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3 Group Work Strategies That Help Hold All Students Accountable

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From delegating roles to involving students in rubric design, here are group work strategies to help hold all students accountable.

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Examples

Collaborative learning can be implemented in the college classroom through a variety of ways:

Presentation - A foreign language instructor divides students into conversation groups. Their task is to perform a dialogue in front of the class pretending that they are ordering food at a restaurant. The groups have 30 minutes to prepare their conversation and 10 minutes to present it to the class. This activity culminates a course unit where students have learned vocabulary and phraseology around everyday conversations in the language.

Problem Sets - After learning the steps for conducting several statistical tests, students in a statistics course are divided into groups and assigned a problem set. In well-functioning groups, all students contribute equally by working through the problems and offering assistance to one another until each group member fully understands the solution.

Case Study - A sociology instructor implements case studies in the course around pressing issues. Students within each group take on particular roles and debate the issue under discussion.

Comparative Work - A writing instructor has groups write the same general letter to different audiences, adjusting tone, wording, and style to reach their unique assigned readers. Groups then read out their letters and discuss similarities and differences based on audience.

Jigsaw - A literature instructor breaks class into groups to close read and discuss a passage from John Milton's Paradise Lost. After some time, the instructor uses the jigsaw method by creating new groups comprised of representatives from each original group. New groups share what they discussed previously, and explore new ideas.

Recommendations

Group size - In general, smaller group sizes are desirable, typically between 3 - 4 students per group. When groups are too large, equitable student contribution can be challenging. When groups are too small, they may not experience as many benefits from the ideas and contributions of others.

Stable vs. alternating groups - Depending on the goals of the activities and instructor preference, groups can be stable throughout the semester or change more frequently. There are pros and cons to both approaches. Stable groups grant students more time to become accustomed to how they work together. However, dysfunctional stable groups are less likely to achieve class learning outcomes. In general, for the group process to occur more effectively, members must spend significant time working together. Alternating groups help students by refreshing their expectations and enabling them to work with other members of the class. However, students may also find forming connections with their group members more challenging. In general, groups may be formed randomly or the instructor can deliberately form groups using particular attributes (e.g. ability level or demographics).

Group expectations and accountability - With regards to more time-intensive projects, students expect accountability of individual group members. To mitigate potential conflict, instructors can have groups come together before starting a project to develop an agreement around how the group will function. During this time, group members can also assign one another roles (e.g. facilitator, researcher, recorder, presenter) and delineate responsibilities. Finally, this agreement can address expectations around attendance in class and group meetings outside of class. For a more structured approach to balancing individual and group participation, instructors can also consider Team-Based Learning.

Confidential peer evaluation - As another accountability measure, instructors can ask students to confidentially evaluate their peers on their contributions to the project. Instructors can choose whether to use these scores in determining final grades for a project.

Group and individual grades - To account for individual as well as group contribution, instructors can consider including both individual and group assignments for the project. In doing so, both efforts can be accounted for in the grading process, motivating students to perform well on their own while contributing to the group's progress.

Additional Resources

Cohan EG and Lotan RA. (2014). Designing Groupwork: Strategies for the Heterogeneous Classroom. Third Edition. New York, New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.

Collaborative Learning: Group Work - Cornell Center for Teaching Innovation

Group Work - Brown Sheridan Center for Teaching and Learning

Working in Groups - Harvard Bok Center for Teaching and Learning

References

Chaiklin S. (2003) Chapter 2. The Zone of Proximal Development in Vygotsky's Analysis of Learning and Instruction. In, Vygotsky's Educational Theory in Cultural Context. A Kozulin, B Gindis, V Ageyev, S Miller (Eds). New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. P. 65-82.

John-Steiner V and Mahn H. (1996). Sociocultural approaches to learning and development: A Vygotskyian framework. Educational Psychologist 31(3-4):191-206

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Collaborative learning can be implemented in the college classroom through a variety of ways: Presentation - A foreign language instructor divides students into conversation groups. Their task is to perform a dialogue in front of the class pretending that they are ordering food at a restaurant.

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by Matthew Levit, Doctor of Pharmacy Candidate, Class of 2018, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy

Traditional instructional models stress the importance of individualism, but many educators and schools have begun to emphasize cooperative learning methods. ¹ Cooperative learning is an integrative learning model that seeks to educate students through activities that promote social learning and leadership experiences. 2,3 Cooperative learning has its origins in social interdependence theory. According to this theory, the learning outcomes of an individual are determined by their own actions as well as the actions of others. 3 Cooperative learning builds on this theory by postulating that learning occurs best through social engagement. ⁴

Cooperative learning is more than just working together in a group. Students learn by using their social and interpersonal skills to achieve an academic goal. ¹ Cooperative learning is commonly used in a variety of practice-based settings including service learning, integrative internships, and continuing education (CE) seminars. ⁵ In some of these settings, students receive academic credit and solve real-world problems. ⁵ For example, students rotating on an interprofessional team may encounter a patient that suffers from multiple comorbidities (e.g. diabetes, hypertension, and neuropathic pain). One student in the group may be adept at diabetes management.Another may have experience managing patients with high blood pressure.And another may be very knowledgeable about neuropathic pain. Collectively, the students learn from each other and are more likely to successfully complete the academic exercise.

There are five key elements to the cooperative learning model. These include positive interdependence, individual and group accountability, face-to-face promotive interaction , interpersonal and small group skills, and group processing. ¹ Face to face promotive interactions require learners to share resources as well as support and encourage their teammates success. 1,6 Positive interdependence requires that every member of the group value each other's contributions. ¹ Interprofessional healthcare teams must have positive interdependence in order to fully utilize each member's unique contributions to the patient's care. Individual and group accountability requires that each member of the group is accountable for one's actions and all must contribute to the completion of the assigned task. ⁶ An evaluator should discipline students who do not contribute because it is detrimental to the group's overall success. Interpersonal and small group skills include effective leadership and communication, building trust, making clear decisions, and managing potential conflicts. ⁶ Group processing requires communication among group members. Members should be encouraged to express any concerns they have with each other for the overall benefit of the group. ⁶

One example of an instructional method that uses the five key elements of the cooperative learning model is the jigsaw technique. 3,5 In this method, students are assigned a topic and placed into two groups: a home group and an expert group. Students in the home group go to the expert group to learn a particular topic and then go to another group to teach that particular subject. ³ This technique promotes contributions from each member of the group (positive interdependence and face to face interaction) as well as accountability for each member's actions (individual and group accountability). Educators that use this model expect their students to support each other's learning as well as understand that each member of the group must be able to teach a piece of the subject matter to others. In addition, students are expected to communicate effectively with each other using verbal and non-verbal communication (interpersonal and small group talks and group processing). 3,5 This certain isn't the only example of cooperative learning.Several other cooperative learning methods exist [See previous blog essay regarding the Processed Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) method].

