# data[].attributes.body
Heat, a measure of thermal energy, can be transferred from one point to another.Heat flows from the point of higher temperature to one of lower temperature. Theheat content, Q, of an object depends upon its specific heat, c, and its mass, m.

http://www.softschools.com/formulas/physics/heat_transfer_formula/41/

# data[].attributes.body
Thermal generation is the process of generating electricity from heat. Heat is a form of energy. Heat energy that is turned into electricity can be made in many ways. It can be produced by burning fuels such as coal, oil, gas or wood.

http://www.electrocity.co.nz/images/factsheets/Thermal%20Energy.pdf

# data[].attributes.body
Thermal energy is the internal energy of an object due to the kinetic energy of its atoms and/or molecules. The atoms and/or molecules of a hotter object have greater kinetic energy than those of a colder one, in the form of vibrational, rotational, or, in the case of a gas, translational motion.

http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/thermal-energy-2

# data[].attributes.body
https://phys.org/news/2013-05-nanoantennas-infrared.html

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http://www.teaching-apparatus.com/Study-device-for-demonstration-of-thermal-expansion-of-liquids-73.html

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https://www.billhowe.com/blog/san-diego-thermal-expansion

# data[].attributes.body
http://www.flyparsons.org/heat.html

# data[].attributes.headline
Materials expand or contract when subjected to changes in temperature. Most materials expand when they are heated, and contract when they are cooled. When free to deform, concrete will expand or contract due to fluctuations in temperature. The size of the concrete structure whether it is a bridge, a highway, or a building does not make it immune to the effects of temperature. The expansion and contraction with changes in temperature occur regardless of the structure’s cross-sectional area.Concrete expands slightly as temperature rises and contracts as temperature falls. Temperature changes may be caused by environmental conditions or by cement hydration (the exothermic chemical process in which the cement reacts with the water in a mixture of concrete to create the calcium silicate hydrate binder and other compounds). An average value for the coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is about 10 millionths per degree Celsius (10x10-6/C), although values ranging from 7 to 12 millionths per degree Celsius have been observed. This amounts to a length change of 1.7 centimeters for every 30.5 meters of concrete subjected to a rise or fall of 38 degrees Celsius.Thermal expansion and contraction of concrete varies primarily with aggregate type (shale, limestone, siliceous gravel, granite),  cementitious material content, water cement ratio, temperature range, concrete age, and ambient relative humidity. Of these factors, aggregate type has the greatest influence on the expansion and contraction of concrete.Severe problems develop in massive structures where heat cannot be dissipated. Thermal contraction on the concrete’s surface without a corresponding change in its interior temperature will cause a thermal differential and potentially lead to cracking. Temperature changes that result in shortening will crack concrete members that are held in place or restrained by another part of the structure, internal reinforcement or by the ground. For example, a long restrained concrete section is allowed to drop in temperature. As the temperature drops, the concrete tends to shorten, but cannot as it is restrained along its base length. This causes the concrete to be stressed, and eventually crack.Joints are the most effective way to control cracking. If a sizable section of concrete is not provided with properly spaced joints to accommodate temperature movement, the concrete will crack in a regular pattern related to the temperature and restraint directory. Control joints are grooved, formed, or sawed into sidewalks, driveways, pavements, floors, and walls so that cracking will occur in these joints rather than in a random manner. Contraction joints provide for movement in the plane of a slab or wall, and induce cracking caused by thermal shrinkage at preselected locations. One of the most economical methods for making a contraction joint is by simply sawing a continuous cut in the top of the slab with a masonry saw.https://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/cracking/thermalexpansioncontraction/thermalexpcontr.htm

