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On April 15, 1912, Titanic, one of the British largest and luxurious liners, sank into the North Atlantic Ocean which about 400 miles south of Newfoundland, Canada

That giant ship which carried 2,200 passengers and crews had struck an iceberg. Two and a half hour later the ship sank into the deep North Atlantic Ocean at 2:20 a.m.

From that tragedy, more than 1,500 people went down in the sinking ship. Some of them froze to death in the icy North Atlantic water and around 700 people (high class woman and children) survived.

Unfortunately that giant luxurious ship was not equipped with much more lifeboats and good emergency procedures so that the victims of that tragedy were more than the half passengers and crews.

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On April 15, 1912, Titanic, one of the British largest and luxurious liners, sank into the North Atlantic Ocean which about 400 miles south of Newfoundland, Canada

That giant ship which carried 2,200 passengers and crews had struck an iceberg. Two and a half hour later the ship sank into the deep North Atlantic Ocean at 2:20 a.m.

From that tragedy, more than 1,500 people went down in the sinking ship. Some of them froze to death in the icy North Atlantic water and around 700 people (high class woman and children) survived.

Unfortunately that giant luxurious ship was not equipped with much more lifeboats and good emergency procedures so that the victims of that tragedy were more than the half passengers and crews.

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On 25 April, prior to a routine shutdown, the reactor crew at Chernobyl 4 began preparing for a test to determine how long turbines would spin and supply power to the main circulating pumps following a loss of main electrical power supply. This test had been carried out at Chernobyl the previous year, but the power from the turbine ran down too rapidly, so new voltage regulator designs were to be tested.

A series of operator actions, including the disabling of automatic shutdown mechanism, preceded the attempted test early on 26 April. By the time that the operator moved to shut down the reactor, the reactor was in an extremely unstable condition. A peculiarity of the design of the control rods caused a dramatic power surge as they were inserted into the reactor.

The interaction of very hot fuel with the cooling water led to fuel fragmentation along with rapid steam production and an increase in pressure. The design characteristics of the reactor were such that substantial damage to even three or foul fuel assemblies would and did in result in the destruction of the reactor. The overpressure caused the 1000 t cover plate of the reactor to become partially detached, rupturing the fuel channels and jamming all the control rods, which by that time were only halfway down, Intense steam generation then spread throughout the whole core (fed by water dumped into the core due to the rupture of the emergency cooling circuit) causing a steam explosion and releasing fission products to the atmosphere. About two to three seconds later, a second explosion threw out fragments from the fuel channels and hot graphite. There is some dispute among experts about the character of this second explosion, but it is likely to have been caused by the production of hydrogen from zirconium-steam reactions.

Two workers died as a result of these explosions. The graphite (about a quarter of the 1200 tonnes of it was estimated to have been ejected) and fuel became incandescent and started a number of fires, causing the main release of radioactivity into the environment. A total of about 14 EBq (14 x 1018 Bq) of radioactivity was released, over half of it being from biologically-inert noble gases.*

* the figure of the 5.1 EBq is also quoted, this being “iodine131 equivalent” -1.8 EBq iodine and 85 PBq Cs-137 multiplied by 40 due its longevity, and ignoring the 6.5 EBq xenon-33 and some minor or short-lived nuclidies.

About 200-300 About 200-300 tonnes of water per hour was injected into the intact half of the reacor using the auxiliary feedwater pumps but this was stopped after half a day owing to the danger of it flowing into and flooding units 1 and 2. FRom the second to tenth day after the accient, some 5000 tonnes of boron, dolomite, sand, clay, and lead were dropped on to the burning core by helicopter in an effort to extinguish the blaze and limit the release of radioactive particles.

The 1991 report by the State Committee on the Supervision of Safety in Industry and Nuclear Power on the root cause of the accident looked past the operator actions. It said that while it was certainly true the operators placed their reactor in a dangerously unstable condition (in fact in a condition which virtually guaranteed an accident) it was also true that in doing so they had not in fact violated a number of vital operating policies and principles, since no such policies and principle had been articulated. Additionally, the operating organization had not been made aware either of the specific vital safety significance of maintaining a minimum operationg reactivity margin, orthe general reactivity characteristics of the RBMK which made low power operation extremely hazardous.

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The Tragedy of 9/11

On September 11, 2001, 19 militants associated with the Islamic extremist group al Qaeda hijacked four airplanes and carried out suicide attacks against targets in the United States. Two of the planes were flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, a third plane hit the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C., and the fourth plane crashed in a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Almost 3,000 people were killed during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, which triggered major U.S. initiatives to combat terrorism and defined the presidency of George W. Bush.

On September 11, 2001, at 8:45 a.m. on a clear Tuesday morning, an American Airlines Boeing 767 loaded with 20,000 gallons of jet fuel crashed into the north tower of the World Trade Center in New York City.

The impact left a gaping, burning hole near the 80th floor of the 110-story skyscraper, instantly killing hundreds of people and trapping hundreds more in higher floors.

As the evacuation of the tower and its twin got underway, television cameras broadcasted live images of what initially appeared to be a freak accident. Then, 18 minutes after the first plane hit, a second Boeing 767—United Airlines Flight 175—appeared out of the sky, turned sharply toward the World Trade Center and sliced into the south tower near the 60th floor.

The collision caused a massive explosion that showered burning debris over surrounding buildings and onto the streets below. It immediately became clear that America was under attack.

The hijackers were Islamic terrorists from Saudi Arabia and several other Arab nations. Reportedly financed by the al Qaeda terrorist organization of Saudi fugitive Osama bin Laden, they were allegedly acting in retaliation for America’s support of Israel, its involvement in the Persian Gulf War and its continued military presence in the Middle East.

Some of the terrorists had lived in the United States for more than a year and had taken flying lessons at American commercial flight schools. Others had slipped into the country in the months before September 11 and acted as the “muscle” in the operation.

The 19 terrorists easily smuggled box-cutters and knives through security at three East Coast airports and boarded four early-morning flights bound for California, chosen because the planes were loaded with fuel for the long transcontinental journey. Soon after takeoff, the terrorists commandeered the four planes and took the controls, transforming ordinary passenger jets into guided missiles.

As millions watched the events unfolding in New York, American Airlines Flight 77 circled over downtown Washington, D.C., before crashing into the west side of the Pentagon military headquarters at 9:45 a.m.

Jet fuel from the Boeing 757 caused a devastating inferno that led to the structural collapse of a portion of the giant concrete building, which is the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Defense.

All told, 125 military personnel and civilians were killed in the Pentagon, along with all 64 people aboard the airliner.

Less than 15 minutes after the terrorists struck the nerve center of the U.S. military, the horror in New York took a catastrophic turn when the south tower of the World Trade Center collapsed in a massive cloud of dust and smoke.

The structural steel of the skyscraper, built to withstand winds in excess of 200 miles per hour and a large conventional fire, could not withstand the tremendous heat generated by the burning jet fuel.

At 10:30 a.m., the north building of the twin towers collapsed. Only six people in the World Trade Center towers at the time of their collapse survived. Almost 10,000 others were treated for injuries, many severe.

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The Korean peninsula was originally under the rule of the Joseon Dynasty, for approximately 500 years.  The power of this dynasty ended when Japan occupied Korean territory from 1910 to 1945. Until finally, Japan's defeat in World War II fostered the spirit of the Korean people to liberate themselves from all forms of colonialism.  However, it is at this point that the split occurs.  Making Korea divided into two, North and South Korea, and the two are enemies.  When Japan surrendered unconditionally to the Allies, the Soviet Union slowly continued to advance toward Korea.  Soviet troops continued to bombard Japanese defenses in Korea.  The United States, which at that time did not have a military base in Korea, was terrified to hear that the Soviet Union had managed to enter Korea and destroy Japan's defenses.  So that the Soviet Union did not completely control the Korean Peninsula, the US suggested a temporary division of the two countries' territories in Korea.  Charles Bonesteel, Colonel of the United States Army along with Dean Rusk, the candidate for Secretary of State of the United States, were asked to suggest a dividing line between his country and the Soviet Union, which at that time was already in the northern region of Korea.  This separation was only administrative in nature and Korea would be reunited under a new government.  The US then proposed the 38th parallel or 38th latitude, after looking at a map of Korea.  They make sure that the dividing line is quite prominent and Seoul is on its territory.  This proposal was approved by the Soviet Union.  US capitalism and Soviet communism, began to affect the two regions in Korea.  The influence of this ideology brought major changes to Korea in the future.  In 1947, the United Nations held government elections in the northern and southern parts of Korea.  However, this election did not go smoothly because the Soviet Union blocked the electoral system in the northern part of Korea.  This was further strengthened by the appointment of Kim Il Sung as Head of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) by the Soviet Union.  While in the south, Syngman Rhee was supported by the United States to become the Leader of the Republic of Korea (ROK).  A year later, the Soviet Union and the United States agreed to withdraw their troops from the Korean Peninsula.  Fighting between the North and the South was frequent, especially in the dividing line.  In the mid-1950s, the DPRK and the Soviet Union attacked the ROK, to unite the two regions under the ideology of communism.  The United Nations, knowing this did not remain silent, the US and troops from 15 other countries came to South Korea as reinforcements.  The battle ended in a truce that eventually gave rise to the Demilitarized Zone.  Not only that, along the 38th parallel, it is heavily guarded by the military forces of the two countries.  Still reported by History, now South and North Korea have become independent countries.  South Korea is known for its Kpop culture and rapid economic growth.  Meanwhile, North Korea is known as an isolated country with a low level of economic growth.

