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Formal aspects of Anglo-Saxon poetry: stress, alliteration and stock formulae/formulaic phrases (e.g. kenning)

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Formal aspects of Anglo-Saxon poetry: stress, alliteration and stock formulae/formulaic phrases (e.g. kenning)

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The Merciless Lady (1865), Dante Gabriel Rossetti

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The Merciless Lady (1865), Dante Gabriel Rossetti

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it is the oldest surviving epic poem in the English language. It is anonymous. It was probably composed (orally) as an elegy for a king who died in the 7th/8th century, but written down in an illuminated manuscript in the 11th century

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it is the oldest surviving epic poem in the English language. It is anonymous. It was probably composed (orally) as an elegy for a king who died in the 7th/8th century, but written down in an illuminated manuscript in the 11th century

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coexistence of Pagan and Christian elements

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coexistence of Pagan and Christian elements

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It is an Anglo-Saxon poem, composed - and later written - in England, but set in Scandinavia (the places where Angles, Saxons and Jutes came from)

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It is an Anglo-Saxon poem, composed - and later written - in England, but set in Scandinavia (the places where Angles, Saxons and Jutes came from)

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the relationship between Beowulf and his thanes is based on loyalty, in a world ruled by fate and destiny

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the relationship between Beowulf and his thanes is based on loyalty, in a world ruled by fate and destiny

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ἔπος means something spoken: speech, story, song. it is a long narrative poetical composition

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ἔπος means something spoken: speech, story, song. it is a long narrative poetical composition

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The style is elevated, the vocabulary is rich and vivid. 

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The style is elevated, the vocabulary is rich and vivid. 

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Romances were very popular in the Middle Ages. They were tales in verse. They were imported to England from France. They narrated - in verse - tales about chivalry, courtly love, supernatural creatures and magic objects. 

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Romances were very popular in the Middle Ages. They were tales in verse. They were imported to England from France. They narrated - in verse - tales about chivalry, courtly love, supernatural creatures and magic objects. 

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themes: recollection of a glorious past, exaltation of bravery and deeds of heroes, exaltation of customs and traditions, struggle of good against evil, presence of supernatural creatures, description of an aristocratic and military society, setting in vast lands and far places, common people exist because they are related to the hero. 

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themes: recollection of a glorious past, exaltation of bravery and deeds of heroes, exaltation of customs and traditions, struggle of good against evil, presence of supernatural creatures, description of an aristocratic and military society, setting in vast lands and far places, common people exist because they are related to the hero. 

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the scop celebrated the values of Anglo-Saxon society during ceremonies, festivities and celebrations in the mead-hall 

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the scop celebrated the values of Anglo-Saxon society during ceremonies, festivities and celebrations in the mead-hall 

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Listen to the opening lines of Beowulf read in its original version (Old English) 

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Listen to the opening lines of Beowulf read in its original version (Old English) 

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A reading of the opening lines of Beowulf in Old English

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There was Shield Sheafson, scourge of many tribes, A wrecker of mead-benches, rampaging among foes.

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stress: each line has four stresses and it is divided into two halves by a break (caesura)

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stress: each line has four stresses and it is divided into two halves by a break (caesura)

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The language of Anglo-Saxon poetry is Anglo-Saxon (or Old English). It was formed in a long process of collective memorisation, passed by word of mouth

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The language of Anglo-Saxon poetry is Anglo-Saxon (or Old English). It was formed in a long process of collective memorisation, passed by word of mouth

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The main aim was to celebrate the feudal system and offer a refined form of entertainment. Minstrels accompanied their performance with musical instruments. 

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The main aim was to celebrate the feudal system and offer a refined form of entertainment. Minstrels accompanied their performance with musical instruments. 

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alliteration: repetition of the same consonant sound in consecutive or closely connected words 

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alliteration: repetition of the same consonant sound in consecutive or closely connected words 

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Repetitions + stock formulae = ready made phrases which satisfy the metrical need of a line or half a line + long lists

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Repetitions + stock formulae = ready made phrases which satisfy the metrical need of a line or half a line + long lists

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The scop is playing his gomenwudu (the wood which brings joy), a kenning which stands for... 