# data[].attributes.subject
Materials expand or contract when subjected to changes in temperature. Most materials expand when they are heated, and contract when they are cooled. When free to deform, concrete will expand or contract due to fluctuations in temperature. The size of the concrete structure whether it is a bridge, a highway, or a building does not make it immune to the effects of temperature. The expansion and contraction with changes in temperature occur regardless of the structure’s cross-sectional area.Concrete expands slightly as temperature rises and contracts as temperature falls. Temperature changes may be caused by environmental conditions or by cement hydration (the exothermic chemical process in which the cement reacts with the water in a mixture of concrete to create the calcium silicate hydrate binder and other compounds). An average value for the coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is about 10 millionths per degree Celsius (10x10-6/C), although values ranging from 7 to 12 millionths per degree Celsius have been observed. This amounts to a length change of 1.7 centimeters for every 30.5 meters of concrete subjected to a rise or fall of 38 degrees Celsius.Thermal expansion and contraction of concrete varies primarily with aggregate type (shale, limestone, siliceous gravel, granite),  cementitious material content, water cement ratio, temperature range, concrete age, and ambient relative humidity. Of these factors, aggregate type has the greatest influence on the expansion and contraction of concrete.Severe problems develop in massive structures where heat cannot be dissipated. Thermal contraction on the concrete’s surface without a corresponding change in its interior temperature will cause a thermal differential and potentially lead to cracking. Temperature changes that result in shortening will crack concrete members that are held in place or restrained by another part of the structure, internal reinforcement or by the ground. For example, a long restrained concrete section is allowed to drop in temperature. As the temperature drops, the concrete tends to shorten, but cannot as it is restrained along its base length. This causes the concrete to be stressed, and eventually crack.Joints are the most effective way to control cracking. If a sizable section of concrete is not provided with properly spaced joints to accommodate temperature movement, the concrete will crack in a regular pattern related to the temperature and restraint directory. Control joints are grooved, formed, or sawed into sidewalks, driveways, pavements, floors, and walls so that cracking will occur in these joints rather than in a random manner. Contraction joints provide for movement in the plane of a slab or wall, and induce cracking caused by thermal shrinkage at preselected locations. One of the most economical methods for making a contraction joint is by simply sawing a continuous cut in the top of the slab with a masonry saw.https://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/cracking/thermalexpansioncontraction/thermalexpcontr.htm

# data[].attributes.headline
So, Thermal Expansion. You may be familiar with it. Or you may not. It's been around a while, but has undergone significant changes in 1.10.2 and 1.12.1. First off, it's a tech mod. Which means it's got a power system. Heck, it bloody well invented the RF system that the majority of mods uses (since it was the foundation of the Forge Energy system as well). Power transmission is the purview of the next mod we'll be discussing. Second off, the Augment system has been completely overhauled. In addition to 'numerical' augments like 'speeds up at the cost of using more energy' type augments, there are now Specialization augments, which change the functionality of the machine in some manner. Only one Specialization augment may be inserted into any given machine.Oh, there's now a difference between Machines and Devices. Machines consume RF, can take augments and can be upgraded. Devices are those things that don't need RF to perform their tasks, and will never be able to be upgraded or take augments.Upgrades have also been significantly changed. The same tiers exist, Normal, Hardened, Reinforced, Signalum, and Resonant. However, you use an Upgrade to do it rather than crafting the machine itself, which is far more logical. They have to be applied in order, but there's also conversion kits, which are basically all of the previous tier upgrades crafted together, that can do the whole job in one shot. Upgrading a Machine will increase its productivity. For example, the Redstone Furnace goes from consuming 20 RF/t to consuming 30RF/t and gets a 50% boost to production speed when it gets a Hardened ugrade. As you continue upgrading, it continues to improve. This helps keep 'introduction level' machiens relevant, even into the late game. This works on Dynamos as well. One last thing. Most people already familiar with these mods will already know this, but for those who are comming to it fresh, the various machines, devices, dynamos, and other blocks from these mods are pretty good at having customizable input/output siding. By default, there's a color coded system, but there's also a colorblind version. You can also toggle auto-input and auto-output as well. Power Overwhelming​Let's talk about Dynamos. There's been some changes here, and there's some dynamo-specific Augments and Specializations that also deserve mention.All of the Dynamos, without augments or upgrades, produce 40 RF/t. As you upgrade it, it increases the RF/t production, up to 120 RF/t at Resonant tier. For the generally applicable Augments, there's four: * Axillary Transmission Coil. Increases RF production but dramatically reduces fuel efficiency. I'd probably say a 25% increase in power production but burns through fuel roughly twice as fast. May be stacked, but bonus RF is additive. * Fuel Catalyzer. Increases fuel efficiency. I'd probably say 25% more burn time. Yes, you can combine this with the Transmission Coil, however you're still going to end up burning through more fuel. Based on my limited testing, it burns through roughly 1.75x speed. * Transmission Coil Ducting. Lets you input/output stuff on the same face it outputs energy to. * Excitation Fuel Limiter: Permits the dynamo to throttle down and automatically turn off when energy buffer is full. Without this, it will still throttle down, but to a minimum of 10% fuel consumption. So let's take a look at the dynamos and what they do!SpoilerDeus Ex Machina​So, let's talk about the machines that consume all that RF we've been talking about producing. SpoilerImmobile Devices​These don't consume RF, and typically produce functions that happen normally in 'vanilla'. SpoilerConclusionSo, lots of changes here, and lots of good solid tech. Sure, lots of other mods have lots of ways of doing this, but I really like the fact that none of the 'low tier' stuff becomes completely obsolete even in the late game. Your old Redstone Furnace can get upgraded and can still 'keep up with the Jonses', or you can just put a Trivection augment into it and use it to cook baked potatoes at double output. Your old steam dynamo can be set up as a steam system cranking out almost a thousand RF/t. And that's nothing to sneeze at.https://forum.feed-the-beast.com/threads/thermal-expansion-in-1-12-1-for-newbies.256493/

