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n philosophy of religion, the problem of evil refers to the question of how to reconcile the existence of evil with an omnibenevolent, omniscient and omnipotent God (see theism).[1][2] An argument from evil attempts to show that the co-existence of evil and such a God is unlikely or impossible. Attempts to show the contrary have traditionally been discussed under the heading of theodicy. Besides philosophy of religion, the problem of evil is also important to the field of theology and ethics.

The problem of evil is often formulated in two forms: the logical problem of evil and the evidential problem of evil. The logical form of the argument tries to show a logical impossibility in the coexistence of God and evil,[1][3] while the evidential form tries to show that given the evil in the world, it is improbable that there is an omnipotent, omniscient, and wholly good God.[2] The problem of evil has been extended to non-human life forms, to include animal suffering from natural evils and human cruelty against them.[4]

Responses to various versions of the problem of evil, meanwhile, come in three forms: refutations, defenses, and theodicies. A wide range of responses have been made against these arguments. There are also many discussions of evil and associated problems in other philosophical fields, such as secular ethics,[5][6][7] and evolutionary ethics.[8][9] But as usually understood, the "problem of evil" is posed in a theological context.[1][2]

The problem of evil acutely applies to monotheistic religions such as Christianity, Islam and Judaism that believe in a monotheistic God who is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent;[10][11] but it has also been studied in religions that are non-theistic or polytheistic, such as Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism.

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The first meaning, as part of the concept pair transcendence/immanence, is used primarily with reference to God's relation to the world and is particularly important in theology. Here transcendent means that God is completely outside of and beyond the world, as contrasted with the notion that God is manifested in the world. This meaning originates both in the Aristotelian view of God as the prime mover, a non-material self-consciousness that is outside of the world. Philosophies and philosophers of immanence such as stoicismor pantheism, Spinoza or Deleuze maintain that God is manifested in and fully present in the world and the things in the world.

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Transcendence

The first meaning, as part of the concept pair transcendence/immanence, is used primarily with reference to God's relation to the world and is particularly important in theology. Here transcendent means that God is completely outside of and beyond the world, as contrasted with the notion that God is manifested in the world. This meaning originates both in the Aristotelian view of God as the prime mover, a non-material self-consciousness that is outside of the world. Philosophies and philosophers of immanence such as stoicismor pantheism, Spinoza or Deleuze maintain that God is manifested in and fully present in the world and the things in the world.

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The first meaning, as part of the concept pair transcendence/immanence, is used primarily with reference to God's relation to the world and is particularly important in theology. Here transcendent means that God is completely outside of and beyond the world, as contrasted with the notion that God is manifested in the world. This meaning originates both in the Aristotelian view of God as the prime mover, a non-material self-consciousness that is outside of the world. Philosophies and philosophers of immanence such as stoicismor pantheism, Spinoza or Deleuze maintain that God is manifested in and fully present in the world and the things in the world.

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Karma (Sanskrit: कर्म; IPA: [ˈkərmə] ; Pali: kamma) means action, work or deed; it also refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (effect). Good intent and good deed contribute to good karma and future happiness, while bad intent and bad deed contribute to bad karma and future suffering. Karma is closely associated with the idea of rebirth in many schools of Asian religions. In these schools, karma in the present affects one's future in the current life, as well as the nature and quality of future lives - one's saṃsāra

Karma is the executed "deed", "work", "action", or "act", and it is also the "object", the "intent". Halbfass explains karma (karman) by contrasting it with another Sanskrit word kriya. The word kriya is the activity along with the steps and effort in action, while karma is (1) the executed action as a consequence of that activity, as well as (2) the intention of the actor behind an executed action or a planned action (described by some scholars as metaphysical residue left in the actor). A good action creates good karma, as does good intent. A bad action creates bad karma, as does bad intent.

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In the 5th century, Augustine's writings is considered to be the most influential in the early medieval period.this section looks at the reasonableness of belief in God's existence. In doing so we shall treat the statement "God exists" as a hypothesis which we called the theistic hypothesis. This means we shall ask whether or not the existence of God provides the best explanation of the existence of the world For Augustine (345-430 CE), philosophy is amor sapiential, the love of wisdom; its aim to produce happiness. However, for Augustine, wisdom is not just an abstract logical construction; but it is substantially existent as the divine logos. Hence, philosophy is the love of God: it is then, religious. Teachings of Christianity are based on the love of God which Augustine's, Aquinas', and Anselm's arguments are basically rooted.

