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-Paris is among one of the multicultural cities in the world: more than 1 in 3 residents of the metropolitan area are immigrants/children of immigrants. However, French has been limited by their xenophobia.
-From the 20th century, French gastronomy denies outside influence--however, these days French cuisine seeks to find ways to innovate.
- "A take on this newly expansive French cuisine can be found at Le Servan, a restaurant run by two Filipino-Polish Jewish-Algerian-pied-noir sisters. ‘‘Le Servan is a French bistro, the food is French, the techniques are French, the way of eating is French, and the produce is very French — aside from all the un-French sour and spicy ingredients.’’'
-"The Levha sisters are helping Parisian cuisine out of its nostalgia-steeped doldrums by allowing the rest of the world to
guide it forward — suggesting that integration may be more possible than people think."
-"As Paris begins to decolonize its attitude (culinary and
otherwise), there’s a sense of pride in the way different cultures are finding a legitimate place in mainstream food. ‘‘Pride is a huge word here, maybe it is because we are in crisis. In difficult times, a country turns to the values that always defined it — literature, ideas, fashion, humanism and cuisine — and lifts its head to be proud.’’ -->interesting point

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-The Nouvelle Cuisine is a movement in Paris, France which is starting to integrate its immigrant population's cuisine with its own
- Michelin star restaurants are starting to be 'pluraliste'
- France limited by xenophobia, seems like there are only intercultural interactions within restaurants/food
- During the 20th century, French gastronomy didn't want anything to do with other cultures in their food but now they are "seizing the opportunity to innovate"
- "Cuisine métissée": mixed up food
- Combining French cooking techniques, food and way of eating except for spicy and sour ingredients
- Vietnamese food represents colonialist relationship
- France needs to embrace diversity in order to prevent further attacks eg. Charlie Hebdo and that starts with the food

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- In the 1990s, although Paris was full of diverse cultures, they weren't integrated very well (i.e., in the food).
- Nowadays, integration of the various cultures has improved, especially on the plate.
- Many French restaurants in Paris are unashamedly presenting dishes that incorporate foreign ingredients, techniques and flavours.
- There are even non-French restaurants in Paris that incorporate French techniques into their dishes.
- The need for France to embrace its diversity is reinforced by incidents such as the 2005 riots, the Charlie Hebdo shootings and November's terror attacks."

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- Immigrant populations are beginning to influence French cuisine in a profound way - more than one in 3 Paris residents are immigrants/children of immigrants
- France limited by its xenophobia, however this is overlooked in restaurants where foreign ingredients and cuisines are being embraced to create innovative 'fusion dishes'.
- Suggests that France needs to embrace these new cultures and cuisines, if French cuisine is to retain its gastronomical status.

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- Paris was a far more diverse than it was made out to be. It seemed discordant that such a clearly multicultural place struggled to integrate its booming immigrant population. These days, however, integration is evident in french cuisine. Many french chefs are incorporating foreign ingredients into their works.
- Intercultural encounters often take place in restaurants
- Inaki Aizpitartea a well respected chef, says that assimilating immigrant cultures into French cuisine is ‘‘mon quotidien, quoi’’: his daily reality. He characterizes his cooking style as ‘‘cuisine métissée’’ — mixed up and miscegenated.
- The Levha sisters chefs as Le Servan restaurant in Paris are helping Parisian cuisine out of its nostalgia-steeped doldrums by allowing the rest of the world to guide it forward — suggesting that integration may be more possible than people think.

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We found it interesting that the Spanish tourism website puts gastronomy in the "What to do" list as it denotes the significance of food in terms of Spain's national identity--it shows that food is among one of the aspects that could define Spain as a whole nation. The gastronomy page also primarily features the 3 that seemingly best represent Spanish gastronomy--Natural Spanish ingredients ("The Mediterranean diet"), Tapas "national tradition", and Haute cuisine. This would come to show that Spanish gastronomy is branded by these words and perhaps claim to be defined in this manner (as a nation)--natural, being contemporary and upscale, yet still retaining their traditional roots.

The other main foodthings that are featured in the main gastronomy page also define Spanish gastronomy in general; which also comes to participate in forming Spain's national identity by effect.