# data[].attributes.subject
So, Thermal Expansion. You may be familiar with it. Or you may not. It's been around a while, but has undergone significant changes in 1.10.2 and 1.12.1. First off, it's a tech mod. Which means it's got a power system. Heck, it bloody well invented the RF system that the majority of mods uses (since it was the foundation of the Forge Energy system as well). Power transmission is the purview of the next mod we'll be discussing. Second off, the Augment system has been completely overhauled. In addition to 'numerical' augments like 'speeds up at the cost of using more energy' type augments, there are now Specialization augments, which change the functionality of the machine in some manner. Only one Specialization augment may be inserted into any given machine.Oh, there's now a difference between Machines and Devices. Machines consume RF, can take augments and can be upgraded. Devices are those things that don't need RF to perform their tasks, and will never be able to be upgraded or take augments.Upgrades have also been significantly changed. The same tiers exist, Normal, Hardened, Reinforced, Signalum, and Resonant. However, you use an Upgrade to do it rather than crafting the machine itself, which is far more logical. They have to be applied in order, but there's also conversion kits, which are basically all of the previous tier upgrades crafted together, that can do the whole job in one shot. Upgrading a Machine will increase its productivity. For example, the Redstone Furnace goes from consuming 20 RF/t to consuming 30RF/t and gets a 50% boost to production speed when it gets a Hardened ugrade. As you continue upgrading, it continues to improve. This helps keep 'introduction level' machiens relevant, even into the late game. This works on Dynamos as well. One last thing. Most people already familiar with these mods will already know this, but for those who are comming to it fresh, the various machines, devices, dynamos, and other blocks from these mods are pretty good at having customizable input/output siding. By default, there's a color coded system, but there's also a colorblind version. You can also toggle auto-input and auto-output as well. Power Overwhelming​Let's talk about Dynamos. There's been some changes here, and there's some dynamo-specific Augments and Specializations that also deserve mention.All of the Dynamos, without augments or upgrades, produce 40 RF/t. As you upgrade it, it increases the RF/t production, up to 120 RF/t at Resonant tier. For the generally applicable Augments, there's four: * Axillary Transmission Coil. Increases RF production but dramatically reduces fuel efficiency. I'd probably say a 25% increase in power production but burns through fuel roughly twice as fast. May be stacked, but bonus RF is additive. * Fuel Catalyzer. Increases fuel efficiency. I'd probably say 25% more burn time. Yes, you can combine this with the Transmission Coil, however you're still going to end up burning through more fuel. Based on my limited testing, it burns through roughly 1.75x speed. * Transmission Coil Ducting. Lets you input/output stuff on the same face it outputs energy to. * Excitation Fuel Limiter: Permits the dynamo to throttle down and automatically turn off when energy buffer is full. Without this, it will still throttle down, but to a minimum of 10% fuel consumption. So let's take a look at the dynamos and what they do!SpoilerDeus Ex Machina​So, let's talk about the machines that consume all that RF we've been talking about producing. SpoilerImmobile Devices​These don't consume RF, and typically produce functions that happen normally in 'vanilla'. SpoilerConclusionSo, lots of changes here, and lots of good solid tech. Sure, lots of other mods have lots of ways of doing this, but I really like the fact that none of the 'low tier' stuff becomes completely obsolete even in the late game. Your old Redstone Furnace can get upgraded and can still 'keep up with the Jonses', or you can just put a Trivection augment into it and use it to cook baked potatoes at double output. Your old steam dynamo can be set up as a steam system cranking out almost a thousand RF/t. And that's nothing to sneeze at.https://forum.feed-the-beast.com/threads/thermal-expansion-in-1-12-1-for-newbies.256493/