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The scop is playing his gomenwudu (the wood which brings joy), a kenning which stands for... 

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Stock formula/formulaic phrase: fixed, recurring/repeated phrases used by the poet to refer to a character, to time... to help memorization and to fit the meter (4 stresses in a line): as Achilles was "swift-footed" and Ulysses πολύτροπος ("of twists and turns" or "resourceful"), Beowulf is "the mighty man", "man of God", Hrothgar is "ring-giver", and time passes with "when morning came", "thus he spoke"... 

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Stock formula/formulaic phrase: fixed, recurring/repeated phrases used by the poet to refer to a character, to time... to help memorization and to fit the meter (4 stresses in a line): as Achilles was "swift-footed" and Ulysses πολύτροπος ("of twists and turns" or "resourceful"), Beowulf is "the mighty man", "man of God", Hrothgar is "ring-giver", and time passes with "when morning came", "thus he spoke"... 

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kenning: a stock formula/formulaic phrase, a compound expression that is used in place of a name or noun.

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kenning: a stock formula/formulaic phrase, a compound expression that is used in place of a name or noun.

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Hronrade is a kenning which stands for...

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COURTLY LOVE  = French amour courtois. A highly conventionalized code that prescribed the behaviour of ladies and their lovers. The courtly lover existed to serve his lady. His love was invariably adulterous (marriage at that time was usually the result of business interest or the seal of a power alliance).  Ultimately, the lover saw himself as serving the all-powerful god of love and worshipping his lady-saint. Faithlessness was the mortal sin.  

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COURTLY LOVE  = French amour courtois. A highly conventionalized code that prescribed the behaviour of ladies and their lovers. The courtly lover existed to serve his lady. His love was invariably adulterous (marriage at that time was usually the result of business interest or the seal of a power alliance).  Ultimately, the lover saw himself as serving the all-powerful god of love and worshipping his lady-saint. Faithlessness was the mortal sin.  

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Listen to Seamus Heaney, the Irish poet who received the Nobel prize in Literature in 1995, reading his translation of Beowulf into Modern English

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Listen to Seamus Heaney, the Irish poet who received the Nobel prize in Literature in 1995, reading his translation of Beowulf into Modern English

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CHIVALRY= the system of behaviour expected of knights, made up of honour, courage, kindness. Later the word came to be used in its general sense of “courtesy", very polite, honest, and kind behaviour, especially by men towards women

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CHIVALRY= the system of behaviour expected of knights, made up of honour, courage, kindness. Later the word came to be used in its general sense of “courtesy", very polite, honest, and kind behaviour, especially by men towards women

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the main sources were the MATTER OF FRANCE, the MATTER OF ROME and THE MATTER OF BRITAIN

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the main sources were the MATTER OF FRANCE, the MATTER OF ROME and THE MATTER OF BRITAIN

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Here you can compare Beowulf in Old and Modern English

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Here you can compare Beowulf in Old and Modern English

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The most popular source in Britain was the legendary cycle of stories of King Arthur and his knights. The greatest English romance is the anonymous Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (late 14th-century)

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The most popular source in Britain was the legendary cycle of stories of King Arthur and his knights. The greatest English romance is the anonymous Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (late 14th-century)

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The story is narrated through vivid type-scenes: the banquet, the battle, the funeral, the voyage...

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The story is narrated through vivid type-scenes: the banquet, the battle, the funeral, the voyage...

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Leadership of the hero -> the hero is an example for everyone

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Leadership of the hero -> the hero is an example for everyone

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Lyric poetry became popular, dealing with intense personal emotions, feelings and thoughts about religion, love and nature. 

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Lyric poetry became popular, dealing with intense personal emotions, feelings and thoughts about religion, love and nature. 