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Vidyā or Vidhya means "correct knowledge" or "clarity" in several South Asian languages such as Sanskrit, Pali & Sinhala. Vidyā is also a popular Indian unisex given name. The Indonesian transliteration of the name is Widya.

In Hinduism, it is frequently used as an honorific implying the Puranic conception of knowledge and learning. The opposite of vidyā is avidyā (ignorance or misinformation). Vidya is an epithet of the Hindu goddess Sarasvati, consort of Brahma (according to Hindu beliefs). She has superior spiritual feminine energy—the Param Prakriti—which purifies, empowers, and uplifts the individual. Hence, she is called the Goddess of Knowledge.

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Ātman (/ˈɑːtmən/) is a Sanskrit word that means inner self or soul. In Hindu philosophy, especially in the Vedanta school of Hinduism, Ātman is the first principle, the true self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the essence of an individual. In order to attain liberation, a human being must acquire self-knowledge (atma jnana), which is to realize that one's true self (Ātman) is identical with the transcendent self Brahman.

The six orthodox schools of Hinduism believe that there is Ātman (Soul, Self) in every being, a major point of difference with Buddhism, which does not believe that there is either soul or self.

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The Biblical God and Humanity. God in Christianity is the eternal being who created and preserves all things. Christians believe God to be both transcendent(wholly independent of, and removed from, the material universe) and immanent (involved in the world). Christian teachings of the immanence and involvement of God and his love for humanity exclude the belief that God is of the same substance as the created universe but accept that God's divine Nature was hypostatically united to human nature in the person of Jesus Christ, in an event known as the Incarnation.Early Christian views of God were expressed in the Pauline Epistles and the early creeds, which proclaimed one God and the divinity of Jesus, almost in the same breath as in 1 Corinthians (8:5-6): "For even if there are so-called gods, whether in heaven or on earth (as indeed there are many 'gods' and many 'lords'), yet for us there is but one God, the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live." "Although the Judæo-Christian sect of the Ebionites protested against this apotheosis of Jesus,the great mass of Gentile Christians accepted it."This began to differentiate the Gentile Christian views of God from traditional Jewish teachings of the time.The theology of the attributes and nature of God has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with Irenaeus writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things". In the 8th century, John of Damascus listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted. As time passed, theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the Lord's Prayer, stating that the Father is in Heaven), others based on theological reasoning.The Kingdom of God is a prominent phrase in the Synoptic Gospels and while there is near unanimous agreement among scholars that it represents a key element of the teachings of Jesus, there is little scholarly agreement on its exact interpretation.Although the New Testament does not have a formal doctrine of the Trinity as such, it does repeatedly speak of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in such a way as to "compel a trinitarian understanding of God." This never becomes a tritheism, i.e. this does not imply three Gods.Around the year 200, Tertullian formulated a version of the doctrine of the Trinity which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to the later definitive form produced by the Ecumenical Council of 381.The doctrine of the Trinity can be summed up as: "The One God exists in Three Persons and One Substance, as God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit." Trinitarians, who form the large majority of Christians, hold it as a core tenet of theirfaith.Nontrinitariandenominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways

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Saṃsāra is a Sanskrit word that means "wandering" or "world", with the connotation of cyclic, circuitous change. It also refers to the theory of rebirth and "cyclicality of all life, matter, existence", a fundamental assumption of all Indian religions. Saṃsāra is sometimes referred to with terms or phrases such as transmigration, karmic cycle, reincarnation, and "cycle of aimless drifting, wandering or mundane existence".

The concept of Saṃsāra has roots in the Vedic literature, but the theory is not discussed there. It appears in developed form, but without mechanistic details, in the early Upanishads. The full exposition of the Saṃsāra doctrine is found in Sramanic religions such as Buddhism and Jainism, as well as the various schools of Hindu philosophy, after about mid 1st millennium BCE.The Saṃsāra doctrine is tied to the Karma theory of Indian religions, and the liberation from Saṃsāra has been at the core of the spiritual quest of Indian traditions, as well as their internal disagreements. The liberation from Saṃsāra is called Moksha, Nirvana, Mukti or Kaivalya.