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Ten-Go operation took place on April 7, 1945. The Japanese battleship Yamato which is the largest battleship in the world set out to carry out a suicide mission against the Allied forces at the Battle of Okinawa.

Some officers of the Imperial Japanese Navy also had very negative views about the operation, believing that it was a waste of human life and fuel. Captain Atsushi Ōi, an operations officer at Grand Escort Command, was critical as fuel and resources were diverted from other operations. As he was told that the aim of this operation was "the tradition and the glory of the Navy," he shouted: "this war is of our nation and why should the honor of our 'surface fleet' be more respected? Who cares about their glory? Damn fools!".

Before reaching Okinawa, the Japanese fleet was attacked and discontinued, and was almost entirely destroyed by American aircraft based on the carriers. This battle demonstrated the air supremacy of the United States in the final stages of the Pacific War, and how easy it was for ships to become targets for airstrikes if they were not protected by warplanes. Despite the loss of a large number of lives in a futile attempt, this battle represented Japan's last resort in slowing the Allied advance towards the Japanese islands. Yamato battleship and five other Japanese warships were sunk.

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The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc, which began following World War II. Historians do not fully agree on its starting and ending points, but the period is generally considered to span the 1947 Truman Doctrine (12 March 1947) to the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union (26 December 1991). The term cold war is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two superpowers, but they each supported major regional conflicts known as proxy wars.

The first phase of the Cold War began shortly after the end of the Second World War in 1945. The United States and its allies created the NATO military alliance in 1949 in the apprehension of a Soviet attack and termed their global policy against Soviet influence containment. The Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955 in response to NATO. Major crises of this phase included the 1948–49 Berlin Blockade, the 1927–1949 Chinese Civil War, the 1950–1953 Korean War, the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the 1956 Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961 and the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. The US and the USSR competed for influence in Latin America, the Middle East, and the decolonizing states of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. In 1989, the fall of the Iron Curtain after the Pan-European Picnic and a peaceful wave of revolutions (with the exception of Romania and Afghanistan) overthrew almost all communist governments of the Eastern Bloc. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control in the Soviet Union and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the formal dissolution of the USSR in December 1991, the declaration of independence of its constituent republics and the collapse of communist governments across much of Africa and Asia. The United States was left as the world's sole superpower.

The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy. It is often referred to in popular culture, especially with themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare. For subsequent history see International relations since 1989.

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The American Civil War was a civil war that took place in the United States on April 12, 1861 – May 9, 1865. The war was fought between the central government of the United States of America against the Confederate States, the United States of America founded by the southern states. Supporting black practices. As a result of the war, more than half a million people in the United States lost their lives and the condition of the southern part of the country was devastated.

The roots of the Civil War can be traced to the growing differences between North and South and their growing differences as the 19th century progressed. Among the main issues were the expansion of slavery into the territory, the decline of the political power of the South, the rights of the state, and the retention of the slave system. Although these problems had existed for decades, they exploded in 1860 after the election of Abraham Lincoln against the spread of slavery. As a result of his election, South Carolina, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas seceded from the Union. This conflict became the deadliest war in American history that killed about 620,000 soldiers, injured millions more, and destroyed much of the south.

Towards the end of the American Civil War, the Confederacy was steadily losing. On April 9, 1865, Ulysses S. Grant of the Union accepted the surrender of Robert E. Lee of the Confederacy. However, on April 14, 1865, the United States lost its president. The reason, Abraham Lincoln was killed by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. On April 26, 1865, William Tecumseh Sherman accepted Johnston's surrender at Durham Station, North Carolina, officially ending the American Civil War.

The American Civil War was a civil war that took place in the United States on April 12, 1861 – May 9, 1865. The war was fought between the central government of the United States of America against the Confederate States, the United States of America founded by the southern states. Supporting black practices. As a result of the war, more than half a million people in the United States lost their lives and the condition of the southern part of the country was devastated.
The roots of the Civil War can be traced to the growing differences between North and South and their growing differences as the 19th century progressed. Among the main issues were the expansion of slavery into the territory, the decline of the political power of the South, the rights of the state, and the retention of the slave system. Although these problems had existed for decades, they exploded in 1860 after the election of Abraham Lincoln against the spread of slavery. As a result of his election, South Carolina, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas seceded from the Union. This conflict became the deadliest war in American history that killed about 620,000 soldiers, injured millions more, and destroyed much of the south.

Towards the end of the American Civil War, the Confederacy was steadily losing. On April 9, 1865, Ulysses S. Grant of the Union accepted the surrender of Robert E. Lee of the Confederacy. However, on April 14, 1865, the United States lost its president. The reason, Abraham Lincoln was killed by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. On April 26, 1865, William Tecumseh Sherman accepted Johnston's surrender at Durham Station, North Carolina, officially ending the American Civil War.

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The industrial revolution was used to call the period from about 1750 to 1900. The industrial revolution brought about a change in the way that human power had originally been used to produce produce. The first industrial revolution took place in England and spread throughout Europe and the British colonies in America.

The Renaissance brought a lot of influence to renewal in Europe. This resulted in new scholarship and technological thinking. The development of the industrial revolution was not without the social and political conditions that prevailed at the time. The industrial revolution began with a farming revolution, with the invention of seed drills that cut short the time. Agricultural revolutions followed by discoveries in the textile industry such as Jenny spinnning, flying shuttle, and steam engines made textile production possible for dramatic improvement.

Britain's industrial revolution was fueled by the technological discoveries of machines, weaving, steam engines, and transport. The invention of the technology resulted from the thought and hard work of important figures, James watt, who created the first steam engine in 1796. Steam engines were used in locomotives and ships, and were vital in the industrial revolution. John kay found a flying coil in 1733. James hargreaves invented a spinning wheel called spinning jenney in 1765 and many other inventions.

James watt's findings have been an inspiration to other industrial or transport technologies. In the end, technological discoveries have far-reaching effects in the industry. Thus, production of goods can be processed quickly and the marketing of industrial goods improves markedly as the transport industry expands.

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The Russian Revolution was a period of political and social revolution that took place in the former Russian Empire which began during the First World War. This period saw Russia abolish its monarchy and adopt a socialist form of government following two successive revolutions and a bloody civil war.

The first revolution took place on February 23-27, 1917. This revolution occurred because Tsar Nicholas II cracked down on protests by the Russian people in St. Petersburg. As a result, the Bolshevik middle class and proletariat united against the atrocities of Tsar Nicholas II. The revolution succeeded with the decision to abdicate Tsar Nicholas II from the seat of government. After that, a Provisional Government was formed with a liberal form of government. The leader of the Provisional Government was Alexander Karensky.

The second revolution that took place in October 1917 is also known as the Bolshevik Revolution. This revolution occurred because of protests from radical socialist groups. The group thinks that the government of Alexander Karensky is considered slow in realizing the ideals of the Russian people.

The Bolshevik Party under the leadership of Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin) succeeded in overthrowing the leadership of Alexander Karensky. This revolution marked the beginning of the entry of communists into Russia and on August 30, 1922, Lenin formed the Soviet Union which included the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic.

Lenin's government was then replaced by Joseph Vissarionovic (Stalin) who carried out an iron curtain political policy. During the reign of Stalin many countries in Eastern Europe joined the Soviet Union, which caused the Soviet Union to become the largest communist country in the world in 1922-1991.

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The Battle of Waterloo was a battle between French forces under the command of Napoleon and the Seventh Coalition forces consisting of units from the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Hanover, Brunswick, and Nassau, under the command of the Duke of Wellington, who had gained prominence fighting against the French during the Peninsular War and a Prussian army under the command of Field Marshal von Blücher. The Battle was fought on Sunday, 18 June 1815, near Waterloo in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium. The battle marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars. The battle was also known as the Battle of Mont Saint-Jean (France) or La Belle Alliance ("the Beautiful Alliance" – Prussia).

Upon Napoleon's return to power in March 1815, many states that had opposed him formed the Seventh Coalition and began to mobilize armies. Wellington and Blücher's armies were positioned close to the northeastern border of France. Napoleon planned to attack them separately in the hope of destroying them before they could commence an invasion of France with other members of the coalition. On 16 June, Napoleon successfully attacked the bulk of the Prussian army at the Battle of Ligny with his main force, however, the French were unable to destroy the Prussian army.