# data[].attributes.headline
A rise in sea• • • • •level causes five primary physical effects: erosion of beaches and bluffs;increased flooding and storm damage; inundation of low-lying areas;salt-water intrusion into aquifers and surface waters; and higher water tables.Post-Glacial ReboundThe primary reason for inconsistencies in relative sea level is regional subsidence and emergence of land due to post-glacial rebound. During the last glacial period, approximately 18,000 years ago, enormous glaciers covered continental areas. The land beneath these glaciers subsided due to the added weight. When the ice melted at the end of this period, the land began to emerge again, and continues to do so today. Other factors that can causes changes in relative sea level are either uplift or subsidence related to tectonic processes, fluid withdrawal, and sediment deposition and compaction.Temperature changes during a similar period and possibly responsible for causing the observed sealevel rise. From Wikipedia.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise￼￼￼http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_riseDuring a period of glaciation, the average global temperature drops considerably and the(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_risevolume of the ocean decreases greatly. The water that would otherwise be in the ocean is)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise(frozen as ice in continental glaciers, or as sea ice in the oceans. During the peak of the lastglacial period, global sea level was approximately 100 meters (328 feet) lower than it is today. Only when the temperature began to warm did the glaciers melt and flow back into the ocean. This is just one example of how the global climate can have a substantial effect on sea level.It is estimated that most of the increase in sea level will be from as the result of global warming, which will cause thermal expansion of the oceans. Thermal expansion is caused when seawater expands because of the higher temperature of the water. Since the oceans absorb heat from the atmosphere, when the atmosphere becomes warmer so will the oceans. Warm seawater has a greater volume than cold seawater. As the temperature of the ocean increases so will the total ocean volume. The increased volume will cause the level of the water in the oceans to rise.Two factors will contribute to this accelerated rise in sea level. First, although the oceans have an enormous heat storage capacity, if global atmospheric temperatures rise, the oceans will absorb heat and expand. A greater volume of ocean water due to thermal expansion will lead to a rise in sea level. Second, rising temperatures will cause the ice and snowfields to melt, thereby increasing the amount of water in the oceans. It should be noted that only the melting of land- based ice and snow increases sea level. The melting of floating ice will not affect sea level. This can be demonstrated to your students by noted that only the melting of land- based ice and snow increases sea level. The melting of floating ice will not affect sea level. This can be demonstrated to your students by partially filling a glass container with ice and water and marking the water level on the glass. When the ice cubes melt, note that the water level has not changed.

# data[].attributes.subject
A rise in sea• • • • •level causes five primary physical effects: erosion of beaches and bluffs;increased flooding and storm damage; inundation of low-lying areas;salt-water intrusion into aquifers and surface waters; and higher water tables.Post-Glacial ReboundThe primary reason for inconsistencies in relative sea level is regional subsidence and emergence of land due to post-glacial rebound. During the last glacial period, approximately 18,000 years ago, enormous glaciers covered continental areas. The land beneath these glaciers subsided due to the added weight. When the ice melted at the end of this period, the land began to emerge again, and continues to do so today. Other factors that can causes changes in relative sea level are either uplift or subsidence related to tectonic processes, fluid withdrawal, and sediment deposition and compaction.Temperature changes during a similar period and possibly responsible for causing the observed sealevel rise. From Wikipedia.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise￼￼￼http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_riseDuring a period of glaciation, the average global temperature drops considerably and the(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_risevolume of the ocean decreases greatly. The water that would otherwise be in the ocean is)(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise(frozen as ice in continental glaciers, or as sea ice in the oceans. During the peak of the lastglacial period, global sea level was approximately 100 meters (328 feet) lower than it is today. Only when the temperature began to warm did the glaciers melt and flow back into the ocean. This is just one example of how the global climate can have a substantial effect on sea level.It is estimated that most of the increase in sea level will be from as the result of global warming, which will cause thermal expansion of the oceans. Thermal expansion is caused when seawater expands because of the higher temperature of the water. Since the oceans absorb heat from the atmosphere, when the atmosphere becomes warmer so will the oceans. Warm seawater has a greater volume than cold seawater. As the temperature of the ocean increases so will the total ocean volume. The increased volume will cause the level of the water in the oceans to rise.Two factors will contribute to this accelerated rise in sea level. First, although the oceans have an enormous heat storage capacity, if global atmospheric temperatures rise, the oceans will absorb heat and expand. A greater volume of ocean water due to thermal expansion will lead to a rise in sea level. Second, rising temperatures will cause the ice and snowfields to melt, thereby increasing the amount of water in the oceans. It should be noted that only the melting of land- based ice and snow increases sea level. The melting of floating ice will not affect sea level. This can be demonstrated to your students by noted that only the melting of land- based ice and snow increases sea level. The melting of floating ice will not affect sea level. This can be demonstrated to your students by partially filling a glass container with ice and water and marking the water level on the glass. When the ice cubes melt, note that the water level has not changed.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.plumbingsupply.com/images/what-is-thermal-expansion.jpg