In healthcare today, interprofessional healthcare teams are practicing cooperative learning. During these clinical exercises, the instructor can require that each student to write a reflection on how they contributed to the group's work as well as evaluate peers (positive interdependence and individual and group accountability). This reflection will allow the educator to see how well collaborative learning is working and student comments can be used to make changes. In practice-based settings, preceptors and other healthcare instructors can encourage interprofessional healthcare teams to use this model of learning when "rounding" in the hospital or during interprofessional meetings in clinic. ⁷ In the past, different specialties would work independently and had little appreciation or understanding regarding the unique contribution that other members of the health care team could make.If students start collaborating in the classroom with their peers, then perhaps this will translate to working with other healthcare professionals. ⁷ Health professions educators have an important role in helping students become effective members of a team. In order to implement cooperative learning, educators must promote instructional methods that use the 5 key elements of the cooperative learning model. For example, in the classroom setting, an educator can design case-based group exercises (interpersonal and small group skills and group processing). Students should be encouraged to work in small groups so that everyone has a chance to participate ( face-to-face promotive interaction) and learn from each other. 4,7 Evaluations of their experiences can be used to individualize students' needs and provide an overall framework for future collaborative work. The ultimate goal every educator should stress when using cooperative learning strategies in healthcare is to promote optimal patient care.

Cooperative learning is a model for developing and implementing instructional activities that helps students to develop social learning and leadership skills. 2,3 Educators and students in the health professions must become proficiency in these skills in order to effectively manage complex patients through team-based collaborations. 4,7

1. Salam T, Greenberg H, Pitzel M, Cripps D. Interprofessional education internships in schools: Jump starting change . Journal of Interprofessional Care. 2010; 24(3): 251 - 263.

2. Johnson DW, Johnson RT. An Educational Psychology Success Story: Social Interdependence Theory and Cooperative Learning . Education Educational Res 2009; 38(5): 365 - 379.

3. Basak T, Yildez D. Comparison of the effects of cooperative learning and traditional learning methods on the improvement of drug-dose calculation skills of nursing students undergoing internships . Education Educational Res 2014; 73(3): 341 - 350.

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Teaching Team Work and Cooperation: Critical Skills in Healthcare Today

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by Matthew Levit, Doctor of Pharmacy Candidate, Class of 2018, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy Traditional instructional models stress the importance of individualism, but many educators and schools have begun to emphasize cooperative learning methods. 1 Cooperative learning is an integrative learning model that seeks to educate students through activities that promote social learning and leadership experiences.

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One way to change the pace in your classroom is to do a small group activity. But what type of small group should you use? It depends on the size of your class, the length of time you have available, the physical features of the classroom, and the nature of the group task. Here are several options you could try. Consult the Centre for Teaching Excellence teaching tip " Group Work in the Classroom: Small-Group Tasks " for task ideas.

Buzz groups

Description: These groups involve students engaging in short, informal discussions, often in response to a particular sentence starter or question. At a transitional moment in the class, have students turn to 1-3 neighbours to discuss any difficulties in understanding, answer a prepared question, define or give examples of key concepts, or speculate on what will happen next in the class. The best discussions are those in which students make judgments regarding the relative merits, relevance, or usefulness of an aspect of the lecture (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999). Sample questions include, "What's the most contentious statement you've heard so far in the lecture today?" or "What's the most unsupported assertion you've heard in the lecture today?" Reconvene as a class and have a general discussion in which students share ideas or questions that arose within their subgroups.

Comments: This method is very flexible: it is easy to implement in any size of class and in most classrooms, even the most formally arranged lecture hall. Consider how to regain the attention of a large group: turning the lights off and on is one simple yet effective method.

Think-pair-share

Description: This strategy has three steps. First, students think individually about a particular question or scenario. Then they pair up to discuss and compare their ideas. Finally, they are given the chance to share their ideas in a large class discussion.

Comments: Think-pair-sharing forces all students to attempt an initial response to the question, which they can then clarify and expand as they collaborate. It also gives them a chance to validate their ideas in a small group before mentioning them to the large group, which may help shy students feel more confident participating.

Circle of Voices

Description: This method involves students taking turns to speak. Students form circles of four or five. Give students a topic, and allow them a few minutes to organize their thoughts about it. Then the discussion begins, with each student having up to three minutes (or choose a different length) of uninterrupted time to speak. During this time, no one else is allowed to say anything. After everyone has spoken once, open the floor within the subgroup for general discussion. Specify that students should only build on what someone else has said, not on their own ideas; also, at this point, they should not introduce new ideas (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999).

Comments: Some shy students might feel uncomfortable having to speak. Lessen their fear by making the topic specific and relevant or by giving each person a relevant quote to speak about. A variation to this method, which encourages students to listen more carefully to each other, involves requiring each person to begin by paraphrasing the comments of the previous student or by showing how his or her remarks relate to those of the previous student. For this variation, students will need less preparation time before the "circle" begins, but they may need more time between speakers.

Rotating trios

Class size: 15-30

Time frame: 10 or more minutes

Setting: a fair bit of space, moveable seating helpful (they could stand) Purpose: introduce students to many of their peers, generate ideas

Description: This strategy involves students discussing issues with many of their fellow classmates in turn. Beforehand, prepare discussion questions. In class, students form trios, with the groups arranged in a large circle or square formation. Give the students a question and suggest that each person take a turn answering. After a suitable time period, ask the trios to assign a 0, 1, or 2 to each of its members. Then direct the #1s to rotate one trio clockwise, the #2s to rotate two trios clockwise, and the #0s to remain in the same place; the result will be completely new trios. Now introduce a new, slightly more difficult question. Rotate trios and introduce new questions as many times as you would like (Silberman, 1996).

Comments: This type of group can be arranged with pairs or foursomes and works well with most subject matter, including computational questions. It would be difficult to implement in a large class, however.