Two days later, on 18 June, Napoleon led his army of some 72,000 troops against the 68,000-man British army, which had taken up a position south of Brussels near the village of Waterloo. Here the British forces withstood repeated attacks by the French throughout the afternoon of 18 June, aided by the arriving Prussians who attacked the French flank and inflicted heavy casualties. In the evening, Napoleon assaulted the Anglo-allied line with his last reserves, the senior infantry battalions of the Imperial Guard. With the Prussians breaking through on the French right flank, the Anglo-allied army repulsed the Imperial Guard, and the French army was routed. By some estimates, the French suffered more than 33,000 casualties (including dead, wounded, or taken prisoner), while British and Prussian casualties numbered more than 22,000.

Waterloo was the decisive engagement of the Waterloo campaign and Napoleon's last battle. Napoleon abdicated four days later, and coalition forces entered Paris on 7 July. Wellington went on to serve as the British prime minister, while Blucher, in his 70s at the time of the battle, died a few years later. The defeat at Waterloo ended Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the French and marked the end of his Hundred Days return from exile. This ended the First French Empire and set a chronological milestone between serial European wars and decades of relative peace, often referred to as the Pax Britannica.

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The Vietnam War was a long, costly and divisive conflict that pitted the communist government of North Vietnam against South Vietnam and its principal ally, the United States. The conflict was intensified by the ongoing Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. More than 3 million people (including over 58,000 Americans) were killed in the Vietnam War, and more than half of the dead were Vietnamese civilians.
Opposition to the war in the United States bitterly divided Americans, even after President Richard Nixon signed the Paris Peace Accords and ordered the withdrawal of U.S. forces in 1973. Communist forces ended the war by seizing control of South Vietnam in 1975, and the country was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam the following year.
Roots of the Vietnam War
Vietnam, a nation in Southeast Asia on the eastern edge of the Indochinese peninsula, had been under French colonial rule since the 19th century.
During World War  II, Japan withdrew its forces from Vietnam, leaving the French-educated Emperor Bao Dai in control. Seeing an opportunity to seize control, Ho’s Viet Minh forces immediately rose up, taking over the northern city of Hanoi and declaring a Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) with Ho as president.
Seeking to regain control of the region, France backed Emperor Bao and set up the state of Vietnam in July 1949, with the city of Saigon as its capital.
Both sides wanted the same thing: a unified Vietnam. But while Ho and his supporters wanted a nation modeled after other communist countries, Bao and many others wanted a Vietnam with close economic and cultural ties to the West.
Did you know? According to a survey by the Veterans Administration, some 500,000 of the 3 million troops who served in Vietnam suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder, and rates of divorce, suicide, alcoholism and drug addiction were markedly higher among veterans.
When Did the Vietnam War Start?
The Vietnam War and active U.S. involvement in the war began in 1954, though ongoing conflict in the region had stretched back several decades.
After Ho’s communist forces took power in the north, armed conflict between northern and southern armies continued until the northern Viet Minh’s decisive victory in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954. The French loss at the battle ended almost a century of French colonial rule in Indochina.
The subsequent treaty signed in July 1954 at a Geneva conference split Vietnam along the latitude known as the 17th Parallel (17 degrees north latitude), with Ho in control in the North and Bao in the South. The treaty also called for nationwide elections for reunification to be held in 1956.
In 1955, however, the strongly anti-communist politician Ngo Dinh Diem pushed Emperor Bao aside to become president of the Government of the Republic of Vietnam (GVN), often referred to during that era as South Vietnam.
The Viet Cong
With the Cold War intensifying worldwide, the United States hardened its policies against any allies of the Soviet Union, and by 1955 President Dwight D. Eisenhower had pledged his firm support to Diem and South Vietnam.
With training and equipment from American military and the CIA, Diem’s security forces cracked down on Viet Minh sympathizers in the south, whom he derisively called Viet Cong (or Vietnamese Communist), arresting some 100,000 people, many of whom were brutally tortured and executed.
By 1957, the Viet Cong and other opponents of Diem’s repressive regime began fighting back with attacks on government officials and other targets, and by 1959 they had begun engaging the South Vietnamese army in firefights.
In December 1960, Diem’s many opponents within South Vietnam—both communist and non-communist—formed the National Liberation Front (NLF) to organize resistance to the regime. Though the NLF claimed to be autonomous and that most of its members were not communists, many in Washington assumed it was a puppet of Hanoi.
Domino Theory
A team sent by President John F. Kennedy in 1961 to report on conditions in South Vietnam advised a build-up of American military, economic and technical aid in order to help Diem confront the Viet Cong threat.
Working under the “domino theory,” which held that if one Southeast Asian country fell to communism, many other countries would follow, Kennedy increased U.S. aid, though he stopped short of committing to a large-scale military intervention.
By 1962, the U.S. military presence in South Vietnam had reached some 9,000 troops, compared with fewer than 800 during the 1950s.
Gulf of Tonkin
A coup by some of his own generals succeeded in toppling and killing Diem and his brother, Ngo Dinh Nhu, in November 1963, three weeks before Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas.
The ensuing political instability in South Vietnam persuaded Kennedy’s successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara to further increase U.S. military and economic support.
In August of 1964, after DRV torpedo boats attacked two U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin, Johnson ordered the retaliatory bombing of military targets in North Vietnam. Congress soon passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave Johnson broad war-making powers, and U.S. planes began regular bombing raids, codenamed Operation Rolling Thunder, the following year.
The bombing was not limited to Vietnam; from 1964-1973, the United States covertly dropped two million tons of bombs on neighboring, neutral Laos during the CIA-led “Secret War” in Laos. The bombing campaign was meant to disrupt the flow of supplies across the Ho Chi Minh trail into Vietnam and to prevent the rise of the Pathet Lao, or Lao communist forces. The  U.S. bombings made Laos the most heavily bombed country per capita in the world.
In March 1965, Johnson made the decision—with solid support from the American public—to send U.S. combat forces into battle in Vietnam. By June, 82,000 combat troops were stationed in Vietnam, and military leaders were calling for 175,000 more by the end of 1965 to shore up the struggling South Vietnamese army.
Despite the concerns of some of his advisers about this escalation, and about the entire war effort amid a growing anti-war movement, Johnson authorized the immediate dispatch of 100,000 troops at the end of July 1965 and another 100,000 in 1966. In addition to the United States, South Korea, Thailand, Australia and New Zealand also committed troops to fight in South Vietnam (albeit on a much smaller scale).
William Westmoreland
In contrast to the air attacks on North Vietnam, the U.S.-South Vietnamese war effort in the south was fought primarily on the ground, largely under the command of General William Westmoreland, in coordination with the government of General Nguyen Van Thieu in Saigon.
Westmoreland pursued a policy of attrition, aiming to kill as many enemy troops as possible rather than trying to secure territory. By 1966, large areas of South Vietnam had been designated as “free-fire zones,” from which all innocent civilians were supposed to have evacuated and only enemy remained. Heavy bombing by B-52 aircraft or shelling made these zones uninhabitable, as refugees poured into camps in designated safe areas near Saigon and other cities.
Even as the enemy body count (at times exaggerated by U.S. and South Vietnamese authorities) mounted steadily, DRV and Viet Cong troops refused to stop fighting, encouraged by the fact that they could easily reoccupy lost territory with manpower and supplies delivered via the Ho Chi Minh Trail through Cambodia and Laos. Additionally, supported by aid from China and the Soviet Union, North Vietnam strengthened its air defenses.
Vietnam War Protests
By November 1967, the number of American troops in Vietnam was approaching 500,000, and U.S. casualties had reached 15,058 killed and 109,527 wounded. As the war stretched on, some soldiers came to mistrust the government’s reasons for keeping them there, as well as Washington’s repeated claims that the war was being won.
The later years of the war saw increased physical and psychological deterioration among American soldiers—both volunteers and draftees—including drug use, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), mutinies and attacks by soldiers against officers and noncommissioned officers.
Between July 1966 and December 1973, more than 503,000 U.S. military personnel deserted, and a robust anti-war movement among American forces spawned violent protests, killings and mass incarcerations of personnel stationed in Vietnam as well as within the United States.
Bombarded by horrific images of the war on their televisions, Americans on the home front turned against the war as well: In October 1967, some 35,000 demonstrators staged a massive Vietnam War protest outside the Pentagon. Opponents of the war argued that civilians, not enemy combatants, were the primary victims and that the United States was supporting a corrupt dictatorship in Saigon.
Tet Offensive
By the end of 1967, Hanoi’s communist leadership was growing impatient as well, and sought to strike a decisive blow aimed at forcing the better-supplied United States to give up hopes of success.
On January 31, 1968, some 70,000 DRV forces under General Vo Nguyen Giap launched the Tet Offensive (named for the lunar new year), a coordinated series of fierce attacks on more than 100 cities and towns in South Vietnam.
Taken by surprise, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces nonetheless managed to strike back quickly, and the communists were unable to hold any of the targets for more than a day or two.