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The Spanish tourism website showcases the various festivals of Spain and her scenery.
Interestingly, under the "What To Do?" section, the website, there is a "Gastronomy" tab where there is a map prominently featured with the regions of Spain titled "Regional Cuisines". This depicts the Spanish government's commitment to recognising the varied cuisines that make up the national one.

Articles on Tapas and Spanish Haute Cuisine also feature on the tab, highlighting the Spanish order of food presentation and Spain's contributions to the  Haute Cuisine scene respectively.

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- "Spain is alive in you" Health and care
- Famous Spanish classical guitar piece playing in the background
- Shows opulent swimming pool, spa, massage, bath = luxury (candles)
- Depicts hot desert-like conditions, then a clinic with smiling faces, almost like a retreat
- Camera in first person
- Website has lots of activities to do which caters to all people
- Has weather forecast
- Apps and different towns listed
- Where to go, what to do (gastronomy), practical info and  Spain for...(catering to wide audience)
- Gastronomy shows haute cuisine, and also the different regions of Spain highlighted

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-Food is central to the marketing of Spain to tourists.
-Gastronomy had its own tab under the 'what to do' section.
-Interestingly gastronomy is categorised under ‘what to do’ rather than ‘practical info’ indicating that dining is viewed as an event rather than a utilitarian necessity.
-The website uses images of well known Spanish food like olives, seafood and pintxos coupled with bright red and typically Spanish colours to perhaps appeal to cliches, stereotypes surrounding what tourists expect from Spanish gastronomy.
-The website although promoting tourism to Spain still places an emphasis on regions and regional cuisine. Drawing this distinction by ensuring each dish mentioned is preceded or followed by its region of origin ie. 'The exquisite seafood of Galicia'

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- Video on the front page is titled "Spain is alive in you (Health & Care) version": really trying to show and emphasize the various healthcare outlets that Spain has to offer (from doctors and dentists to massage and spa services) while showcasing the beautiful landscape of the country. It's a tourism campaign video so it's demonstrating to potential visitors how health-oriented, clean and technologically-advanced the country is.
- Front page highlights all the events and activities that Spain has to offer currently (looks up-to-date with a Valentine's Day celebration as one of the activities right now).
- Also provides travel tips and the weather forecast - making the website a great and convenient tool for tourists (don't require them to do a lot of research, it's all on one website).
- The website even provides activities and "things to do" divided into categories such as "For Families", "For Young People", "For Adults Without Children" etc to make it even simpler and accessible.
- The whole point of the website is to encourage more tourism in Spain, so naturally it makes the country seem like a wonderful place to visit and the convenience of having all the details in one place makes visiting very easy.

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Migrants and the Consumption of Rice and Beans
Rice was not an essential food in Costa Rican diets until the late 1800s when Afro-Caribbeans, Chinese and Italian labourers migrated over to work on railroad construction.

Rice was a fundamental food and an important complement to the Chinese and Italians respectively, thus bringing the grain to prominence. The Gallo Pinto was the modification of eliminating coconut milk and substituting hot chilli with sweet pepper of a popular Afro-Caribbean dish that combined beans, rice and coconut milk.

The practice of mixing rice and beans has West African roots where Afro-Caribbeans reserved the grains for festive days, and growing them in their labour camps. Thus, when the state took control of these camps, Gallo Pinto became their principal dish.

Gallo Pinto was a peasant dish that underscored class boundaries due to the cheapness and availability of Rice and Beans. It also symbolised the black and white spotted rooster which was the best fighter and thus the workers believed that a rice and bean mix would be the most satisfying.