Snowball groups/pyramids

Class size: 12-50

Time frame: 15-20 minutes, depending on how many times the groups "snowball"

Setting: moveable seating required

Purpose: generate well-vetted ideas, narrow a topic, develop decision-making skills

D escription: This method involves progressive doubling: students first work alone, then in pairs, then in fours, and so on. In most cases, after working in fours, students come together for a plenary session in which their conclusions or solutions are pooled. Provide a sequence of increasingly complex tasks so that students do not become bored with repeated discussion at multiple stages. For example, have students record a few questions that relate to the class topic. In pairs, students try to answer one another's questions. Pairs join together to make fours and identify, depending on the topic, either unanswered questions or areas of controversy or relevant principles based on their previous discussions. Back in the large class group, one representative from each group reports the group's conclusions (Habeshaw et al, 1984; Jaques, 2000).

Comments: This method takes time to unfold, so should be used only when the concepts under discussion warrant the time. Also, depending on the amount of time allotted, students may feel that certain nuances of their discussions are lost.

Jigsaw

Description: This strategy involves students becoming "experts" on one aspect of a topic, then sharing their expertise with others. Divide a topic into a few constitutive parts ("puzzle pieces"). Form subgroups of 3-5 and assign each subgroup a different "piece" of the topic (or, if the class is large, assign two or more subgroups to each subtopic). Each group's task is to develop expertise on its particular subtopic by brainstorming, developing ideas, and if time permits, researching. Once students have become experts on a particular subtopic, shuffle the groups so that the members of each new group have a different area of expertise. Students then take turns sharing their expertise with the other group members, thereby creating a completed "puzzle" of knowledge about the main topic (see Silberman, 1996). A convenient way to assign different areas of expertise is to distribute handouts of different colours. For the first stage of the group work, groups are composed of students with the same colour of handout; for the second stage, each member of the newly formed groups must have a different colour of handout.

Comments: The jigsaw helps to avoid tiresome plenary sessions, because most of the information is shared in small groups. This method can be expanded by having students develop expertise about their subtopics first through independent research outside of class. Then, when they meet with those who have the same subtopic, they can clarify and expand on their expertise before moving to a new group. One potential drawback is that students hear only one group's expertise on a particular topic and don't benefit as much from the insight of the whole class; to address this issue, you could collect a written record of each group's work and create a master document-a truly complete puzzle-on the topic.

Fishbowl

Time frame: 15 or more minutes

Setting: moveable seating and a lot of space preferable; if necessary, have inner group stand/sit at front of lecture hall and the outer group sit in regular lecture hall seats

Purpose: observe group interaction, provide real illustrations for concepts, provide opportunity for analysis

Description: This method involves one group observing another group. The first group forms a circle and either discusses an issue or topic, does a role play, or performs a brief drama. The second group forms a circle around the inner group. Depending on the inner group's task and the context of your course, the outer group can look for themes, patterns, soundness of argument, etc., in the inner group's discussion, analyze the inner group's functioning as a group, or simply watch and comment on the role play. Debrief with both groups at the end in a plenary to capture their experiences. See Jaques (2000) for several variations on this technique.

Comments: Be aware that the outer group members can become bored if their task is not challenging enough. You could have groups switch places and roles to help with this. Also note that the inner group could feel inhibited by the observers; mitigate this concern by asking for volunteers to participate in the inner circle or by specifying that each student will have a chance to be both inner and outer group members. Although this method is easiest to implement in small classes, you could also expand it so that multiple "fishbowls" are occurring at once.

Learning teams

Description: For this type of group, students are divided into groups at the beginning of the term. When you want to incorporate small group discussion or teamwork into your class, you direct the students to get into these term-long learning groups. Groups of four work well, because each foursome can be subdivided into pairs, depending on the activity.

Comments: Students get to know a small number of their classmates well over the course of the term, and may come to see their team mates as study partners even outside the classroom. Using learning teams eliminates the time it takes to organize students into groups each time you wish to use group work. However, because students will be working with each other over an extended time period, be very careful about how you assign them to groups. Have students submit data cards about themselves at the beginning of term, possibly even completing a short personality inventory. You might want to ask them also to suggest the names of two or three classmates with whom they would and would not like to work.

Support

If you would like support applying these tips to your own teaching, CTE staff members are here to help. View the CTE Support page to find the most relevant staff member to contact.

References

Brookfield, S.D., & Preskill, S. (1999). Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Habeshaw, S., Habeshaw, T., & Gibbs, G. (1984). 53 Interesting Things to Do in Your Seminars & Tutorials. Bristol: Technical and Educational Services Ltd.

Jaques, D. (2000). Learning in Groups: A Handbook for Improving Group Work, 3rd ed. London: Kogan Page.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., and Smith, K. A. (1991). Cooperative Learning: Increasing College Faculty Instructional Productivity. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No.4. Washington, D.C.: School of Education and Human Development, George Washington University.

Race, P. (2000). 500 Tips on Group Learning. London: Kogan Page.

Silberman, M. (1996). Active Learning: 101 Strategies to Teach Any Subject. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research, and Practice, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

This Creative Commons license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon our work non-commercially, as long as they credit us and indicate if changes were made. Use this citation format: Group Work in the Classroom: Types of Small Groups. Centre for Teaching Excellence, University of Waterloo.

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Group Work in the Classroom: Types of Small Groups | Centre for Teaching Excellence

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One way to change the pace in your classroom is to do a small group activity. But what type of small group should you use? It depends on the size of your class, the length of time you have available, the physical features of the classroom, and the nature of the group task.

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As a teacher, how do you address the diverse needs of all students?

Equity in the classroom, or supporting the outcomes of students of all backgrounds and abilities, is essential to a productive learning environment.

However, promoting equity is complex. When teachers prioritize the needs of white students, boys/men, or the non-disabled, they create barriers for students of color, girls/women, and studies with disabilities. This presents yet another challenge for educators trying to help their students succeed.

So how do you create an equitable classroom where all students can thrive? Consider a Master of Arts in Teaching program, and check out these seven tips:
1. Reflect on your own beliefs
Before you can create a more equitable learning environment in the classroom, consider your own beliefs.

Teachers, like anyone else, may not be aware of the biases that exist in their training and upbringing. Data shows that girls receive less and lower-quality feedback than boys in class. Meanwhile, students of color report that they sometimes feel excluded from classroom interaction.

Even the most well-intentioned educators may have blindspots. White teachers may not understand the challenges of historically marginalized students due to a lack of preparation in their training. It's also possible that they attribute lack of success to deficiencies that they associate with students of color.