Reports of the Tet Offensive stunned the U.S. public, however, especially after news broke that Westmoreland had requested an additional 200,000 troops, despite repeated assurances that victory in the Vietnam War was imminent. With his approval ratings dropping in an election year, Johnson called a halt to bombing in much of North Vietnam (though bombings continued in the south) and promised to dedicate the rest of his term to seeking peace rather than reelection.
Johnson’s new tack, laid out in a March 1968 speech, met with a positive response from Hanoi, and peace talks between the U.S. and North Vietnam opened in Paris that May. Despite the later inclusion of the South Vietnamese and the NLF, the dialogue soon reached an impasse, and after a bitter 1968 election season marred by violence, Republican Richard M. Nixon won the presidency.
Vietnamization
Nixon sought to deflate the anti-war movement by appealing to a “silent majority” of Americans who he believed supported the war effort. In an attempt to limit the volume of American casualties, he announced a program called Vietnamization: withdrawing U.S. troops, increasing aerial and artillery bombardment and giving the South Vietnamese the training and weapons needed to effectively control the ground war.
In addition to this Vietnamization policy, Nixon continued public peace talks in Paris, adding higher-level secret talks conducted by Secretary of State Henry Kissinger beginning in the spring of 1968.
The North Vietnamese continued to insist on complete and unconditional U.S. withdrawal—plus the ouster of U.S.-backed General Nguyen Van Thieu—as conditions of peace, however, and as a result the peace talks stalled. My Lai Massacre
The next few years would bring even more carnage, including the horrifying revelation that U.S. soldiers had mercilessly slaughtered more than 400 unarmed civilians in the village of My Lai in March 1968.
After the My Lai Massacre, anti-war protests continued to build as the conflict wore on. In 1968 and 1969, there were hundreds of protest marches and gatherings throughout the country.
On November 15, 1969, the largest anti-war demonstration in American history took place in Washington, D.C., as over 250,000 Americans gathered peacefully, calling for withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam.
The anti-war movement, which was particularly strong on college campuses, divided Americans bitterly. For some young people, the war symbolized a form of unchecked authority they had come to resent. For other Americans, opposing the government was considered unpatriotic and treasonous.
As the first U.S. troops were withdrawn, those who remained became increasingly angry and frustrated, exacerbating problems with morale and leadership. Tens of thousands of soldiers received dishonorable discharges for desertion, and about 500,000 American men from 1965-73 became “draft dodgers,” with many fleeing to Canada to evade conscription. Nixon ended draft calls in 1972, and instituted an all-volunteer army the following year.
Kent State Shooting
In 1970, a joint U.S-South Vietnamese operation invaded Cambodia, hoping to wipe out DRV supply bases there. The South Vietnamese then led their own invasion of Laos, which was pushed back by North Vietnam.
The invasion of these countries, in violation of international law, sparked a new wave of protests on college campuses across America. During one, on May 4, 1970, at Kent State University in Ohio, National Guardsmen shot and killed four students. At another protest 10 days later, two students at Jackson State University in Mississippi were killed by police.
By the end of June 1972, however, after a failed offensive into South Vietnam, Hanoi was finally willing to compromise. Kissinger and North Vietnamese representatives drafted a peace agreement by early fall, but leaders in Saigon rejected it, and in December Nixon authorized a number of bombing raids against targets in Hanoi and Haiphong. Known as the Christmas Bombings, the raids drew international condemnation. The Pentagon Papers
A top-secret Department of Defense study of U.S. political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967 was published in the New York Times in 1971—shedding light on how the Nixon administration ramped up conflict in Vietnam. The report, leaked to the Times by military analyst Daniel Ellsberg, further eroded support for keeping U.S. forces in Vietnam.
When Did the Vietnam War End?
In January 1973, the United States and North Vietnam concluded a final peace agreement, ending open hostilities between the two nations. War between North and South Vietnam continued, however, until April 30, 1975, when DRV forces captured Saigon, renaming it Ho Chi Minh City (Ho himself died in 1969).
More than two decades of violent conflict had inflicted a devastating toll on Vietnam’s population: After years of warfare, an estimated 2 million Vietnamese were killed, while 3 million were wounded and another 12 million became refugees. Warfare had demolished the country’s infrastructure and economy, and reconstruction proceeded slowly.
In 1976, Vietnam was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, though sporadic violence continued over the next 15 years, including conflicts with neighboring China and Cambodia. Under a broad free market policy put in place in 1986, the economy began to improve, boosted by oil export revenues and an influx of foreign capital. Trade and diplomatic relations between Vietnam and the U.S. resumed in the 1990s.
In the United States, the effects of the Vietnam War would linger long after the last troops returned home in 1973. The nation spent more than $120 billion on the conflict in Vietnam from 1965-73; this massive spending led to widespread inflation, exacerbated by a worldwide oil crisis in 1973 and skyrocketing fuel prices.
Psychologically, the effects ran even deeper. The war had pierced the myth of American invincibility and had bitterly divided the nation. Many returning veterans faced negative reactions from both opponents of the war (who viewed them as having killed innocent civilians) and its supporters (who saw them as having lost the war), along with physical damage including the effects of exposure to the toxic herbicide Agent Orange, millions of gallons of which had been dumped by U.S. planes on the dense forests of Vietnam.
In 1982, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial was unveiled in Washington, D.C. On it were inscribed the names of 57,939 American men and women killed or missing in the war; later additions brought that total to 58,200.The Vietnam War was a long, costly and divisive conflict that pitted the communist government of North Vietnam against South Vietnam and its principal ally, the United States. The conflict was intensified by the ongoing Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. More than 3 million people (including over 58,000 Americans) were killed in the Vietnam War, and more than half of the dead were Vietnamese civilians.
Opposition to the war in the United States bitterly divided Americans, even after President Richard Nixon signed the Paris Peace Accords and ordered the withdrawal of U.S. forces in 1973. Communist forces ended the war by seizing control of South Vietnam in 1975, and the country was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam the following year.
Roots of the Vietnam War
Vietnam, a nation in Southeast Asia on the eastern edge of the Indochinese peninsula, had been under French colonial rule since the 19th century.
During World War  II, Japan withdrew its forces from Vietnam, leaving the French-educated Emperor Bao Dai in control. Seeing an opportunity to seize control, Ho’s Viet Minh forces immediately rose up, taking over the northern city of Hanoi and declaring a Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) with Ho as president.
Seeking to regain control of the region, France backed Emperor Bao and set up the state of Vietnam in July 1949, with the city of Saigon as its capital.
Both sides wanted the same thing: a unified Vietnam. But while Ho and his supporters wanted a nation modeled after other communist countries, Bao and many others wanted a Vietnam with close economic and cultural ties to the West.
Did you know? According to a survey by the Veterans Administration, some 500,000 of the 3 million troops who served in Vietnam suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder, and rates of divorce, suicide, alcoholism and drug addiction were markedly higher among veterans.
When Did the Vietnam War Start?
The Vietnam War and active U.S. involvement in the war began in 1954, though ongoing conflict in the region had stretched back several decades.
After Ho’s communist forces took power in the north, armed conflict between northern and southern armies continued until the northern Viet Minh’s decisive victory in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954. The French loss at the battle ended almost a century of French colonial rule in Indochina.
The subsequent treaty signed in July 1954 at a Geneva conference split Vietnam along the latitude known as the 17th Parallel (17 degrees north latitude), with Ho in control in the North and Bao in the South. The treaty also called for nationwide elections for reunification to be held in 1956.
In 1955, however, the strongly anti-communist politician Ngo Dinh Diem pushed Emperor Bao aside to become president of the Government of the Republic of Vietnam (GVN), often referred to during that era as South Vietnam.
The Viet Cong
With the Cold War intensifying worldwide, the United States hardened its policies against any allies of the Soviet Union, and by 1955 President Dwight D. Eisenhower had pledged his firm support to Diem and South Vietnam.
With training and equipment from American military and the CIA, Diem’s security forces cracked down on Viet Minh sympathizers in the south, whom he derisively called Viet Cong (or Vietnamese Communist), arresting some 100,000 people, many of whom were brutally tortured and executed.
By 1957, the Viet Cong and other opponents of Diem’s repressive regime began fighting back with attacks on government officials and other targets, and by 1959 they had begun engaging the South Vietnamese army in firefights.
In December 1960, Diem’s many opponents within South Vietnam—both communist and non-communist—formed the National Liberation Front (NLF) to organize resistance to the regime. Though the NLF claimed to be autonomous and that most of its members were not communists, many in Washington assumed it was a puppet of Hanoi.
Domino Theory
A team sent by President John F. Kennedy in 1961 to report on conditions in South Vietnam advised a build-up of American military, economic and technical aid in order to help Diem confront the Viet Cong threat.
Working under the “domino theory,” which held that if one Southeast Asian country fell to communism, many other countries would follow, Kennedy increased U.S. aid, though he stopped short of committing to a large-scale military intervention.
By 1962, the U.S. military presence in South Vietnam had reached some 9,000 troops, compared with fewer than 800 during the 1950s.
Gulf of Tonkin
A coup by some of his own generals succeeded in toppling and killing Diem and his brother, Ngo Dinh Nhu, in November 1963, three weeks before Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas.
The ensuing political instability in South Vietnam persuaded Kennedy’s successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara to further increase U.S. military and economic support.