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Brahma (/ˈbrəmɑː/; Brahmā) is the creator god in the Trimurti of Hinduism. He has four faces, looking in the four directions. Brahma is also known as Svayambhu (self-born), Vāgīśa (Lord of Speech), and the creator of the four Vedas, one from each of his mouths. Brahma is identified with the Vedic god Prajapati, as well as linked to Kama and Hiranyagarbha (the cosmic egg), he is more prominently mentioned in the post-Vedic Hindu epics and the mythologies in the Puranas. In the epics, he is conflated with Purusha. Brahma, along with Vishnu and Shiva, is part of a Hindu Trinity; however, ancient Hindu texts mention other trinities of gods or goddesses which do not include Brahma.

While Brahma is often credited as the creator of the universe and various beings in it, several Puranas describe him being born from a lotus emerging from the navel of the god Vishnu. Other Puranas suggest that he is born from Shiva or his aspects, or he is a supreme god in diverse versions of Hindu mythology. Brahma, along with Vishnu and Shiva, is also viewed as a different form of Brahman, the ultimate formless metaphysical reality and cosmic soul in Hinduism.

Brahma does not enjoy popular worship in present-age Hinduism and has lesser importance than the other members of the Trimurti, Vishnu and Shiva. Brahma is revered in ancient texts, yet rarely worshipped as a primary deity in India. Very few temples dedicated to him exist in India; the most famous being the Brahma Temple, Pushkar in Rajasthan. Brahma temples are found outside India, such as in Thailand at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok.

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Moksha also called vimoksha, vimukti and mukti is a term in Hinduism and Hindu philosophy which refers to various forms of emancipation, liberation, and release. In its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth. In its epistemological and psychological senses, moksha refers to freedom from ignorance: self-realization and self-knowledge.

In Hindu traditions, moksha is a central concept and included as one of the four aspects and goals of human life; the other three goals are dharma (virtuous, proper, moral life), artha (material prosperity, income security, means of life), and kama (pleasure, sensuality, emotional fulfillment). Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha in Hinduism.

The concept of moksha is found in Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. In some schools of Indian religions, moksha is considered equivalent to and used interchangeably with other terms such as vimoksha, vimukti, kaivalya, apavarga, mukti, nihsreyasa and nirvana. However, terms such as moksha and nirvana differ and mean different states between various schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The term nirvana is more common in Buddhism, while moksha is more prevalent in Hinduism.

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is a major world religion, or a way of life,originated from Indian subcontinent and found most notably in India and Nepal. It influenced the cultures and life styles of many Asian and South East Asian countries. With over one billion followers, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion by population, and the majority religion in India, Nepal, Mauritius and Bali (Indonesia). Hinduism has been called the "oldest religion" in the world, with some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law" or the "eternal way" beyond human origins. Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This "Hindu synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, after the Vedic times.

Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, pilgrimage to sacred sites and the questioning of authority. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti ("heard") and Smriti ("remembered"). These texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga and agamic rituals and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Agamas.

Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma (ethics/duties), Artha (prosperity/work), Kama (desires/passions) and Moksha (liberation/freedom); karma (action, intent and consequences), samsara (cycle of rebirth), and the various Yogas (paths or practices to attain moksha). Hindu practices include rituals such as puja (worship) and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages. Some Hindus leave their social world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa (monastic practices) to achieve moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (ahimsa), patience, forbearance, self-restraint, and compassion, among others.

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Saint Augustine and Aquinas are both famously known for their philosophical and theological explorations, with Augustine writing in the late fourth to early fifth century and Aquinas in the thirteenth. While they are both known for attempting to reconcile ancient philosophy with Christianity, they went about this task in different ways. Augustine is known for taking a Platonic route, whereas Aquinas was much more Aristotelian.  The two both explored the faith and reason dichotomy, the nature of the soul, and knowledge.

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is a sacred sound and a spiritual icon in Indian religions.It is also a mantra in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.

Om is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries and spiritual retreats in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The symbol has a spiritual meaning in all Indian dharmas, but the meaning and connotations of Om vary between the diverse schools within and across the various traditions.