Understanding your own positionality, or the circumstances that create your identity in terms of race, gender and ability, can help you become more conscious of issues related to racial equity and gender equity, and help you support students in your class.
2. Reduce race and gender barriers to learning
While it might not be obvious, you may be unintentionally excluding students of color and female students in your classroom. Here's how you can avoid it:
Don't ask students of color to be "experts" on their race
Asking students of color for their point of view is important in class discussions, but don't assume that they are authorities on their race. Race is one part of their social identity. They may also feel pressure to discuss a topic that's perceived to be related to their race, when in fact they don't have an opinion.
Diversify your curriculum
To the extent that you can control your curriculum, expose students to a spectrum of multicultural and female experts, writers and artists. You'll more accurately represent the different contributors to your class' subject, and potentially establish a cultural connection for your students.
Hold every student to high expectations
Students of color report being held to lower expectations than white students. Meanwhile female students hear more comments about their appearance than their academic skills.

By setting a high bar for achievement for all students, you encourage them to engage with your class, and avoid any stereotypes of what they're capable of accomplishing.
Avoid assumptions about students' backgrounds
It may be tempting to assume that your students share similar life experiences. However, this can be problematic since everyone's circumstances are different. In particular, schools with large student populations may represent a greater variety of racial and economic backgrounds, as well as students with undefined gender identities.
3. Establish an inclusive environment early
Clarify early in the term (perhaps in your first class) that you want to create an inclusive space for students. Discussions should represent a variety of views, and students should feel comfortable expressing themselves.

It's also important to let them know that name-calling, personal attacks, and hostile interactions won't be tolerated. If students disagree, they must respond to each other with respect. Indeed, mutual respect yields more open and productive conversations.

By establishing rules early in the course, students should understand their role in creating an inclusive classroom.
4. Be dynamic with classroom space
You can foster inclusion in the classroom through how you engage your students, starting with your use of space.

Class formation can send signals about authority and equitable engagement. Do you always stand in front of the classroom to address rows of students? Consider classroom set-ups that emphasize interaction, such as group seating. Also, consider where you position yourself. Moving among students may de-emphasize the teacher-student hierarchy, and stimulate more discussion.

Similarly, try varying your activities. Whether it's group, paired or individual work, when you arrange students in different formations, you may increase their engagement with each other, and the class material.
5. Accommodate learning styles and disabilities
Learning styles vary from student to student, differ between males and females, and vary for people with disabilities. To create equity in the classroom for everyone, here are a few methods to try:

Variance - Present the same information in different ways for visual, aural and verbal learners

Use a variety of media (e.g., audiobooks, movies)

Include transcripts for multimedia materials

Provide supplemental materials to the lesson plan (e.g., glossaries, illustrations)

Make technology accessible (e.g., give students the ability to increase text size or adjust brightness)

For presentations, use dyslexia-friendly fonts

Read test instructions aloud, even if they appear in print

6. Be mindful of how you use technology
Many teachers use technology as an integral part of the classroom. While it can be a useful way to engage students and appeal to a variety of learning styles, consider its impact on those with physical disabilities.

Screen readers can assist students by opening resources, but other digital tools may actually hinder their ability to perform actions such as clicking, dragging and dropping that are not compliant with accessibility standards.

Review Web Content Accessibility Guidelines to ensure that your technology tools are in compliance, and are accessible to physically disabled students.
7. Be aware of religious holidays
When planning your course, remember to account for religious holidays and observances. Students may need to miss class on certain days and make up assignments, quizzes or exams.

At the beginning of the term, it's a good idea to announce that you have tried to avoid conflicts with major religious holidays when planning the course. However, if students have a conflict, they should let you know as soon as possible.
USC Rossier resources
For more information on improving equity in the classroom, visit our Tools for Inclusive Teaching page.

Ready to elevate your teaching career? Check out our Master of Arts in Teaching program.

If you're a teacher who wants to advance your career in education, see the Leading Instructional Change concentration of our Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership (EDL) program.

Want to connect with someone about your options?

Connect With Admission Staff
Sources: https://kappanonline.org/andrus-jacobs-kuriloff-gender-equity-classroom/ http://crlt.umich.edu/sites/default/files/resource_files/CRLT_no7.pdf https://equity.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/CreatingaPositiveClassroomClimateWeb-2.pdf http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/nov04/vol62/num03/With-Boys-and-Girls-in-Mind.aspx https://cpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/edblogs.columbia.edu/dist/8/1109/files/2020/02/Guide-for-Inclusive-Teaching-at-Columbia_Accessibility-Revisions_15-January-2020_FINAL.pdf

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Seven effective ways to promote equity in the classroom

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As a teacher, how do you address the diverse needs of all students? Equity in the classroom, or supporting the outcomes of students of all backgrounds and abilities, is essential to a productive learning environment. However, promoting equity is complex.

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Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning

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Discussions
Overview
Discussion is important to learning in all disciplines because it helps students process information rather than simply receive it. Leading a discussion requires skills different from lecturing. The goal of a discussion is to get students to practice thinking about the course material. Your role becomes that of facilitator. You design and facilitate the discussion rather than convey information. If you want to hold a discussion, don't do all the talking yourself; don't lecture to the group or talk to one student at a time.
Preparing for Discussions
To start planning a discussion (or any instruction, for that matter) decide what you want your students to get out of the discussion. For example, do you want them to share responses, make new connections, and articulate the implications of a text? Should they be able to work certain problems by the end of the hour? Should they be able to interpret and critique a journalistic photograph or a piece of art? Deciding on and articulating the objective for the discussion will help you decide what kinds of discussion activities will best help your students reach that objective. Remember that you can organize a discussion in many different ways: you can have students work in small groups, role-play, choose sides for a debate, or write and share a paragraph in response to the theme in question ¹. You will also want to leave time to wrap up and summarize the discussion for your students (or have students summarize it), or to debrief after activities such as debates or role-plays.
Develop a Clear Goal for the Discussion
Knowing the content to be covered is not enough. Naming the chapter your students will read is not enough. If you've only thought as far as, "I want students to know ..." you haven't thought through enough what needs to be accomplished. You should be able to articulate what the students will be able to do with the information or ideas. For example, in a philosophy class for which students have read a chapter on epistemologies or theories of knowledge, you might want students to be able to construct legitimate arguments for and against any epistemology about which they have read.
Problematize the Topic
Having a clear goal in mind makes it much easier to plan a discussion. You know what you want students to get out of it. But it is not enough: An instructor at IU several years ago told the story of how she wanted her students to deal with the issue of prejudice. She tried to start discussion merely by saying "Discuss prejudice." No one spoke. She then asked if anyone had seen prejudice. One student raised a hand. When she asked what it was like, the student merely said "awful." She had a goal, but not a problem or an activity to get the students to engage the ideas to achieve the goal.