In August of 1964, after DRV torpedo boats attacked two U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin, Johnson ordered the retaliatory bombing of military targets in North Vietnam. Congress soon passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave Johnson broad war-making powers, and U.S. planes began regular bombing raids, codenamed Operation Rolling Thunder, the following year.
The bombing was not limited to Vietnam; from 1964-1973, the United States covertly dropped two million tons of bombs on neighboring, neutral Laos during the CIA-led “Secret War” in Laos. The bombing campaign was meant to disrupt the flow of supplies across the Ho Chi Minh trail into Vietnam and to prevent the rise of the Pathet Lao, or Lao communist forces. The  U.S. bombings made Laos the most heavily bombed country per capita in the world.
In March 1965, Johnson made the decision—with solid support from the American public—to send U.S. combat forces into battle in Vietnam. By June, 82,000 combat troops were stationed in Vietnam, and military leaders were calling for 175,000 more by the end of 1965 to shore up the struggling South Vietnamese army.
Despite the concerns of some of his advisers about this escalation, and about the entire war effort amid a growing anti-war movement, Johnson authorized the immediate dispatch of 100,000 troops at the end of July 1965 and another 100,000 in 1966. In addition to the United States, South Korea, Thailand, Australia and New Zealand also committed troops to fight in South Vietnam (albeit on a much smaller scale).
William Westmoreland
In contrast to the air attacks on North Vietnam, the U.S.-South Vietnamese war effort in the south was fought primarily on the ground, largely under the command of General William Westmoreland, in coordination with the government of General Nguyen Van Thieu in Saigon.
Westmoreland pursued a policy of attrition, aiming to kill as many enemy troops as possible rather than trying to secure territory. By 1966, large areas of South Vietnam had been designated as “free-fire zones,” from which all innocent civilians were supposed to have evacuated and only enemy remained. Heavy bombing by B-52 aircraft or shelling made these zones uninhabitable, as refugees poured into camps in designated safe areas near Saigon and other cities.
Even as the enemy body count (at times exaggerated by U.S. and South Vietnamese authorities) mounted steadily, DRV and Viet Cong troops refused to stop fighting, encouraged by the fact that they could easily reoccupy lost territory with manpower and supplies delivered via the Ho Chi Minh Trail through Cambodia and Laos. Additionally, supported by aid from China and the Soviet Union, North Vietnam strengthened its air defenses.
Vietnam War Protests
By November 1967, the number of American troops in Vietnam was approaching 500,000, and U.S. casualties had reached 15,058 killed and 109,527 wounded. As the war stretched on, some soldiers came to mistrust the government’s reasons for keeping them there, as well as Washington’s repeated claims that the war was being won.
The later years of the war saw increased physical and psychological deterioration among American soldiers—both volunteers and draftees—including drug use, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), mutinies and attacks by soldiers against officers and noncommissioned officers.
Between July 1966 and December 1973, more than 503,000 U.S. military personnel deserted, and a robust anti-war movement among American forces spawned violent protests, killings and mass incarcerations of personnel stationed in Vietnam as well as within the United States.
Bombarded by horrific images of the war on their televisions, Americans on the home front turned against the war as well: In October 1967, some 35,000 demonstrators staged a massive Vietnam War protest outside the Pentagon. Opponents of the war argued that civilians, not enemy combatants, were the primary victims and that the United States was supporting a corrupt dictatorship in Saigon.
Tet Offensive
By the end of 1967, Hanoi’s communist leadership was growing impatient as well, and sought to strike a decisive blow aimed at forcing the better-supplied United States to give up hopes of success.
On January 31, 1968, some 70,000 DRV forces under General Vo Nguyen Giap launched the Tet Offensive (named for the lunar new year), a coordinated series of fierce attacks on more than 100 cities and towns in South Vietnam.
Taken by surprise, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces nonetheless managed to strike back quickly, and the communists were unable to hold any of the targets for more than a day or two.
Reports of the Tet Offensive stunned the U.S. public, however, especially after news broke that Westmoreland had requested an additional 200,000 troops, despite repeated assurances that victory in the Vietnam War was imminent. With his approval ratings dropping in an election year, Johnson called a halt to bombing in much of North Vietnam (though bombings continued in the south) and promised to dedicate the rest of his term to seeking peace rather than reelection.
Johnson’s new tack, laid out in a March 1968 speech, met with a positive response from Hanoi, and peace talks between the U.S. and North Vietnam opened in Paris that May. Despite the later inclusion of the South Vietnamese and the NLF, the dialogue soon reached an impasse, and after a bitter 1968 election season marred by violence, Republican Richard M. Nixon won the presidency.
Vietnamization
Nixon sought to deflate the anti-war movement by appealing to a “silent majority” of Americans who he believed supported the war effort. In an attempt to limit the volume of American casualties, he announced a program called Vietnamization: withdrawing U.S. troops, increasing aerial and artillery bombardment and giving the South Vietnamese the training and weapons needed to effectively control the ground war.
In addition to this Vietnamization policy, Nixon continued public peace talks in Paris, adding higher-level secret talks conducted by Secretary of State Henry Kissinger beginning in the spring of 1968.
The North Vietnamese continued to insist on complete and unconditional U.S. withdrawal—plus the ouster of U.S.-backed General Nguyen Van Thieu—as conditions of peace, however, and as a result the peace talks stalled. My Lai Massacre
The next few years would bring even more carnage, including the horrifying revelation that U.S. soldiers had mercilessly slaughtered more than 400 unarmed civilians in the village of My Lai in March 1968.
After the My Lai Massacre, anti-war protests continued to build as the conflict wore on. In 1968 and 1969, there were hundreds of protest marches and gatherings throughout the country.
On November 15, 1969, the largest anti-war demonstration in American history took place in Washington, D.C., as over 250,000 Americans gathered peacefully, calling for withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam.
The anti-war movement, which was particularly strong on college campuses, divided Americans bitterly. For some young people, the war symbolized a form of unchecked authority they had come to resent. For other Americans, opposing the government was considered unpatriotic and treasonous.
As the first U.S. troops were withdrawn, those who remained became increasingly angry and frustrated, exacerbating problems with morale and leadership. Tens of thousands of soldiers received dishonorable discharges for desertion, and about 500,000 American men from 1965-73 became “draft dodgers,” with many fleeing to Canada to evade conscription. Nixon ended draft calls in 1972, and instituted an all-volunteer army the following year.
Kent State Shooting
In 1970, a joint U.S-South Vietnamese operation invaded Cambodia, hoping to wipe out DRV supply bases there. The South Vietnamese then led their own invasion of Laos, which was pushed back by North Vietnam.
The invasion of these countries, in violation of international law, sparked a new wave of protests on college campuses across America. During one, on May 4, 1970, at Kent State University in Ohio, National Guardsmen shot and killed four students. At another protest 10 days later, two students at Jackson State University in Mississippi were killed by police.
By the end of June 1972, however, after a failed offensive into South Vietnam, Hanoi was finally willing to compromise. Kissinger and North Vietnamese representatives drafted a peace agreement by early fall, but leaders in Saigon rejected it, and in December Nixon authorized a number of bombing raids against targets in Hanoi and Haiphong. Known as the Christmas Bombings, the raids drew international condemnation. The Pentagon Papers
A top-secret Department of Defense study of U.S. political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967 was published in the New York Times in 1971—shedding light on how the Nixon administration ramped up conflict in Vietnam. The report, leaked to the Times by military analyst Daniel Ellsberg, further eroded support for keeping U.S. forces in Vietnam.
When Did the Vietnam War End?
In January 1973, the United States and North Vietnam concluded a final peace agreement, ending open hostilities between the two nations. War between North and South Vietnam continued, however, until April 30, 1975, when DRV forces captured Saigon, renaming it Ho Chi Minh City (Ho himself died in 1969).
More than two decades of violent conflict had inflicted a devastating toll on Vietnam’s population: After years of warfare, an estimated 2 million Vietnamese were killed, while 3 million were wounded and another 12 million became refugees. Warfare had demolished the country’s infrastructure and economy, and reconstruction proceeded slowly.
In 1976, Vietnam was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, though sporadic violence continued over the next 15 years, including conflicts with neighboring China and Cambodia. Under a broad free market policy put in place in 1986, the economy began to improve, boosted by oil export revenues and an influx of foreign capital. Trade and diplomatic relations between Vietnam and the U.S. resumed in the 1990s.
In the United States, the effects of the Vietnam War would linger long after the last troops returned home in 1973. The nation spent more than $120 billion on the conflict in Vietnam from 1965-73; this massive spending led to widespread inflation, exacerbated by a worldwide oil crisis in 1973 and skyrocketing fuel prices.
Psychologically, the effects ran even deeper. The war had pierced the myth of American invincibility and had bitterly divided the nation. Many returning veterans faced negative reactions from both opponents of the war (who viewed them as having killed innocent civilians) and its supporters (who saw them as having lost the war), along with physical damage including the effects of exposure to the toxic herbicide Agent Orange, millions of gallons of which had been dumped by U.S. planes on the dense forests of Vietnam.
In 1982, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial was unveiled in Washington, D.C. On it were inscribed the names of 57,939 American men and women killed or missing in the war; later additions brought that total to 58,200.