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Sumer is icumen in (mid-13th century) is one of the most renowned examples of medieval lyric accompanied by music 

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Sumer is icumen in (mid-13th century) is one of the most renowned examples of medieval lyric accompanied by music 

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Middle English Lyrics

Site copyright ©1996-2018

Dionisio Minaggio, 1618.
McGill University Library

Cuckoo Song
[Brit. Lib. MS Harley 978, f. 11v]

5

10

Sumer is icumen in,
Loude sing cuckou!
Groweth seed and bloweth meed,
And springth the wode now.
Sing cuckou!

Ewe bleteth after lamb,
Loweth after calve cow,
Bulloc sterteth, bucke verteth,
Merye sing cuckou!
Cuckou, cuckou,
Wel singest thou cuckou:
Ne swik thou never now!

meadow blossoms
wood

leaps/farts

cease

Image of British Library, MS Harley 978, f. 11v.

Sheet Music for "Sumer is Icumen In"

to Middle English Lyrics

to Luminarium Main

to Middle English Literature

Anniina Jokinen. All Rights Reserved.
Created by Anniina Jokinen on March 19, 1996. Last updated on November 12, 2018.

Middle English Literature
Geoffrey Chaucer
John Gower
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
William Langland / Piers Plowman
Julian of Norwich
Margery Kempe
Thomas Malory / Morte D'Arthur
John Lydgate
Thomas Hoccleve
Paston Letters
Everyman
Medieval Plays
Middle English Lyrics
Essays and Articles

Sciences
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Historical Events and Persons

Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)
Edward III
Edward, Black Prince of Wales
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John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster
Edmund of Langley, Duke of York
Thomas of Woodstock, Gloucester
Richard of York, E. of Cambridge
Richard II
Henry IV
Edward, Duke of York
Henry V
Thomas, Duke of Clarence
John, Duke of Bedford
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester
Catherine of Valois
Charles VII, King of France
Joan of Arc
Louis XI, King of France
Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy

The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485)
Causes of the Wars of the Roses
The House of Lancaster
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Henry VI
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Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York
Edward IV
Elizabeth Woodville
Edward V
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George, Duke of Clarence

More at Encyclopedia and at
Additional Medieval Sources

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Sumer Is Icumen In - The Cuckoo Song (Middle English Lyric) [Medieval song; icomen, ycomen]

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Middle English Lyrics Site copyright ©1996-2018 Dionisio Minaggio, 1618. McGill University Library Cuckoo Song [Brit. Lib. MS Harley 978, f. 11v] 5 10 Sumer is icumen in, Loude sing cuckou! Groweth seed and bloweth meed, And springth the wode now. Sing cuckou! Ewe bleteth after lamb, Loweth after calve cow, Bulloc sterteth, bucke verteth, Merye sing cuckou!

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You can watch the trailer of the latest film based on the Arthurian story of Sir Gawain: the legacy of these legends is still powerful

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You can watch the trailer of the latest film based on the Arthurian story of Sir Gawain: the legacy of these legends is still powerful

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The Green Knight | Official Trailer HD | A24

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they were anonymous and intended for singing and dancing. They were transmitted orally. They were collected in written form in the 18th century

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they were anonymous and intended for singing and dancing. They were transmitted orally. They were collected in written form in the 18th century

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Language: simple, with refrains. Narrative outline: a mixture of narration and dialogue. It is not told as a continuous series of events but it is made of rapid flashes. there is a mixture of dialogue and narration. There is no moral aim. 

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Language: simple, with refrains. Narrative outline: a mixture of narration and dialogue. It is not told as a continuous series of events but it is made of rapid flashes. there is a mixture of dialogue and narration. There is no moral aim. 

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they are often structured with a stanza with four lines (= a four-lined stanza). the lines often rhyme ABCB. There is a refrain: a repeated line or group of lines. 

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they are often structured with a stanza with four lines (= a four-lined stanza). the lines often rhyme ABCB. There is a refrain: a repeated line or group of lines. 