In Hinduism, Om is one of the most important spiritual symbols (pratima). It refers to Atman (soul, self within) and Brahman (ultimate reality, entirety of the universe, truth, divine, supreme spirit, cosmic principles, knowledge). The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the Vedas, the Upanishads, and other Hindu texts. It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages (sanskara) such as weddings, and sometimes during meditative and spiritual activities such as yoga.

The syllable is also referred to as omkara, aumkara, and pranava.

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convey the basic ground concept from the word's literal meaning (from Latin), of climbing or going beyond, albeit with varying connotations in its different historical and cultural stages. This article covers the topic from a Western perspective by epoch: Ancient, Medieval, and modern, primarily Continental philosophy.
The first meaning, as part of the concept pair transcendence/immanence, is used primarily with reference to God's relation to the world and is particularly important in theology. Here transcendent means that God is completely outside of and beyond the world, as contrasted with the notion that God is manifested in the world. This meaning originates both in the Aristotelian view of God as the prime mover, a non-material self-consciousness that is outside of the world. Philosophies and philosophers of immanence such as stoicism or pantheism, Spinoza or Deleuze maintain that God is manifested in and fully present in the world and the things in the world.

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C.ST. AUGUSTINE AND ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: WILL AND LOVE

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C.ST. AUGUSTINE AND ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: WILL AND LOVE

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Thomas Aquinas, O.P. Italian: Tommaso d'Aquino, lit. 'Thomas of Aquino'; 1225 – 7 March 1274), was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. He was an immensely influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the Doctor Angelicus and the Doctor Communis. The name Aquinasidentifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio, where his family held land until 1137.

He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy developed or opposed his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, and political theory. Unlike many currents in the Church of the time, Thomas embraced several ideas put forward by Aristotle—whom he called "the Philosopher"—and attempted to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy with the principles of Christianity.The works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologiae and the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on Scriptureand on Aristotle form an important part of his body of work. Furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the Church's liturgy.

The Catholic Church honors Thomas Aquinas as a saint and regards him as the model teacher for those studying for the priesthood, and indeed the highest expression of both natural reason and speculative theology. In modern times, under papal directives, the study of his works was long used as a core of the required program of study for those seeking ordination as priests or deacons, as well as for those in religious formation and for other students of the sacred disciplines (philosophy, Catholic theology, church history, liturgy, and canon law).

Thomas Aquinas is considered one of the Catholic Church's greatest theologians and philosophers. Pope Benedict XV declared: "This (Dominican) Order ... acquired new luster when the Church declared the teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the special praises of the Pontiffs, the master and patron of Catholic schools."

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Nirvana (Sanskrit, also nirvāṇa; Pali: nibbana, nibbāna ) is the earliest and most common term used to describe the goal of theBuddhist path. The literal meaning is "blowing out" or "quenching."It is the ultimate spiritual goal in Buddhism and marks the soteriological release from rebirths in saṃsāra. Nirvana is part of the Third Truth on "cessation of dukkha" in the Four Noble Truths, and the summum bonum destination of the Noble Eightfold Path.

Within the Buddhist tradition, this term has commonly been interpreted as the extinction of the "three fires", or "three poisons", passion, (raga), aversion (dvesha) and ignorance (moha or avidyā). When these fires are extinguished, release from the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra) is attained.

Nirvana has also been deemed in Buddhism to be identical with anatta (non-self) and sunyata (emptiness) states. In time, with the development of Buddhist doctrine, other interpretations were given, such as the absence of the weaving (vana) of activity of the mind, the elimination of desire, and escape from the woods, cq. the five skandhas or aggregates.

Buddhist scholastic tradition identifies two types of nirvana: sopadhishesa-nirvana (nirvana with a remainder), and parinirvana oranupadhishesa-nirvana (nirvana without remainder, or final nirvana). The founder of Buddhism, the Buddha is believed to have reached both these states. Nirvana, or the liberation from cycles of rebirth, is the highest aim of the Theravada tradition. In theMahayana tradition, the highest goal is Buddhahood, in which there is no abiding in Nirvana, but a Buddha continues to take rebirths in the world to help liberate beings from saṃsāra by teaching the Buddhist path.