The opposite end of the spectrum is also a problem. While "Discuss prejudice" is too open-ended, merely asking for the basic facts won't work either. You've probably heard a professor rattle off a list of questions that require only brief factual replies and little student involvement:

Q. When was the Battle of Hastings?
A. 1066.

The result could hardly be called a discussion. So, give your students an open-ended problem to solve, a task to complete, a judgment to reach, a decision to make, or a list to create-something that begs for closure.
Select a Discussion Format
Many discussion activities can be used in the classroom. Choose one that will help your students meet your goals for the discussion. The more specific you can be in assigning the task, the more likely your students will be to succeed at it. Consider the protocols for tasks such as Think-Pair-Share, Affinity Mapping, Chalk Talk and other conversation structures.
Choose a Method to Assign Students to Groups
When assigning students to groups, consider the following questions.

How big should the groups be: Two to six is ideal. Smaller groups (two-three) are better for simple tasks and reaching consensus. Also, students are more likely to speak in smaller groups. Larger groups of four-five are better for more complex tasks and generating lots of ideas.

How should students be assigned to groups: Randomly assigning students to groups avoids the problem of friends wanting to get off track. For long-term groups, you may want to select for certain attributes or skills (e.g. a statistician, a geology major, and a writer) or by interest in the topic, if different groups have different tasks.

How long should the groups meet: Just for this activity or for all semester. Stop the discussion groups while they are still hard at work; next time, they will work doubly hard. Long-term groups allow students to practice collaborative skills and make stronger bonds, but sometimes they get tired of each other.

Choose a Debriefing Method
Always debrief students; it is the most important part of a discussion, the time to summarize and synthesize. Most of learning in discussions happens during debriefing, so don't squeeze it in-a rule of thumb is to use one-third of the total discussion time for debriefing.

You can use debriefing to correct incorrect notions. You can slip in any points that students neglected but that are important. You can pick which student reports from each group, though you should tell them in advance that you plan to do this. This makes everyone in the group responsible. You don't have to hear back from every group, but can instead choose a few at random. When groups start repeating ideas, it's time to stop.

Many techniques can get students to share what their smaller groups have done with the entire class: verbally, on newsprint/flipchart, blackboard or overhead, ditto/photocopy, etc. And you don't have to hear from everyone; calling on a few groups at random to report works quite well. To encourage student cross-team competition in Team-Based Learning, reporting out from groups is simultaneous. Answers can be posted to a Powerpoint slide or pieces of newsprint hung on walls of class.
Problems with Discussion

Getting Started: Students are often reluctant to get down to work in a discussion. Students are more likely to join in discussion if you divide them into pairs or small groups and assign a specific discussion question. After a few minutes of small group discussion, ask several groups to report out their ideas to the entire class. This often helps to get discussion going because students have had a chance to "try out" their ideas on their peers. Alternatively, give students time to write individually before opening up a discussion; they are much more likely to speak up if they have some notes to speak from. Further, by allowing for this kind of pre-discussion activity, you will be able to ask more complex and interesting questions. At the same time you will be promoting equity in the conversation, allowing everyone in the class to gather his or her thoughts before speaking rather than privileging the bold or the entitled, who can otherwise dominate the discussion.

Attendance: Despite the fact that discussion section participation is a requirement for many introductory courses, students may believe that their attendance is not mandatory since the AI rather than the professor is in charge. Therefore you may want to devise a way to structure required assignments, projects or presentations into your sections so that section participation will be a part of the final course grade. If students know that the AI has some responsibility for determining their grades, that AI will have considerably more authority in the classroom or in any interactions with students.

Losing Control: One fear about discussion is the possibility that the discussion will be TOO enthusiastic or not remain civil. Develop ground rules as a class. Gently, students can be reminded that behavior X (e.g., interrupting, blatantly ignoring the conversation, showing disrespect) is not appropriate in the context of the rules the class agreed on. If no rules have been established, or if the inappropriate behavior doesn't seem to fit under the rules, you should address it immediately. Otherwise, you send a message to the students that such behavior is acceptable. Often, simply walking toward the student(s) will resolve the problem, as they will see that you are paying attention. Sometimes, however, you will need to address the problem directly. Try not to get rattled-take a deep breath, allow some silence, and then respond. This gives you some time to plan a response that models for the students how to handle a difficult situation. Remember: never shame or humiliate a student, and don't take student remarks personally-although an attack may seem personal, it may be directed at authority figures in general rather than at you in particular.

Discussion Monopolizers: If the same students answer all the time, you might say, "Let's hear from someone else." Then don't call on students who have already spoken. Do not allow one student to speak for an inordinate amount of class time. Take that person aside and ask him or her to limit comments in class. If the student does not respond to this hint, tell him or her an exact number of times he or she will be allowed to respond in class, and do not call on him or her after that number has been reached in any class period.

Controversial Topics: If you teach charged topics, prepare students for discussing them. For an article about how to build up the skills necessary to discuss sensitive topics, see "Controlled Fission: Teaching Supercharged Subjects" (Pace, 2003).

Strategies for Building Discussion throughout a Class Session

Delay the problem-solving part until the rest of the discussion has had time to develop. Start with expository questions to clarify the facts, then move to analysis, and finally to evaluation, judgment, and recommendations.

Shift points of view: "Now that we've seen it from [W's] standpoint, what's happening here from [Y's] standpoint?" "What evidence would support Y's position?" "What are the dynamics between the two positions?"

Shift levels of abstraction: if the answer to the question above is "It's just a bad situation for her," quotations help: "When [Y] says "_____," what are her assumptions?" Or seek more concrete explanations: "Why does she hold this point of view?"

Ask for benefits/disadvantages of a position for all sides.

Shift time frame-not just to "What's next?" but also to "How could this situation have been different?" "What could have been done earlier to head off this conflict and turn it into a productive conversation?" "Is it too late to fix this?" "What are possible leverage points for a more productive discussion?" "What good can come of the existing situation?"

