
- Colleges & universities
- Hospitals & clinics
Major research areas in modern psychology are:
- Developmental science
- Psychometric
- Social Psychology
- Personality
- Physiological Psychology
- Cognitive  Psychology
- Experimental Psychology
Applied psychology has four areas of specialization:
- Clinical Psychology
- Counseling Psychology
- Education & School Psychology
- Industrial & Organizational Psychology

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Freud Brings the Unconscious into the Picture
- He invented psychoanalysis, which attempted to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determined of behavior.
Skinner Questions Free Will as Behaviorism Flourishes
- Skinner believed there was no reason to study internal mental events, only the behavior of a psychological patient should be studied.
- He showed he could exert  remarkable control over the behavior of animals by manipulating the outcomes of their responses.
- He asserted that all behavior is fully governed by external stimuli, explaining this in his book Beyond Freedom & Dignity (1971)  he also argued free will is an illusion, which was misunderstood.
The Humanist Revolt
- Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers emphasized qualities of human behavior which influenced a new theoretical orientation known as humanism.
- Clinical psychology grew quickly in 1950's, this made psychology a profession as well as a science.
- How people think is a large and important portion of why we can't fully understand human behavior.

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The Battle of the "schools" begins: Structuralism v. Functionalism
- Structuralism emerged through Edward Titchner
- Functionalism was the work of William James
- James argued that structuralists' approach missed nature of conscious experience. (most historians give the edge to functionalism)
Watson Alters Psychology's Course as Behaviorism Makes its Debut
- Behaviorism founded by John B. Watson
- Proposed psychologist abandon study of consciousness and focus behaviors that could be observed directly
- Based on the fundamental question of nature v. nurture, Watson believes organism are nurtured into behaving certain ways.
- Behaviorists investigated stimulus-response relationship, the behavioral approach is often referred to as stimulus-response psychology.

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A new science is born: The contributions of Wundt and Hall
- Wilhelm Wundt declared that the new psychology should be a science modeled after fields such as physics and chemistry. Five years after he opened the first formal laboratory for psychology research at The University of Leipzig.
- Four years after G. Stanley Hall established America's first psychology research at John Hopkins University in 1883, he launched America's first first psychology journal.