The Gallo Pinto exemplifies the idea that national cuisines are build from the ground up, for intellectuals had believed Costa Rica to be a white country like rice, but its food showed otherw

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Historical Context of Gallo Pinto
- Rice first arrived in Costa Rica in the 16th Century and the spread of it occurred gradually, originally carried by the mestizo (mix of Spanish and Indian) populations.
- Although rice was available, it was not as popular a staple as wheat. The consumption of wheat differentiated the Spaniards from the natives of Costa Rica, whose diet was mainly potatoes and maize.
- Maize was the most extensively planted crop and was harvested by both the Indigenous communities and the Spanish. The quantity of frijoles (beans) grown was almost as important as maize. These were the two principal protein sources for the majority as they both could grow at different altitudes, only not in humid climates.
- The Indigenous people had neither economic or cultural incentives to adopt rice, except in the hot country where maize fared poorly. The cultivation of rice requires extensive and well-watered plains and enormous manual labour.
- Spanish authorities started to issue general orders for the cultivation of rice to assure provisions during times of hunger in the colony. In 1789, Lt. Governor de Esparza required residents to plant "maize, cotton, plantains, and rice" or suffer "five pesos fine and ten days in jail". As scarcity continued, the requirements became stricter.
- The beginning of the 19th Century saw the decline of food supplies due to: primitive farming methods, small scale production, natural disasters, excessive exports of provisions and decreased area of cultivation by farmers.
- In the second half of the 19th Century, the insufficiency of food supplies was resolved by importation of rice, beans and maize.
- The mestizo descendants of Europe, Africa and Native Americans began to gain a taste for rice, without discarding tortillas or beans - they combined and mixed to produce an "alimentary regimen". The gallo pinto was the result and clear expression of the hybrid culture in Latin America.

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Rice and Beans in the Market
- In 1840 coffee arrived in Costa Rica and eventually came to be the principal product of Costa Rican agriculture replacing the cultivation of basic grains. The government was concerned about “the excessive decline of the coefficient of production in almost all cantons with respect to maize, rice, beans, and potatoes.” So rice became a fundamental import and Costa Ricans acquired a taste for it.

- In 1825 John Hale noted that neither beans nor rice were on sale in the market plaza of San José. However, in 1852, Moritz Wagner observed that in the market plaza they sold rice “in open sacks”.

- Costa Rican production of rice and beans was increasingly unstable in the latter nineteenth century. In 1876 the country had to import 82,875 kg of rice and 8,842 kg pounds of frijoles. furthermore between 1883 and 1888, average rice consumption was 1.38 kg per person then between 1899 and 1903 it surpassed 5.5 kg annually.

- During the First World War, however, rice and beans, like other articles of prime necessity, became expensive thanks to higher import costs and uncertainty from local sellers. The excessive inflation of prices fobliged the government to search for solutions to avoid social conflict. For this reason, President Alfredo González Flores signed a decree that would ban exports of “beans, maize, rice, lard, and white and raw sugar” without previous authorization from the Ministry of Finance. These rising prices also had the unfortunate effect of forcing consumers to rely more exclusively on these basic staples, reducing variety in the national diet.

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Rice and Beans at Home
- The first Costa Rican cookbook was published in 1903, however gallo pinto did not feature as one of the 800 recipes included
- Black beans were then identified as the 'national dish'
- Rice was eaten by the middle class as part of a celebratory meal for weddings, funerals and public gatherings such as Christmas carols
- Rice and beans were always served separately and rice was eaten for breakfast, lunch and dinner alike
-  Rice was never promoted in restaurants, however in the improvised food stands for the popular sectors rice was prominent
- For the lower end of the social pyramid, basic food staples consisted of rice and beans with sugar water. Thus, they suffered with the rising price of beans.
- Rice had passed from being a dish of the lower class to becoming a component of the national dish gallo pinto

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Introduction: Gallo pinto was previously a peasant's dish of black beans and rice (sometimes with tortillas) and subsequently became the national identity of Costa Rican food. Rice was introduced by the Spanish in the 16th Century and became the dominant staple as the country transitioned from subsistence agriculture to relying on coffee exports.
- "Food was endowed with significant social, cultural, economic and historic meanings". (p.224)
- "It is impossible to analyse changes in patterns of consumption without considering their social context." (p.224)
- Many South American countries claim the dish as their national dish, with slight variations, however these countries also have a pre-Hispanic heritage with their food (eg. frijoles)
- Gallo pinto produced tension in regards to its status in social hierarchy and ideals of citizenship and equality, however due to the accessibility of its ingredients it covered the whole social pyramid
- A sense of belonging and common identity
- Rice had the connotation of being foreign (Spanish), but it was also dependent on the prices of imports/exports/The Great Depression

