# data[].attributes.body
This exhibit aims to explore the creation and evolution of illuminated manuscripts in Europe in the middle ages, walking through the elements of their creation, including scripts, page layouts, and illumination. Viewers will learn the evolution and standardization of medieval scripts, witness some snapshots of the modernization of page layout, and hopefully walk away with the sense that medieval manuscripts are closer to our own modern design choices than one might think. Even as primitive as they may seem to us, the design choices made my medieval Europeans in their manuscripts were informed and made for specific cultural reasons, just as we make our own design choices today

# data[].attributes.body
The scripts of the medieval era are the backbone, of course, of illuminated manuscripts, and the lack of a centralized Latin dialect in Europe meant that the way words were written varied wildly. Lack of literacy in much of medieval Europe, especially in the early centuries, meant there was very little motivation for language, and thus the scripts used to write it, to be regulated and organized. However, over time such a demand began to creep in, and this section explores the different ways in which these scripts were standardized, each to different audiences with different stylistic tastes.

# data[].attributes.body
The development of the Carolingian miniscule was a critical element in the standardization of manuscript production during the middle ages—never before had a script been so clear and efficient in its legibility. Note the consistent shapes of the letters, rigidly aligned and written with an attention to detail rarely seen prior to this script’s introduction. The script also features a relatively short height, allowing the “ascenders” such as in the letters “b” or “h”, and the “descenders” in letters like “y” or “g”, to stand out with remarkable clarity, further enhancing the script’s legibility.

# data[].attributes.body
Despite the Carolingian minuscule’s evident usefulness and clarity, it was not universally adopted outside of Carolingian rule due to dominance of other native scripts. Still, its effect was felt strongly throughout most of western Europe and several of its conventions were adopted into other scripts, such as this Winchester miniscule. Though clearly different in its height, letter spacing, and writing technique, there are many elements of this script which draw from the Carolingian minuscule’s influence. The tall ascenders and descenders appear in this script, and a similar variation of line weight is used to make letters easier to read.

# data[].attributes.body
This example of the Irish half-unical from the Lindisfarne Gospels represents an early example of scribes breaking from the traditional Roman unical script, and it stands as a precursor to the legibility of the Carolinigan miniscule. These letters utilize a surprisingly modern lower-case form (except for the letter “r”), and the thick vertical strokes contrast the thin horizontal strokes, giving the letters a sense of strength and steadiness. Unlike the later Carolingian and Winchester miniscules, this script still is written in lines with no spaces, although there is some hint of separation between words in some places.

# data[].attributes.body
This Rotunda script is an example of a script being borne out of the unique tastes of a local group. During this time, Gothic scripts like the Bâtarde were the most popular among manuscript manufacturers, although the influence of softer scripts like the Carolingian miniscule still remained strong in certain places, such as Milan. This Rotunda is a sort of hybrid between the two, giving the popular Gothic scripts of the day a more rounded, Carolingian appearance, which both catered to the local tastes in Italy but also enhanced the legibility of the expressive, bold Gothic scripts.

# data[].attributes.body
The Bâtarde script is a highly stylized cursive script commonly used for manuscripts of wealthy patrons—it originated in Burgundy as a script for the ruling court. Throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, its influence expanded, and it became the standard for luxurious scripts in romances and novels. The script utilizes a bold, expressive stroke which somewhat mirrors the angular points also featured in gothic architecture of the time. The artistic nature of this script sacrifices legibility, thus making it more desirable by upper class people who were more literate.

# data[].attributes.body
Pages in manuscripts are often uncomfortable to a modern viewer—the pages we’re used to looking at in books, magazines, and other texts are backed by centuries of design knowledge and convention, which allows designers to create efficient pages that deliver information clearly. Medieval manuscripts are often thought of as crudely organized, with seemingly little planning and a disregard for the viewer’s ease of understanding. However, this is far from true. As this section will explore, medieval page layouts were certainly lacking modern convention, but the design of each page was anything but uninformed.

# data[].attributes.body
This page from the Worms Bible shows elements of modern design in some of their earliest forms. This text was one of the first to make use of a “ragged right” edge, a form of writing that maintains consistent spacing between the letters. This alignment is very common nowadays. Other elements reminiscent of modern page layouts includes the bright red “headers” and the large, decorated initial E which supplements the viewer with important information related to the text.

# data[].attributes.body
Like the previous Worms Bible page, in this page from a large thirteenth century French bible the viewer can see the precursors of many modern page layout techniques. This particular book is a “Glossed” Bible, meaning the main text of the Bible is supplemented with additional clarifying information from well-respected religious authorities. Glossed bibles were not new to the thirteenth century, but what was new was the remarkable organization of the page, the carefully planned spacing and size of the letters. In this Bible, the gloss text takes up exactly 6 lines where the main text uses 4. These techniques are still seen today in many bibles, as well as other well-studied literary classics.

# data[].attributes.body
The one obvious thing we have not explored within illuminated manuscripts is, of course, the illumination itself. Illumination was the practice of adding illustrative and pattern elements to a piece of text, which served a variety of purposes. Illumination could be included to illustrate the scene described in the text, providing the reader an even clearer understanding of what they read. It may also be a symbol of status, as more expensive manuscripts could include more illuminations. And lastly, these illuminations were often meant for contemplation by the viewer, including detailed linework which twisted and turned in unexpected ways. These illuminations were handmade, with pen and paintbrush, but just as increased demand for manuscripts resulted in standardization of the scripts used to write them, it also sparked innovation in the efficiency with which illuminators could create these detailed drawings.

# data[].attributes.body
This carpet page from the Lindisfarne Gospels is a striking example of the painstaking detail achieved by the illuminators responsible for illustrating these manuscripts. Carpet pages—named as such due to their intense detail resembling European and Middle Eastern carpets—are often used as divider pages in a manuscript, serving as the signal that a chapter had ended and a new one was about to begin. This particular page draws influence from both Germanic and Celtic elements and is meant to elicit contemplation in the reader. The page was so detailed that the reader could endlessly analyze the pattens, a sort of meditative process expected from not just carpet pages or manuscripts, but also many other decorated items in the middle ages.

# data[].attributes.body
This illumination from the Winchester bible is an example from one of the most renowned illuminated bibles of the twelfth century. The bible’s bold colors and lines, heavily detailed borders, and disciplined page layout is the result of a new wave of Byzantine influence in England during the twelfth century via the Normans, and this particular trend is only one example of the persistence of Roman and Byzantine influence during the middle ages.

# data[].attributes.body
By the fifteenth century, as demand for manuscripts greatly increased, standardization had to be introduced beyond the script used into the way that manuscripts were Illuminated, or decorated with illustrations. Many patrons would not be able to afford a heavily or uniquely illuminated manuscript, so pattern books were introduced in order to help streamline the process for scribes and illuminators. These pattern books included templates for decorative initials and other standard manuscript elements. The books are quite similar to modern day pattern books, and could be seen as a historical equivalent to modern clip art libraries.