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Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of the Saṃsāra doctrine of cyclic existence. It is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism.The idea of reincarnation is found in many ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth that was held by such historic figures as Pythagoras, Plato, and Socrates. It is also a common belief of various ancient and modern religions such as Spiritism, Theosophy, and Eckankar and is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Australia, East Asia, Siberia, and South America.

Although the majority of sects within the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Kabbalah, the Cathars, Alawites, the Druze, and the Rosicrucians. The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of Neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism, and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of recent scholarly research.

In recent decades, many Europeans and North Americans have developed an interest in reincarnation. Contemporary films, books, and popular songs frequently mention reincarnation.

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This article is about the general concept of "love". For other uses, see Love

Archetypal lovers Romeo and Juliet portrayed by Frank Dicksee

Part of a series on
Emotions

This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

Love is a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes that ranges from interpersonal affection ("I love my mother") to pleasure ("I loved that meal"). It can refer to an emotion of a strong attraction and personal attachment. It can also be a virtue representing humankindness, compassion, and affection—"the unselfish loyal and benevolent concern for the good of another". It may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, one's self or animals.

Non-Western traditions have also distinguished variants or symbioses of these states; words like storge, philia, eros, and agape each describe a unique "concept" of love.[4] Love has additional religious or spiritual meaning—notably in Abrahamic religions. This diversity of uses and meanings combined with the complexity of the feelings involved makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states.

Love in its various forms acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal relationships and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts.

Love may be understood as a function to keep human beings together against menaces and to facilitate the continuation of the species.

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is a complex and usually unpleasant emotional response to isolation or lack of companionship. Loneliness typically includes anxious feelings about a lack of connection or communication with other beings, both in the present and extending into the future. As such, loneliness can be felt even when surrounded by other people. The causes of loneliness are varied and include social, mental, emotional or even physical factors.

Research has shown that loneliness is widely prevalent throughout society among people in marriages, relationships, families, veterans and successful careers. It has been a long explored theme in the literature of human beings since classical antiquity. Loneliness has also been described as social pain — a psychological mechanism meant to alert an individual of isolation and motivate them to seek social connections.

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is the state or condition of not meeting a desirable or intended objective, and may be viewed as the opposite of success. Product failure ranges from failure to sell the product to fracture of the product, in the worst cases leading to personal injury, the province of forensic engineering.

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Within the body of literature related to vulnerability, major research streams include questions of methodology, such as: measuring and assessing vulnerability, including finding appropriate indicators for various aspects of vulnerability, up- and down scaling methods, and participatory methods. Vulnerability research covers a complex,multidisciplinary field including development and poverty studies, public health, climate studies, security studies, engineering, geography, political ecology, and disaster risk management. This research is of importance and interest for organizations trying to reduce vulnerability – especially as related to poverty and other Millennium Development Goals. Many institutions are conducting interdisciplinary research on vulnerability. A forum that brings many of the current researchers on vulnerability together is the Expert Working Group (EWG). Researchers are currently working to refine definitions of “vulnerability”, measurement and assessment methods, and effective communication of research to decision makers.

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Nature, in the broadest sense, is the natural, physical, or material world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large part of science. Although humans are part of nature, human activity is often understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena.

The word nature is derived from the Latin word natura, or "essential qualities, innate disposition", and in ancient times, literally meant "birth". Natura is a Latin translation of the Greek word physis , which originally related to the intrinsic characteristics that plants, animals, and other features of the world develop of their own accord.

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is the intentional and voluntary process by which a victim undergoes a change in feelings and attitude regarding an offense, lets go of negative emotions such as vengefulness, with an increased ability to wish the offender well. Forgiveness is different from condoning (failing to see the action as wrong and in need of forgiveness), excusing (not holding the offender as responsible for the action), forgetting (removing awareness of the offense from consciousness), pardoning (granted by a representative of society, such as ajudge), and reconciliation (restoration of a relationship).