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Conclusion
-Mixed or separate, rice and beans are commonly served in Costa Rican homes--having them in the household signifies the ability to feed their family. To serve guests with rice and beans also fulfills the basic norms of hospitality and courtesy; the host would appear more gracious if it is served with additional condiments or meat.
-Rice and beans as an affective signification: as means of validating existing social relations.
-They are disposable goods, basic requirement to facilitate consumption
-Diverse historical processes lead to the emergence of Gallo Pinto as a national dish (became a national symbol) (Elaborated further below)
-Dietary preferences are constructed according to national and social rules.
-Forms of preparation, methods of eating, times of consumption, utensils for eating, and the company in which food was shared = indicators of social relations

-Tastes and dietary patterns are dynamic and changing, depending not only on availability but also transformations of societies and cultures.
-Other diverse factors such as climate, war, economy, politics, diplomacy also combined to change the diet.
For example: Massive planting of coffee in Costa Rica affected cultivation of traditional products, including maize and beans.

-Gallo Pinto was born as a cheap and nutritious dish, and was converted into a reference of identity for a group of workers forging their daily subsistence/livelihood.
-Gallo Pinto supplied the peons/manual laborers of United Fruit Company, whom returned home with the recipe along with the identifying references; the symbolic meaning of the dish then changed as with signals of identity that are dynamic and evolving.
-The new dish was then appropriated by the middle classes, as there is growth in demand for rice and beans. Rice consumption became widespread during the second half of the 19th century, and imports peak during moments of crisis.
-Early decades of 20th century (during dislocations of world war and depression): the inexpensive and nutritionally sound combo of the dish made it an obligatory presence in urban and rural tables-->became a national dish
-This concept also sells the image of the country
-Nowadays even transnational companies such as McDonalds offer Gallo Pinto (morning menu)

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1. Intro: Kay Lin
2. Historical context: Jenna
3. In the market: Georgia
4. Migrants: Alina
5. At Home: Chloe
6. Conclusion: Tiara

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While the French Revolution toppled the monarchy, it had also inverted the national culinary culture of the nation. Interestingly, the revolution had envisioned France’s national cuisine as the product of women, for femininity seemed to embody the Republican values of thrift and simplicity. This was in direct opposition the Old Regime’s elite male cooks, whose masculinity represented luxury and aristocracy. Furthermore, the revolution had established the idea of men’s roles as heads of commercial enterprises and households with active intersections with political action and military service. This resulted in men getting drafted into the army to work as soldiers and chefs, thereby leaving manual labour spaces, especially jobs as public cooks, open for women to fill, to keep commerce alive during the Napoleonic Wars. Despite this subversive vision, male cooks were to continue practising elite cuisine for the nation rather than aristocrats, acting as public chefs. Moreover, society had sought to exclude women from the public industry, resulting in the dominance of men in public cooking throughout the revolutionary era. Nonetheless, women had fared better in the private sector during la cuisinière républicaine.

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- Interesting: "Tradition, long a characteristic of women's cooking in contrast to male innovation, became a signal feature of French haute cuisine as prepare by the finest male cooks" (pg. 303). Even though male cooks were still more valued, the traditional cooking attributed to women became favoured = the start of allowing feminine cooking into the culture.
- In 1776, the king's minister, Turgot, recommended an edict to abolish the culinary guilds that only elite male cooks were part of. He believed that work was "one of the first rights of humanity" and that women had a place in the labour market "as individuals, rather than appendages of the patriarchal household".
- MD Lecointe's publications from 1789 to 1793, which goes from assuming that his audience only comprised of male cooks to acknowledging women's culinary activities, demonstrates that "women gained a leading role" in creating republican cuisine (pg. 305). It was becoming more and more acceptable for women to take up roles in the culinary workforce.
- During the revolution, men left their roles in domestic service to join the military and women "filled in the ranks of manual labourers . . . in the kitchens and dining rooms".
- During the revolution, even food was highly politicised. Although the food served to the Committee of General Security (the police) was "simple, sturdy food", unlike in a royal household, the bills for this food was kept a state secret and recorded as "secret expenses" - this is because "the politics of food were profoundly unstable" and the citizens may have objected to the modest menu as they, themselves, were experiencing food shortages and riots.
- From records, it appears that men continued to dominate public cooking during the revolutionary era, even with the abolition of culinary guilds. The economic and political situation (especially involving the increased government surveillance on citizens) disadvantaged all cooks from earning a living.