Summary :
The Vietnam War was a long,costly, and divisive conflict that pitted the
communist government of North Vietnam against South Vietnam and its principall ally,the United States.Communist forces ended the war by seizing control of South Vietnam in 1975,and the country was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam the following year.Roots of the Vietnam War : Vietnam, a nation in Southeast Asia on the eastern edge of the Indochinese peninsula,had been under French colonial rule since the 19th Century.In 1955 the strongly anti communist politician Ngo Dinh Diem pushed Emperor Bao aside to become president of the Government of the Republic of Vietnam,often referred to during that era as South Vietnam.Vietnam War Protests by November 1967,the number of American troops in Vietnam was approaching 500,000, and U.S. casualties had reached 15,058 killed and 109,527 wounded.The Pentagon Papers A top-secret Department of Defense study of U.S. political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967 was published in the New York Times in 1971-shedding light on how the Nixon administration ramped up conflict in Vietnam.In 1976, Vietnam was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, though sporadic violence continued over the next 15 years, including conflicts with neighboring China and Cambodia.

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The Chinese Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution (which means Metal Pig in the Chinese calendar), was a series of events that took place from 10 October 1911 with the Wuchang Uprising led by Sun Yat-sen of the nationalist Tongmenghui movement, and ended with the abdication of Puyi, emperor  the last of the Qing Dynasty on 12 February 1912. This revolution occurred because of the failure of the Qing Dynasty in modernizing and dispelling foreign influences in China.
After the dissolution of the Qing Dynasty, a provisional government of the Republic of China was formed with Sun Yat-sen as its first president.  However, Sun Yat-sen had to compromise with Yuan Shikai as the strongest warlord in China at that time, and the government was gradually controlled by Yuan Shikai who was unable to lead effectively and China was plunged into a period of civil war, first between the warlords,  and then between the Kuomintang (nationalist party) and Gongchangdang (communist party).

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The French Revolution was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are considered fundamental principles of liberal democracy, while phrases like liberté, égalité, fraternité reappeared in other revolts, such as the 1917 Russian Revolution, and inspired campaigns for the abolition of slavery and universal suffrage. The values and institutions it created dominate French politics to this day.

Its causes are generally agreed to be a combination of social, political and economic factors, which the existing regime proved unable to manage. In May 1789, widespread social distress led to the convocation of the Estates General, which was converted into a National Assembly in June. Continuing unrest culminated in the Storming of the Bastille on 14 July, which led to a series of radical measures by the Assembly, including the abolition of feudalism, the imposition of state control over the Catholic Church in France, and extension of the right to vote.

The next three years were dominated by the struggle for political control, exacerbated by economic depression and Civil disorder. Opposition from external powers like Austria, Britain, and Prussia resulted in the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in April 1792. Disillusionment with Louis XVI led to the establishment of the French First Republic on 22 September 1792, followed by his execution in January 1793. In June, an uprising in Paris replaced the Girondins who dominated the National Assembly with the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Maximilien Robespierre.

This sparked the Reign of Terror, an attempt to eradicate alleged "counter-revolutionaries", by the time it ended in July 1794, over 16,600 had been executed in Paris and the provinces. As well as its external enemies, the Republic faced internal opposition from both Royalists and Jacobins and in order to deal with these threats, the French Directory took power in November 1795. Despite a series of military victories, many won by Napoleon Bonaparte, political divisions and economic stagnation resulted in the Directory being replaced by the Consulate in November 1799. This is generally seen as marking the end of the Revolutionary period.

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Chinese troops storm through Tiananmen Square in the center of Beijing, killing and arresting thousands of pro-democracy protesters. The brutal Chinese government assault on the protesters shocked the West and brought denunciations and sanctions from the United States.

In May 1989, nearly a million Chinese, mostly young students, crowded into central Beijing to protest for greater democracy and call for the resignations of Chinese Communist Party leaders deemed too repressive. For nearly three weeks, the protesters kept up daily vigils, and marched and chanted. Western reporters captured much of the drama for television and newspaper audiences in the United States and Europe.

On June 4, 1989, however, Chinese troops and security police stormed through Tiananmen Square, firing indiscriminately into the crowds of protesters. Turmoil ensued, as tens of thousands of the young students tried to escape the rampaging Chinese forces. Other protesters fought back, stoning the attacking troops and overturning and setting fire to military vehicles. Reporters and Western diplomats on the scene estimated that at least 300, and perhaps thousands, of the protesters had been killed and as many as 10,000 were arrested.

The savagery of the Chinese government’s attack shocked both its allies and Cold War enemies. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev declared that he was saddened by the events in China. He said he hoped that the government would adopt his own domestic reform program and begin to democratize the Chinese political system.

In the United States, editorialists and members of Congress denounced the Tiananmen Square massacre and pressed for President George Bush to punish the Chinese government. A little more than three weeks later, the U.S. Congress voted to impose economic sanctions against the People’s Republic of China in response to the brutal violation of human rights.

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The Medical Revolution is one of the most idealized and glorified events, Esther Kanipe and supported by Emerson's grant, analyzes the often overlooked hierarchy that the Revolution has changed forever : the French medical system. Like the French government at the time, the medical system was organized in an ancient and inefficient way before the French Revolution.“The ideals of the Enlightenment and the Revolution inspired France to destroy old medical institutions, while war created an urgent need to rebuild them,” explains Brandon.

The secular and national clinical system that emerged in the early years of the 19th century reflected Revolutionary ideals, emphasizing rationalism and empiricism. “Clinics are creating new spaces where they can observe patients and pay more attention to the body, Modern systems have another far-reaching effect. Patients became separated based on the type of illness in the hospital because the concept of infectious disease was beginning to be understood, and doctors were no longer general practitioners but special types of doctors or surgeons. "All of this contributes to a more systematic system of hospitals and medical schools," Brandon said. It is because of these changes in infrastructure, Brandon asserts, that technological advances are made and modern medical systems can thrive.

The history of medicine shows how societies have changed in their approach to illness and disease from ancient times to the present. Early medical traditions include the Babylonians, Chinese, Egyptians and Indians. The Hippocratic Oath was written in ancient Greece in the 5th century BC, and is the direct inspiration for the oath of office sworn by doctors upon entering the profession today.

In the middle ages, surgical practices inherited from ancient masters were improved and later systematized in Rogerius' The Practice of Surgery. The invention of the microscope is a consequence of increased understanding, during the Renaissance. Prior to the 19th century, humorism (also known as humoralism) was thought to explain the causes of disease but was gradually replaced by the germ theory of disease, leading to effective treatments and even cures for many infectious diseases.

Military doctors developed methods of treating trauma and surgery. Public health measures were developed mainly in the 19th century because the rapid growth of cities required systematic sanitation measures. Advanced research centers opened in the early 20th century, often connected to major hospitals. The mid-20th century was marked by new biological treatments, such as antibiotics. These advances, along with developments in chemistry, genetics, and radiography led to modern medicine. Medicine was highly professionalized in the 20th century, and new careers opened up for women as nurses (from the 1870s) and as doctors (especially after the 1970s).

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The historical effects of the colonial period remain for centuries, crossing all the continents of the world. Since the 16th century, several major European countries established colonies on the continents of Africa, Asia, and America.

Spain and Portugal were the first "Colonial Emperors", followed by Britain, France, the Netherlands, Russia, and finally by Belgium, Germany and Italy. The era of colonialism resulted in world division and exploitation in third world countries.

On many continents, colonialism led to changes in culture, language, society, and economy. This event also led to the deaths of millions of people, especially when European countries massacred the natives, mostly through private companies with the blessing of their kings on missions of "civilization".

Anti-colonial movements surged after the two world wars, and many of the colonies eventually gained their independence. But the colonial period did not officially end until Portugal ceded Macau to China in 1999.

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Constantinople was founded by the Roman Emperor Constantine I, formerly Byzentium. A city famous for its luxury with the prosperity of the eastern Mediterranean and West Asia flowing into Constantinople and also had a strong defense.
Constantine's three sons, Konstan, Konstantin, and Constantius, appointed themselves as Augustus, and divided their own territories when Constantine (the Roman emperor) died. However, this division caused friction between the three of them, which eventually ended because Konstantin and Konstan died. In those years, Constantius became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire.
The battle of the Muslim troops to the City of Constantinople which lasted from April 6, 1453 to May 29, 1453, and during the war was very heavy, in fact, the Muslim troops themselves were overwhelmed and ran out of war ammunition at that time. Muhammad Al-Fatih almost ran out of ideas again when he conquered Constantinople, until finally Muhammad Al-Fatih ordered his troops to raise their warships to the mainland using oil as a lubricant, to shoot the strong walls of Constantinople using cannons on the warship, and finally managed to collapse.
The fall of Constantinople had an impact on weakened Christian dominance, changes in trade routes, and slavery of the local population. The fall of Constantinople was an important event that marked the end of the Middle Ages.