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Introduction to Buddhism (continuation) (p. 54)

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Introduction to Buddhism (continuation) (p. 54)

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Before long, the Buddha found himself surrounded by an increasing number of adherents-men like himself, willing to leave the comforts of home, don the robe of a monk and, with staff in one hand and begging bowl in the other, follow their leader as a wandering mendicants. These were later organized into the Sangha, or Order of Monks and later of nuns also. With single-hearted purpose, this brotherhood of believers dedicated itself to a life of self-purification, in total loyalty to the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. It likewise committed itself to a life of poverty whose sole aim was the "evangelization" of India through their dissemination of the doctrine of the Middle Way between extreme asceticism and self-indulgence (Puligandla 2007).
At first, the Order lived under the following 10 simple rules. As time went on, many more rules were embodied in the Buddhist book of  monastic discipline. The following precepts represent the first steps that one can take after reading, hearing, and pondering Buddhist teaching and establishing some confidence in it. However, it is important not to view these precepts as a set of rules, for Buddhism stresses the cultivation of wisdom and discernment (Velasquez 1999). In other words, blind obedience to the precepts is not encouraged.
1. Refrain from destroying life;
2. Refrain from taking what is not given;
3. Refrain from a misuse of the senses;
4. Refrain from wrong speech (do not lie or deceive); and
5. Refrain from taking drugs or drinks that tend to cloud the mind (abstain from intoxicants; eat moderately and not after noon; do not look on at dancing, singing, or dramatic spectacles; do not affect the use of garlands, scents, or ornaments; do not use high or broad beds; and do not accept gold or silver).
The Buddhist practice the four states of sublime condition: love, sorrow of others, joy in the joy of others and equanimity as regards one's own joy and sorrows. Buddhism, similar to Hinduism and other religions, is a matter of practice.
A certain unity prevailed in the Order and in the interpretations given to the Dharma during the Buddha's lifetime. However, after his death, a need was felt for putting the sayings of Buddha into writing, or at least for getting them fixed in the oral tradition. About 477 B.C., about 500 disciples gathered in the First Council at Rajagaha and together recited and chanted the precepts now found in the Tripitaka.

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Introduction to Buddhism (continuation) (p. 53)

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Introduction to Buddhism (continuation) (p. 53)

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...clear realization that the solution lays in his own mind (Puligandla 1997).
From here on, Gautama's life was devoted to sharing his "Dharma" or Law of Salvation-a simple presentation of the gospel of inner cultivation of right spiritual attitudes, coupled with a self-imposed discipline whereby bodily desires would be channeled in the right directions. He omitted any appeal to the gods as currently conceived; definitely rejected philosophical speculations; and spurned all recourse to ancient scriptures, outmoded rituals, or priestly incantations. Convinced that the way of escape from pain and misery lay in the transformation of one's mind and that liberation could come only with a sloughing off of all vain clinging to the things of this life, Buddha set about sharing his discovery with anyone who would listen to him.
Reduced to its simplest form, the teaching of Buddha has been set forth traditionally in the "Four Noble Truths" leading to the "Eightfold Path" to perfect character or arhatship, which in turn gave assurance of entrance into Nirvana at death. In the Four Noble Truths, Gautama taught: (1) life is full of suffering; (2) suffering is caused by passionate desires, lusts, cravings; (3) only as these are obliterated, will suffering cease; (4) such eradication of desire may be accomplished only by following the Eightfold Path of earnest endeavor.
Briefly, these eight steps are: (1) right belief in and acceptance of the "Fourfold Truth"; (2) right aspiration for one's self and for others; (3) right speech that harms no one; (4) right conduct, motivated by goodwill toward all human beings; (5) right means of livelihood, or earning one's living by honorable means; (6) right endeavor, or effort to direct one's energies toward wise ends; (7) right mindfulness in choosing topics for thought; and (8) right meditation, or concentration to the point of complete absorption in mystic ecstasy. For Velasquez (1999), "Items 1 and 2 enjoin us to develop wisdom, items 3-5 urge us to practice virtue and avoid vice, and items 6-8 tell us to practice meditation. We do this essentially by following three short axioms: cease to do evil, learn to do good, and purify your own mind".
The way to salvation, in other words, lies through self-abnegation, rigid discipline of mind and body, a consuming love for all living creatures, and the final achievement of that state of consciousness which marks an individual's full preparation for entering the Nirvana (enlightened wisdom) of complete selflessness. In this state, the effects of the Law of Cause and Effect (Karma) are overcome; the Cycle of Rebirth is broken; and one may rest in the calm assurance of having attained a heavenly bliss that will stretch into all eternity.