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It was fascinating how the humble potato turned out to be such a significant pivotal icon in the times of the French Revolution. The text shows the gender roles of the male setting the standard in the form of recipe books, culinary guilds and elite luxury cuisine, whereas the woman represented the republican bourgeoisie who cooked for their families. It was interesting how women cooked as a means of expression due to their lack of political representation at the time. The semantics of the names of recipes and the recipe books also hinted at whether it was aimed at the higher or lower classes, and also related to the political climate of the time. "Foods signified social hierarchy and political tastes" (p.308). For example, chefs were arrested if they had foreign words inscribed on their restaurants during the Revolution or if they purchased raw goods from an unlicensed vendor. There was also a monopoly on foods sold/purchased and a licence was needed. "Men continued to dominate public cooking throughout the revolutionary era" (p.309), despite the ending of the guilds. Women did better in private service during la cuisinière républicaine.

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I thought it was interesting that men continued to dominate public cooking throughout the revolutionary era when female cooks' perceived 'simplicity and economy' embodied the revolution's values better than the 'aristocracy and luxury' associated with male cooks.

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Thought it was interesting that the new 'republican cooking' for the masses as opposed to the elite, was seen as a product of the 'humble female'. Relates well to yesterday's discussion about the lack of female representation in cooking shows in the media. Females seen as mother-figures; supplying reliable, traditional nourishment, compared to the masculine 'innovation'. Women then seen as a symbol of the 'deprivation of the war years' when they failed to provide this.

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DAY 8: Gollner, A. 'The New Nouvelle Cuisine' New York Times'

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DAY 8: Gollner, A. 'The New Nouvelle Cuisine' New York Times'

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Add your own byte-sized musings until you have built up a collaborative picture of the reading ready to share with the class. Consider the following:

How would you summarise the reading's content or main points?

What strikes you as novel or interesting in this reading; what did you learn?

What questions remain for you; with which points do you disagree?

How does the content relate to your own knowledge and experience?

What thoughts, ideas, examples does the reading trigger for you?

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DAY 7: Official Spanish Tourism campaign  

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DAY 7: Official Spanish Tourism campaign  

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http://www.spain.inf

Add your own byte-sized musings until you have built up a collaborative picture of the reading ready to share with the class. Consider the following:

How would you summarise the reading's content or main points?

What strikes you as novel or interesting in this reading; what did you learn?

What questions remain for you; with which points do you disagree?

How does the content relate to your own knowledge and experience?

What thoughts, ideas, examples does the reading trigger for you?

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DAY 3: Vega Jimenez, P. 'El Gallo pinto: Afro-Caribbean rice and beans conquer the Costa Rican national'

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DAY 3: Vega Jimenez, P. 'El Gallo pinto: Afro-Caribbean rice and beans conquer the Costa Rican national'

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Add your own byte-sized musings until you have built up a collaborative picture of the reading ready to share with the class. Consider the following:

How would you summarise the reading's content or main points?

What strikes you as novel or interesting in this reading; what did you learn?

What questions remain for you; with which points do you disagree?

How does the content relate to your own knowledge and experience?

What thoughts, ideas, examples does the reading trigger for you?

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DAY 2: Davis, J. 'To make a revolutionary cuisine: Gender and politics in French kitchens, 1789–1815', pp. 301-310 only

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DAY 2: Davis, J. 'To make a revolutionary cuisine: Gender and politics in French kitchens, 1789–1815', pp. 301-310 only

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Add your own byte-sized musings until you have built up a collaborative picture of the reading ready to share with the class. Consider the following:

How would you summarise the reading's content or main points?

What strikes you as novel or interesting in this reading; what did you learn?

What questions remain for you; with which points do you disagree?

How does the content relate to your own knowledge and experience?

What thoughts, ideas, examples does the reading trigger for you?

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No Readings Project work DAY 4, DAY 5 or DAY 6

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No Readings Project work DAY 4, DAY 5 or DAY 6