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Pearl Harbor is a U.S. naval base near Honolulu, Hawaii, that was the scene of a devastating surprise attack by Japanese forces on December 7, 1941. On that day was supposed to be a day of rest for the military servicemen at the Pearl Harbor Hawaiian naval base on the island of Oahu. But at 07:55, Japanese warplanes launched without warning and attacked the United States Pacific fleet, or naval vessels, moored in the harbor. Thousands of lives will be lost that day. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, commander in chief of the Japanese naval forces and architect of the Pearl Harbor attack, didn’t want a fight with America. Yamamoto wanted to take over certain countries in southeastern Asia and use their oil to help fuel Japan’s military vehicles and naval fleet. By destroying the U.S. military presence in the region, the countries Japan wanted to target would be left vulnerable.

At dawn on December 7, 350 planes launched in two waves from Japan’s ships. The bombers dropped bombs on American warships below, while the fighter planes targeted the U.S. aircraft on the ground so they couldn’t fight back. Following both attacks, 19 U.S. naval vessels were sunk or damaged; 188 aircraft were destroyed. In all, 2,280 servicemen and women were killed, 1,109 were wounded. Sixty-eight civilians—people who are not in the military—also lost their lives. The attack lasted just under two hours. Repair crews went to work on the ships. The day after the attack, the United States declared war on Japan, officially entering World War II. The United States and its allies—Britain, France, and Russia, among other countries—eventually won the war, defeating Japan and its allies, Germany and Italy.

In 1958 Dwight D. Eisenhower approved the creation of the USS Arizona Memorial to commemorate the military personnel who died in the Pearl Harbor attack.The Pearl Harbor National Monument is built on the water above the wreckage of the U.S.S.

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The United States detonated two nuclear weapons over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August 1945, respectively. The two bombings killed between 129,000 and 226,000 people, most of whom were civilians, and remain the only use of nuclear weapons in armed conflict. In the final year of World War II, the Allies prepared for a costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. The consent of the United Kingdom was obtained for the bombing, as was required by the Quebec Agreement, and orders were issued on 25 July by General Thomas Handy, the acting Chief of Staff of the United States Army, for atomic bombs to be used against Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata, and Nagasaki. These targets were chosen because they were large urban areas that also held militarily significant facilities. On 6 August, a Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima, to which Prime Minister Suzuki reiterated the Japanese government's commitment to ignore the Allies' demands and fight on. Three days later, a Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki. Over the next two to four months, the effects of the atomic bombings killed between 90,000 and 146,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000 and 80,000 people in Nagasaki; roughly half occurred on the first day. For months afterward, large numbers of people continued to die from the effects of burns, radiation sickness, and injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition.  Japan surrendered to the Allies on 15 August, six days after the Soviet Union's declaration of war and the bombing of Nagasaki. The Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender on 2 September, effectively ending the war. Scholars have extensively studied the effects of the bombings on the social and political character of subsequent world history and popular culture, and there is still much debate concerning the ethical and legal justification for the bombings. Supporters believe that the atomic bombings were necessary to bring a swift end to the war with minimal casualties, while critics dispute how the Japanese government was brought to surrender, while highlighting the moral and ethical implications of nuclear weapons and the deaths caused to civilians.

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While the earliest known historical records of Singapore are shrouded in time, a third century Chinese account describes it as "Pu-luo-chung", referring to "Pulau Ujong" which means the "island at the end of a peninsula" in the Malay language. Later, the city was known as Temasek ("Sea Town"), when the first settlements were established from AD 1298-1299. During the 14th century the island got a new name after a prince was hunting on the island and saw an animal he had never seen before.  He later founded a city there and named it "The Lion City" or Singapore, from the Sanskrit words "simha" (lion) and "pura" (city).

The city was then ruled by the five kings of ancient Singapura. Because of its location at a strategic sea lane intersection. the city flourished as a trading post for vessels. Modern Singapore was founded in the 19th century, thanks to politics, trade and a man known as Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles. During this time, the British empire was eyeing a port of call in this region to base its merchant fleet, and to forestall any advance made by the Dutch. Singapore, already an up-and-coming trading post along the Malacca Straits, seemed ideal.

Raffles, then the Lieutenant-Governor of Bencoolen/Bengkulu in Sumatra, landed in Singapore on 29 January 1819. Recognising the immense potential of the swamp-covered island, he helped negotiate a treaty with the local rulers and established Singapore as a trading station. The city quickly grew as an entrepot trade hub, attracting immigrants from China, India, the Malay Archipelago and beyond.

In 1822, Raffles implemented the Raffles Town Plan, also known as the Jackson Plan, to address the issue of growing disorderliness in the colony. Ethnic residential areas were segregated into four areas European area and rich people, Chinese ethnic area, Indian ethnic area, and Malay ethnic area with Muslim people from various countries. Singapore continued to develop as a trading post, with the establishment of several key banks, commercial associations and Chambers of Commerce. In 1924, a causeway opened linking the northern part of Singapore to Johor Bahru.

Singapore’s prosperity suffered a major blow during World War II, when it was attacked by the Japanese on 8 December 1941. The invaders arrived from the north, confounding the British military commanders who had expected an attack by sea from the south. Despite their superior numbers, the Allied forces surrendered to the Japanese on Chinese New Year 15 February 1942. It was the largest surrender of British-led forces in history. The island, once feted as an “impregnable fortress”, was renamed Syonan-to (or “Light of the South Island” in Japanese). When the Japanese surrendered in 1945, the island was handed over to the British Military Administration, which remained in power until the dissolution of the Straits Settlement comprising Penang, Melaka and Singapore. In April 1946, Singapore became a British Crown Colony.

In 1959, the growth of nationalism led to self-government, and the country’s first general election and Lee Kuan Yew became the first prime minister of Singapore. In 1963, Malaysia was formed, comprising of the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo (Sabah). The move was meant to foster closer ties. However, Singapore’s merger proved unsuccessful, and less than two years later on 9 August 1965, it left Malaysia to become an independent and sovereign democratic nation.

Today, many slices of Singapore’s multi-cultural, colonial and wartime past are preserved in and around the city. We can visit monuments, museums and memorials, or for a real trip through time, take a walk along a heritage trail.

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The Black Death was a devastating global epidemic of bubonic plague that
struck Europe and Asia in the mid-1300s. The plague arrived in Europe in
October 1347, when 12 ships from the Black Sea docked at the Sicilian port of
Messina. People gathered on the docks were met with a horrifying surprise:
Most sailors aboard the ships were dead, and those still alive were gravely ill
and covered in black boils that oozed blood and pus. Sicilian authorities hastily
ordered the fleet of “death ships” out of the harbor, but it was too late: Over the
next five years, the Black Death would kill more than 20 million people in
Europe—almost one-third of the continent’s population.
How Did the Black Plague Start?
Even before the “death ships” pulled into port at Messina, many Europeans had
heard rumors about a “Great Pestilence” that was carving a deadly path across
the trade routes of the Near and Far East. Indeed, in the early 1340s, the disease
had struck China, India, Persia, Syria and Egypt.
he plague is thought to have originated in Asia over 2,000 years ago and was
likely spread by trading ships, though recent research has indicated the
pathogen responsible for the Black Death may have existed in Europe as early
as 3000 B.C.
Symptoms of the Black Plague
Europeans were scarcely equipped for the horrible reality of the Black Death.
“In men and women alike,” the Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio wrote, “at the
beginning of the malady, certain swellings, either on the groin or under the
armpits…waxed to the bigness of a common apple, others to the size of an egg,
some more and some less, and these the vulgar named plague-boils.”
Blood and pus seeped out of these strange swellings, which were followed by a
host of other unpleasant symptoms—fever, chills, vomiting, diarrhea, terrible
aches and pains—and then, in short order, death.
The Bubonic Plague attacks the lymphatic system, causing swelling in the
lymph nodes. If untreated, the infection can spread to the blood or lungs.
How Did the Black Death Spread?
The Black Death was terrifyingly, indiscriminately contagious: “the mere
touching of the clothes,” wrote Boccaccio, “appeared to itself to communicate
the malady to the toucher.” The disease was also terrifyingly efficient. People
who were perfectly healthy when they went to bed at night could be dead by
morning.
Understanding the Black Death
Today, scientists understand that the Black Death, now known as the plague, is
spread by a bacillus called Yersinia pestis. (The French biologist Alexandre
Yersin discovered this germ at the end of the 19th century.)
They know that the bacillus travels from person to person through the air, as
well as through the bite of infected fleas and rats. Both of these pests could be
found almost everywhere in medieval Europe, but they were particularly at
home aboard ships of all kinds—which is how the deadly plague made its way
through one European port city after another.
Not long after it struck Messina, the Black Death spread to the port of
Marseilles in France and the port of Tunis in North Africa. Then it reached
Rome and Florence, two cities at the center of an elaborate web of trade routes.
By the middle of 1348, the Black Death had struck Paris, Bordeaux, Lyon and
London.