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A. Hinduism (continuation & B. Buddhism: From Tears to Enlightenment (p. 52)

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A. Hinduism (continuation & B. Buddhism: From Tears to Enlightenment (p. 52)

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In its spread over Asia, India itself largely absorbed it into Hinduism. It exists side by side with Taoism in China and Shintoism in Japan. In Tibet, it was greatly altered into a faith called Lamaism. It was practiced in its purest form in Burma and Ceylon
B. Buddhism...
Regard this fleeting world like this:
Like stars fading and vanishing
at dawn,
Like bubbles on a fast moving stream,
Like morning dewdrops evaporating on
blades of grass,
like a candle flickering in a
stormy wind,
echoes, mirages, and phantoms
hallucinations and like a dream.
-The Buddha
The Eight Smiles of Illusion, Prajna Paramita Sutras
Introduction to Buddhism
Another major Eastern tradition is Buddhism, contained in the teachings of its founder, Siddhartha Gautama or the Buddha. Out of the life experience and teaching of highborn Prince Gautamaof the Sakya clan in the kingdomof Magadha, who lived from 560 to 477 B.C., sprang the religious philosophy we know as Buddhism. Turning away from Hindu polytheism and palace pleasures, Gautama began searching for answers to the riddle of life's sufferings, disease, old age, and death. He explored Brahminic philosophies, then tried the rigors of asceticism, but all to no avail. Finally, while resting and meditating in a grove of trees, he cam to a...

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True knowledge (vidya) consists an understanding and realization of the individual's real self (atman) as opposed to lower knowledge that is limited to an interpretation of reality based solely on the data offered by sense experience. An individual, by seriously understanding oneself, comes to realize the dictates of karma that point the way toward moral progress and perfection. Thus, for Hinduism, one's whole duty is to achieve self-knowledge in order to achieve self-annihilation and absorption into the Great Self.
In sum, Hinduism is one of the oldest Eastern traditions, practiced by hundreds of millions of people for about 5,000 years (Velasquez 1999). To know more about this topic, students are encouraged to read Bhagavad-Gita, the Song of the Lord, which is a part of the great epic Mahavharata that introduces principal concepts of Hinduism. Bhagavad-Gita also consists of beautiful poetry.
One concept common to all expressions of Hinduismis the oneness of reality. This oneness is the absolute, or Brahman is real; everything else is illusory manifestation of it. The concept of atman, or no self, is a correlative belief. This means that the "I" or the self is an illusion, for each true self is one with Brahman.When we realize this unity with the absolute, we realize our true destiny.
Also common to all Hindu thought are the four primary values. In order of increasing importance, they may be roughly translated as wealth, pleasure, duty, and enlightenment. Wealth and pleasure are worldly values, but when kept in perspective they are good and desirable. The spiritual value of duty, or righteousness, refers to patience, sincerity, fairness, love, honesty, and similar virtues. The spiritual value, though, is enlightenment, by which one is illuminated and liberated and most importantly, finds release from the wheel of existence. Repeated existence is the destiny of those who do not achieve enlightenment.
Finally, to understand enlightenment, one must understand the law of karma, the law of sowing and reaping. All of us, through what we do or not do, supposedly determine our destiny. The wheel of existence turns until we achieve enlightenment, after which we are released from this series of rebirth.
After understanding Hinduism, the next section proceeds with another major Eastern tradition that is not based strictly on the Upanishads and in some cases, even ran counter to its teachings. The tenets of Buddhism are definitely one of the most widespread dharsanas (school of thought). Despite its origins, Buddhism is Universalist in character. It is not preached to any one single caste or people but to everybody. Wherever it has spread, Buddhism has adapted itself to its environment with a generous flexibility.

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1. To recognize our own limitations or possibilities for one's transcendence
2. To evaluate own limitations and the possibilities for one's transcendence
3.To recognize how the human body imposes limits and possibilities for transcendence
4. To distinguish the limitaions and possibilities for transcendence
5. To learn this lesson

# data[].attributes.body
1. Recognize one’s limitations and possibilities
2. Evaluate one’s limitations and the possibilities for their transcendence
3. Recognize how the human body imposes limits and possibilities for transcendence
4. Distinguish the limitations and possibilities for transcendence