Shift to another context: "We see how a person who thinks X would see the situation. How would a person who thinks Y see it?" "We see what happened in the Johannesburg news, how could this be handled in [your town/province]?" "How might [insert person, organization] address this problem?"

Follow-up questions: "What do you mean by ___?" Or, "Could you clarify what you said about ___?" (even if it was a pretty clear statement-this gives students time for thinking, developing different views, and exploration in more depth). Or "How would you square that observation with what [name of person] pointed out?"

Point out and acknowledge differences in discussion-"that's an interesting difference from what Sam just said, Sarah. Let's look at where the differences lie." (Let sides clarify their points before moving on).

Compare topics from a previous week-"Use the four systems of though/intellectual movements we have studied to create a slide that answers the following questions..."

References
Cashin, W. E. (2011). Effective classroom discussions. IDEA Paper number 49.

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Overview Discussion is important to learning in all disciplines because it helps students process information rather than simply receive it. Leading a discussion requires skills different from lecturing. The goal of a discussion is to get students to practice thinking about the course material. Your role becomes that of facilitator.

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Beginning/ Developing

The teacher corrects off-task behavior immediately, consistently, and with care for all students.

Students are often engaged in the learning task, but most of the direction is provided from the teacher and/or off task behavior is responded to with verbal or visual reminders.

Practicing/ Achieving

Students self-monitor behavior and self-correct and/or support their peers to correct without interference from the teacher.

Students know why they are working on learning activities and feel personally motivated to do their best work.

Students know their strengths and know how to get support for their challenges - they do not feel daunted by them - rather they are excited to approach them and their efforts are celebrated.

The teacher conveys their own enjoyment of learning through language, facial expression, actions, and tone and models their personal motivation to approach their challenges to students.

Celebrations of academic and non-academic accomplishments are a regular part of the classroom culture.

Teacher and students smile, laugh, and exude an energy for learning often.

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Beginning/ Developing The teacher corrects off-task behavior immediately, consistently, and with care for all students. Students are often engaged in the learning task, but most of the direction is provided from the teacher and/or off task behavior is responded to with verbal or visual reminders.

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Responsibility For Kids | I Am Responsible For Me | Social and Emotional Learning for Kids (Part 1)

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Do your students give excuses for their poor performance in class? Are excuses like "there was no sufficient time to prepare," "the questions were too tough," "the material was not taught in class," etc. often used in your class? Student accountability is an important trait to develop in your students. It helps them take responsibility for their actions, learning, and helps improve academic performance and achievements.
Introducing student accountability in the classroom
It may not be easy initially to instill this behavior in your students, but with your constant support, students may slowly learn to develop it. Here are some ideas to achieve student accountability in your classroom:

What is student accountability? Few students understand the need to take responsibility for their actions. Therefore, it is essential that you frame rules at the beginning of the year on the actions that are acceptable and unacceptable in the classroom. Unacceptable behavior should have a prescribed consequence (like a time-out) that should be followed closely. The student then decides whether he/she performs the acceptable/ unacceptable task. Understanding this crucial concept will help students take responsibility for their actions.

Be firm with your rules. It is often observed that leniency only encourages students to break rules. When a teacher bends the rules for someone in class, others will expect the same treatment. Failure to comply will lead to complaints of favoritism that adversely affect the dynamics of the class. Thus, following your rules is a good way to instill accountability in your students.

Create a positive environment

Be positive, non judgmental and supportive to the students. Since your students are trying to change their behavior, there may be slip ups initially. Remind the student that every action has a consequence and that it was their choice to face the punishment. You may also have a group system in which students remind and support each other.

Inform parents of the game plan. At times, incorrect or imprecise information is conveyed to the parents. To prevent this and generalize student accountability even outside the class environment, parents should be kept in the loop. If a student misbehaves or fails to turn in the work on time, you can ask the child to call and inform the parents in your presence. Such practices will reduce the incidence of mistakes from occurring and increase the practice of taking responsibility.

Help your students develop a plan to achieve their goals. Instruct them to draw a triangle. At the tip of the triangle, write the goal that needs to be achieved (i.e. improving performance, submitting assignments on time). On the base, write down the steps necessary to achieve the goals. This gives them the opportunity to formulate their own goals and strategies. Writing them down serves as a reminder to the students on their committed to their goals and teachers may encourage them to sign the work and also get it signed by their parents. A copy of this is maintained by both the staff and parents to help the student achieve his/her goals. After two weeks, teachers and students can review the goals to see how much was attained, discuss whether the goals were realistic, figure out changes to the plan or set new goals. Such practices will help students to be proactive in their learning.

Keep an achievement chart

Another way to instill student accountability is to encourage students to evaluate their own work, performance and participation in class. Create an achievement chart that records the various activities and behaviors in class (for example: active involvement in class, academic performance in tests, timely submission of assignments, achievement of goals, etc.). This chart is to be scored by the student daily on a three point scale of 0, 1, and 2 where 2 is good, 1 is average and 0 is bad. At the end of each week, the student adds the score and makes a chart which is a record of their learning. The chart demonstrates how well each student has achieved their objectives of learning and which areas needs more work and effort.

Thus, by teaching students to be accountable for their work and take responsibility for maintaining a level of academic performance, we are encouraging them to be in charge of their own success.
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Discuss Here: What are the methods by which you successfully introduced student accountability in your classroom?

About PLB

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How can I Introduce Student Accountability in Class to Enhance Student Performance?

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Do your students give excuses for their poor performance in class? Are excuses like "there was no sufficient time to prepare," "the questions were too tough," "the material was not taught in class," etc. often used in your class? Student accountability is an important trait to develop in your students.

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Cite this guide: Brame, C.J. & Biel, R. (2015). Setting up and facilitating group work:
Using cooperative learning groups effectively. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-cooperative-learning-groups-effectively/.

Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students' learning. Whether the goal is to increase student understanding of content, to build particular transferable skills, or some combination of the two, instructors often turn to small group work to capitalize on the benefits of peer-to-peer instruction. This type of group work is formally termed cooperative learning, and is defined as the instructional use of small groups to promote students working together to maximize their own and each other's learning (Johnson, et al., 2008).

Cooperative learning is characterized by positive interdependence, where students perceive that better performance by individuals produces better performance by the entire group (Johnson, et al., 2014). It can be formal or informal, but often involves specific instructor intervention to maximize student interaction and learning. It is infinitely adaptable, working in small and large classes and across disciplines, and can be one of the most effective teaching approaches available to college instructors.