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November 9, 2009, marks the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. It was an event that led to the collapse of Communism all over Eastern Europe.
The Berlin Wall was a barrier that separated East and West Germany and also split Berlin into two parts. At the end of World War II Germany was divided into four zones that were controlled by the Allies: Great Britain, France, the United States and the Soviet Union. After the war, Communist influence spread throughout Eastern Europe and in 1949 the three western powers put their zones together to form West Germany. The Soviet Union created East Germany. Although Berlin was completely inside the Soviet zone it was also divided into a democratic West Berlin and a communist East Berlin.
In 1961 the Communist Party of East Germany constructed a 150 km long wall that led through the city. In the following decades, the wall became a symbol of the Iron Curtain – the line that separated free Europe from the communist satellite states.
On November 9, 1989, the Communist government in East Germany announced that East German citizens could travel to the west without restrictions. At once thousands began to gather at the Brandenburg Gate to celebrate a historic moment. East Berliners stormed through the gate to catch their first glimpse of freedom. During the next few weeks, the wall was torn down.
Almost a year later, in October 1990 East and West Germany reunited and became one country again.

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The American Revolutionary War, which happened on April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783, also known as the American War of Independence, secured a United States of America independent from Great Britain. Fighting began on April 19, 1775, followed by the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The American Patriots were supported by France and Spain, conflict taking place in North America, the Caribbean, and Atlantic Ocean. It ended on September 3, 1783 when Britain accepted American independence in the Treaty of Paris, while the Treaties of Versailles resolved separate conflicts with France and Spain. Established by Royal charter in the 17th and 18th centuries, the American colonies were largely autonomous in domestic affairs and commercially prosperous, trading with Britain and its Caribbean colonies, as well as other European powers via their Caribbean entrepôts. Established on September 5, 1774, the First Continental Congress drafted a Petition to the King and organized a boycott of British goods. Following the loss of Boston in March 1776, Sir William Howe, the new British commander-in-chief, launched the New York and New Jersey campaign. France provided the US informal economic and military support from the beginning of the rebellion, and after Saratoga the two countries signed a commercial agreement and a Treaty of Alliance in February 1778. This undermined the 1778 strategy devised by Howe's replacement, Sir Henry Clinton, which took the war into the Southern United States. Despite some initial success, by September 1781 Cornwallis was besieged by a Franco-American force in Yorktown. After an attempt to resupply the garrison failed, Cornwallis surrendered in October, and although the British wars with France and Spain continued for another two years, this ended fighting in North America. In April 1782, the North ministry was replaced by a new British government which accepted American independence and began negotiating the Treaty of Paris, ratified on September 3, 1783.

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Deepwater Horizon – BP Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill

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Deepwater Horizon – BP Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill

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On April 20, 2010, the oil drilling rig Deepwater Horizon, operating in the Macondo Prospect in the Gulf of Mexico, exploded and sank resulting in the death of 11 workers on the Deepwater Horizon and the largest spill of oil in the history of marine oil drilling operations.  4 million barrels of oil flowed from the damaged Macondo well over an 87-day period, before it was finally capped on July 15, 2010.  On December 15, 2010, the United States filed a complaint in District Court against BP Exploration & Production and several other defendants alleged to be responsible for the spill.

This webpage provides information and materials on EPA’s enforcement response to the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, settlements with several of the defendants, including the record-setting settlement with BP Exploration & Production for an unprecedented $5.5 billion Clean Water Act penalty and up to $8.8 billion in natural resource damages.

This webpage is limited to EPA’s enforcement-related activities only, and does not cover all legal or other actions against BP Exploration & Production and other parties for the spill, such as private party/class action settlements for medical claims and economic damages, or other actions against those responsible for the spill.  The U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana has established the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill website for this purpose.  In addition, links for additional information on the spill, cleanup activities and other responses are provided below.

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Renaissance is a major change movement that occurred in Europe after the Middle Ages in the 14th century until the 17th century. Renaissance means being born again. This change originated in Italy and then spread to Europe. The main characteristics of the Renaissance are humanism, empiricism, and rationalism.
The development of the notion that science must be based on religion in the Middle Ages or the Dark Ages that occurred after the 4th century Roman Empire collapsed. The existence of the domination of the church is detrimental to society, in the end the thinkers seek knowledge to be free from the power of the church. In addition, Europe with a closed economic system makes the economy only controlled by the ruling class. As a result, people's lives are limited. Both events are called the Renaissance.
Renaissance based on the science of expertise, namely, arts and culture, ocean exploration, and the field of science. The Renaissance is also often referred to as a cultural movement that greatly influenced European intellectual life in early modern times. Renaissance figures, namely Leonardo Da Vinci and Christopher Columbus, have expertise in ocean exploration, science and technology, namely Nicolaus Copernicus, Petrarch, Johanner Kepler and Galileo Galilei.
The influence of the Renaissance brought major changes in human life in all fields. The impact in Indonesia was the western invasion, for example the printing press, firearms and the compass.

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In May 1588 Spain was the most powerful country in the world. King Philip II of Spain  was determined to conquer England and become its King. He ordered a large number of ships to be prepared to set sail and invade England. At first Queen Elizabeth I ignored the rumours of a Spanish invasion, but soon she came to realise the great danger the country was in and she made sure that England would be prepared for a battle. Eventually the Spanish were ready and over 100 ships set sail towards the English Channel.

As soon as the Spanish ships were seen from the English coast, fires were lit on the hills as a signal that the invasion was coming. When the Spanish ships got close enough the English navy closed in and a great sea battle began. Once the battle began it was obvious to the Spanish that they would be defeated. Not only did the English sailors have stronger and more powerful ships, they also made terrifying use of fire ships – boats that were deliberately set ablaze and then sent in amongst the Spanish fleet.

At last the battle was over. A few Spanish ships escaped and eventually reached home, but many were sunk and to this day some of their wrecks still lie on the seabed in the English Channel.

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The sinking of the Sewol ferry (also called The Sewol ferry disaster) is one of the biggest and deadliest ferry disasters in South Korean history since 14 December 1970. Most of the victims are students from Dawon High School in Ansan City. The Sewol ferry disaster, occurred on the morning of 16 April 2014, when the ferry MV Sewol was en route from Incheon towards Jeju in South Korea.

During one of the first emergency calls from the M.V. Sewol, at 8:52 a.m., an operator asked a passenger for the ship’s location. The passenger told the operator that he does not know the exact location. It’s a large, sinking vessel in the middle of an open body of water—difficult to place but hard to miss. Minutes later, an announcement goes out over the intercom: “Please don’t move. Stay put,” a woman’s voice says. “And stand by.”

Just after 9:20 a.m., a transportation official urges the captain to make a decision on
whether to begin evacuation procedures. Reports would later show that the captain would wait another ten minutes to deliver the command to evacuate. Most survivors did not recall hearing any such command, and the absence of an orderly and structured escape plan multiplied the losses.

Nearly an hour after the first emergency calls, the captain jumped a railing, landed on a patrol boat, and abandoned the ship. More than a hundred passengers were still sheltering in place onboard. A hundred and seventy-two passengers and crew survived the disaster; three hundred and four died in the sinking, most of them high-school students on a class trip.

The sinking of The Sewol ferry is proof that negligence in carrying out duties,
miscommunication, and escape from responsibilities can result in something very fatal. This tragedy continues to imprint in the history of South Korean shipping and in the memory of the families of the victims.

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World War II began on September 1, 1939, when Germany attacked the western side of Poland. At that time Germany was led by Adolf Hitler. The attack sparked the British and French declarations of war on Germany. Two days later, Britain declared war on Germany. This later became the cause of World War II began.

In 1944, the strength of the Axis countries did experience a setback which made them weaker. Knowing Germany was on the verge of defeat, Hitler chose to commit suicide on April 30, 1945 along with his wife Eva Braun.

On May 8, 1945, Germany was conquered by the allied forces and declared surrender. Germany’s defeat triggered the defeat of other members of the axis bloc. The United States dropped atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August 1945. These events made Japan surrender on August 15, 1945. World War II ended with the defeat of the Axis Powers.

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The 1918 influenza pandemic was the most severe pandemic in recent history. It was caused by an H1N1 virus with genes of avian origin. Although there is not universal consensus regarding where the virus originated, it spread worldwide during 1918-1919. In the United States, it was first identified in military personnel in spring 1918. It is estimated that about 500 million people or one-third of the world’s population became infected with this virus. The number of deaths was estimated to be at least 50 million worldwide with about 675,000 occurring in the United States.
Mortality was high in people younger than 5 years old, 20-40 years old, and 65 years and older. The high mortality in healthy people, including those in the 20-40 year age group, was a unique feature of this pandemic. While the 1918 H1N1 virus has been synthesized and evaluated, the properties that made it so devastating are not well understood. With no vaccine to protect against influenza infection and no antibiotics to treat secondary bacterial infections that can be associated with influenza infections, control efforts worldwide were limited to non-pharmaceutical interventions such as isolation, quarantine, good personal hygiene, use of disinfectants, and limitations of public gatherings, which were applied unevenly.