What can it look like?

Informal cooperative learning groups
In informal cooperative learning, small, temporary, ad-hoc groups of two to four students work together for brief periods in a class, typically up to one class period, to answer questions or respond to prompts posed by the instructor.

Additional examples of ways to structure informal group work
Think-pair-share
The instructor asks a discussion question. Students are instructed to think or write about an answer to the question before turning to a peer to discuss their responses. Groups then share their responses with the class.
Peer Instruction
This modification of the think-pair-share involves personal responses devices (e.g. clickers). The question posted is typically a conceptually based multiple-choice question. Students think about their answer and vote on a response before turning to a neighbor to discuss. Students can change their answers after discussion, and "sharing" is accomplished by the instructor revealing the graph of student response and using this as a stimulus for large class discussion. This approach is particularly well-adapted for large classes.
Jigsaw
In this approach, groups of students work in a team of four to become experts on one segment of new material, while other "expert teams" in the class work on other segments of new material. The class then rearranges, forming new groups that have one member from each expert team. The members of the new team then take turns teaching each other the material on which they are experts.
Formal cooperative learning groups
In formal cooperative learning students work together for one or more class periods to complete a joint task or assignment (Johnson et al., 2014). There are several features that can help these groups work well:

The instructor defines the learning objectives for the activity and assigns students to groups.

The groups are typically heterogeneous, with particular attention to the skills that are needed for success in the task.

Within the groups, students may be assigned specific roles, with the instructor communicating the criteria for success and the types of social skills that will be needed.

Importantly, the instructor continues to play an active role during the groups' work, monitoring the work and evaluating group and individual performance.

Instructors also encourage groups to reflect on their interactions to identify potential improvements for future group work.

This video shows an example of formal cooperative learning groups in David Matthes' class at the University of Minnesota:

There are many more specific types of group work that fall under the general descriptions given here, including team-based learning, problem-based learning, and process-oriented guided inquiry learning.

What's the theoretical underpinning?

The use of cooperative learning groups in instruction is based on the principle of constructivism, with particular attention to the contribution that social interaction can make. In essence, constructivism rests on the idea that individuals learn through building their own knowledge, connecting new ideas and experiences to existing knowledge and experiences to form new or enhanced understanding (Bransford, et al., 1999). The consideration of the role that groups can play in this process is based in social interdependence theory, which grew out of Kurt Koffka's and Kurt Lewin's identification of groups as dynamic entities that could exhibit varied interdependence among members, with group members motivated to achieve common goals. Morton Deutsch conceptualized varied types of interdependence, with positive correlation among group members' goal achievements promoting cooperation.

Lev Vygotsky extended this work by examining the relationship between cognitive processes and social activities, developing the sociocultural theory of development. The sociocultural theory of development suggests that learning takes place when students solve problems beyond their current developmental level with the support of their instructor or their peers. Thus both the idea of a zone of proximal development, supported by positive group interdependence, is the basis of cooperative learning (Davidson and Major, 2014; Johnson, et al., 2014).

Cooperative learning follows this idea as groups work together to learn or solve a problem, with each individual responsible for understanding all aspects. The small groups are essential to this process because students are able to both be heard and to hear their peers, while in a traditional classroom setting students may spend more time listening to what the instructor says.

Cooperative learning uses both goal interdependence and resource interdependence to ensure interaction and communication among group members. Changing the role of the instructor from lecturing to facilitating the groups helps foster this social environment for students to learn through interaction.

Is there evidence that it works?

David Johnson, Roger Johnson, and Karl Smith performed a meta-analysis of 168 studies comparing cooperative learning to competitive learning and individualistic learning in college students (Johnson et al., 2006). They found that cooperative learning produced greater academic achievement than both competitive learning and individualistic learning across the studies, exhibiting a mean weighted effect size of 0.54 when comparing cooperation and competition and 0.51 when comparing cooperation and individualistic learning. In essence, these results indicate that cooperative learning increases student academic performance by approximately one-half of a standard deviation when compared to non-cooperative learning models, an effect that is considered moderate. Importantly, the academic achievement measures were defined in each study, and ranged from lower-level cognitive tasks (e.g., knowledge acquisition and retention) to higher level cognitive activity (e.g., creative problem solving), and from verbal tasks to mathematical tasks to procedural tasks. The meta-analysis also showed substantial effects on other metrics, including self-esteem and positive attitudes about learning. George Kuh and colleagues also conclude that cooperative group learning promotes student engagement and academic performance (Kuh et al., 2007).

Springer, Stanne, and Donovan (1999) confirmed these results in their meta-analysis of 39 studies in university STEM classrooms. They found that students who participated in various types of small-group learning, ranging from extended formal interactions to brief informal interactions, had greater academic achievement, exhibited more favorable attitudes towards learning, and had increased persistence through STEM courses than students who did not participate in STEM small-group learning.

The box below summarizes three individual studies examining the effects of cooperative learning groups.

What are approaches that can help make group work effective?
Preparation Articulate your goals for the group work, including both the academic objectives you want the students to achieve and the social skills you want them to develop. Determine the group conformation that will help meet your goals.
In informal group learning, groups often form ad hoc from near neighbors in a class.

In formal group learning, it is helpful for the instructor to form groups that are heterogeneous with regard to particular skills or abilities relevant to group tasks. For example, groups may be heterogeneous with regard to academic skill in the discipline or with regard to other skills related to the group task (e.g., design capabilities, programming skills, writing skills, organizational skills) (Johnson et al, 2006).

Groups from 2-6 are generally recommended, with groups that consist of three members exhibiting the best performance in some problem-solving tasks (Johnson et al., 2006; Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992).

To avoid common problems in group work, such as dominance by a single student or conflict avoidance, it can be useful to assign roles to group members (e.g., manager, skeptic, educator, conciliator) and to rotate them on a regular basis (Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992). Assigning these roles is not necessary in well-functioning groups, but can be useful for students who are unfamiliar with or unskilled at group work.
Choose an assessment method that will promote positive group interdependence as well as individual accountability.
In team-based learning, two approaches promote positive interdependence and individual accountability. First, students take an individual readiness assessment test, and then immediately take the same test again as a group. Their grade is a composite of the two scores. Second, students complete a group project together, and receive a group score on the project. They also, however, distribute points among their group partners, allowing student assessment of members' contributions to contribute to the final score.

Heller and Hollabaugh (1992) describe an approach in which they incorporated group problem-solving into a class. Students regularly solved problems in small groups, turning in a single solution. In addition, tests were structured such that 25% of the points derived from a group problem, where only those individuals who attended the group problem-solving sessions could participate in the group test problem. This approach can help prevent the "free rider" problem that can plague group work.

The University of New South Wales describes a variety of ways to assess group work, ranging from shared group grades, to grades that are averages of individual grades, to strictly individual grades, to a combination of these. They also suggest ways to assess not only the product of the group work but also the process. Again, having a portion of a grade that derives from individual contribution helps combat the free rider problem.
Helping groups get started Explain the group's task, including your goals for their academic achievement and social interaction. Explain how the task involves both positive interdependence and individual accountability, and how you will be assessing each.
Assign group roles or give groups prompts to help them articulate effective ways for interaction. The University of New South Wales provides a valuable set of tools to help groups establish good practices when first meeting. The site also provides some exercises for building group dynamics; these may be particularly valuable for groups that will be working on larger projects.

Regularly observe group interactions and progress, either by circulating during group work, collecting in-process documents, or both. When you observe problems, intervene to help students move forward on the task and work together effectively. The University of New South Wales provides handouts that instructors can use to promote effective group interactions, such as a handout to help students listen reflectively or give constructive feedback, or to help groups identify particular problems that they may be encountering.

Assessing and reflecting

In addition to providing feedback on group and individual performance (link to preparation section above), it is also useful to provide a structure for groups to reflect on what worked well in their group and what could be improved. Graham Gibbs (1994) suggests using the checklists shown below.

The University of New South Wales provides other reflective activities that may help students identify effective group practices and avoid ineffective practices in future cooperative learning experiences.

References

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., and Cocking, R.R. (Eds.) (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Bruffee, K. A. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and the authority of knowledge. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Cabrera, A. F., Crissman, J. L., Bernal, E. M., Nora, A., Terenzini, P. T., & Pascarella, E. T. (2002). Collaborative learning: Its impact on college students' development and diversity. Journal of College Student Development, 43(1), 20-34.

Davidson, N., & Major, C. H. (2014). Boundary crossing: Cooperative learning, collaborative learning, and problem-based learning. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25 (3&4), 7-55.

Dees, R. L. (1991). The role of cooperative leaning in increasing problem-solving ability in a college remedial course. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22(5), 409-21.

Gokhale, A. A. (1995). Collaborative Learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology Education, 7(1).

Heller, P., and Hollabaugh, M. (1992) Teaching problem solving through cooperative grouping. Part 2: Designing problems and structuring groups. American Journal of Physics 60, 637-644.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2006). Active learning: Cooperation in the university classroom (3 rd edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Holubec, E.J. (2008). Cooperation in the classroom (8 th edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2014). Cooperative learning: Improving university instruction by basing practice on validated theory. Journl on Excellence in College Teaching 25, 85-118.

Jones, D. J., & Brickner, D. (1996). Implementation of cooperative learning in a large-enrollment basic mechanics course. American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference Proceedings.

Kuh, G.D., Kinzie, J., Buckley, J., Bridges, B., and Hayek, J.C. (2007). Piecing together the student success puzzle: Research, propositions, and recommendations (ASHE Higher Education Report, No. 32). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Love, A. G., Dietrich, A., Fitzgerald, J., & Gordon, D. (2014). Integrating collaborative learning inside and outside the classroom. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25(3&4), 177-196.

Smith, M. E., Hinckley, C. C., & Volk, G. L. (1991). Cooperative learning in the undergraduate laboratory. Journal of Chemical Education 68(5), 413-415.

Springer, L., Stanne, M. E., & Donovan, S. S. (1999). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 96(1), 21-51.

Uribe, D., Klein, J. D., & Sullivan, H. (2003). The effect of computer-mediated collaborative learning on solving ill-defined problems. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(1), 5-19.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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Group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively

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by Cynthia J. Brame and Rachel Biel Print Version Cite this guide: Brame, C.J. & Biel, R. (2015). Setting up and facilitating group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-cooperative-learning-groups-effectively/. Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students' learning.

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When it comes to supporting all students in an inclusive classroom, you can never have too many practical tips in your toolbox. Today's post, adapted from by Carolyn Hughes & Erik Carter, gives you 14 helpful suggestions for meeting the needs of all learners-during the school day and at home. Recommended by real teachers, these strategies will help you strengthen inclusive practices and help families provide the best supports for their children.

Teachers surveyed by authors Hughes & Carter recommended the following instructional strategies for supporting students in inclusive classrooms:

Apply proven strategies. Investigate what works by reading about the latest research-based strategies for inclusive classrooms. (We've got a whole bookstore category for that. ) If you haven't already, try strategies like constant and progressive time delay, most-to-least or least-to-most prompting, and other direct instruction strategies backed by strong evidence of effectiveness. Always match the strategies you choose with the individual needs and strengths of your students.

Rethink grading. For students who have extensive support needs, traditional grading systems probably won't be the best way to show what they can do. Consider alternative grading approaches that more meaningfully capture the progress students with disabilities are making toward their academic goals. (For guidance on grading, see this excellent post from Nicole Eredics of the Inclusive Class blog: "10 Tips for Grading Students with Disabilities in the Inclusive Classroom.")

Outside the classroom, kids should have plenty of chances to practice new skills across a variety of settings, tasks, and people. Parents, extended family members, and other adults can keep these teacher-recommended strategies in mind when supporting students at home and in the community.

Use your child's interests as teaching tools. Does your child have a special fascination? Weaving these preferences and interests into skill instruction can help promote learning and engagement. (For specific ideas on using a child's fascinations as powerful learning aids, see by Paula Kluth & Patrick Schwarz.)

As an educator or parent, which of these strategies resonates with you most? Do you have another key principle of inclusion that guides you every day? Share it with us in the comments below!

For more than 500 research-based, teacher-tested strategies that help students with disabilities make a smooth transition to adulthood, check outRead an excerpt, see the reviews, and view the full table of contents.

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14 Ways to Support All Learners at School and Home - Brookes Blog

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When it comes to supporting all students in an inclusive classroom, you can never have too many practical tips in your toolbox. Today's post, adapted from The New Transition Handbook by Carolyn Hughes & Erik Carter, gives you 14 helpful suggestions for meeting the needs of all learners-during the school day and at home.