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Robin Hood is a legendary outlaw hero, protagonist of a series of medieval ballads. Robin Hood was a rebel, and many of the most striking tales about him show him and his companions robbing and killing representatives of authority and giving the gains to the poor. Their most frequent enemy was the Sheriff of Nottingham. Other enemies included wealthy ecclesiastical landowners. Robin treated women, the poor, and people of humble status with courtesy. A good deal of his revolt against authority stemmed from popular resentment over those laws of the forest that restricted hunting rights. 

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Robin Hood is a legendary outlaw hero, protagonist of a series of medieval ballads. Robin Hood was a rebel, and many of the most striking tales about him show him and his companions robbing and killing representatives of authority and giving the gains to the poor. Their most frequent enemy was the Sheriff of Nottingham. Other enemies included wealthy ecclesiastical landowners. Robin treated women, the poor, and people of humble status with courtesy. A good deal of his revolt against authority stemmed from popular resentment over those laws of the forest that restricted hunting rights. 

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Read an example of ballad dedicated to Robin Hood

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When Phoebus had melted the sickles of ice,
With a hey down, &c.
And likewise the mountains of snow,
Bold Robin Hood he would ramble to see,
To frolick abroad with his bow.

He left all his merry men waiting behind,
Whilst through the green vallies he passd;
There did he behold a forester bold,
Who cry'd out, "Friend, whither so fast?"

"I'm going," quoth Robin Hood, "to kill a fat buck,
For me and my merry men all;
Besides, eer I go, I'll have a fat doe,
Or else it shall cost me a fall."

"You'd best have a care," said the forester then,
"For these are his majesty's deer;
Before you shall shoot, the thing I'll dispute,
For I am head-forester here."

"These thirteen long summers," quoth Robin, "I'm sure,
My arrows I here have let fly,
Where freely I range; methinks it is strange,
You should have more power than I.

"This forest," quoth Robin, "I think is my own,
And so are the nimble deer too;
Therefore I declare, and solemnly swear,
I wont be affronted by you."

The forester he had a long quater-staff,
Likewise a broad sword by his side;
Without more ado, he presently drew,
Declaring the truth should be try'd .

Bold Robin Hood had a sword of the best,
Thus, eer he would take any wrong,
His courage was flush, he'd venture a brush,
And thus they fell to it ding dong.

The very first blow that the forester gave,
He made his broad weapon cry twang;
'Twas over the head, he fell down for dead,
O that was a damnable bang!

But Robin he soon did recover himself,
And bravely fell to it again;
The very next stroke their weapons were broke,
Yet never a man there was slain.

At quarter-staff then they resolved to play,
Because they would have t'other bout;
And brave Robin Hood right valiantly stood,
Unwilling he was to give out.

Bold Robin he gave him very hard blows,
The other returnd them as fast;
At every stroke their jackets did smoke,
Three hours the combat did last.

At length in a rage the bold forester grew,
And cudgeld bold Robin so sore
That he could not stand, so shaking his hand,
He said, "Let us freely give oer.

"Thou art a brave fellow, I need must confess
I never knew any so good;
Thou 'rt fitting to be a yeomen for me,
And range in the merry green wood.

"I'll give thee this ring as a token of love,
For bravely thou'st acted thy part;
That man that can fight, in him I delight,
And love him with all my whole heart.

Then Robin Hood setting his horn to his mouth,
A blast he merrily blows;
His yeomen did hear, and strait did appear,
A hundred, with trusty long bows.

Now Little John came at the head of them all,
Cloathd in a rich mantle of green;
And likewise the rest were gloriously drest,
A delicate sight to be seen.

"Lo, these are my yeomen," said Robin Hood,
"And thou shalt be one of the train;
A mantle and bow, a quiver also,
I give them whom I entertain."

The forester willingly enterd the list,
They were such a beautiful sight;
Then with a long bow they shot a fat doe,
And made a rich supper that night.

What singing and dancing was in the green wood,
For joy of another new mate!
With mirth and delight they spent the long night,
And liv'd at a plentiful rate.

The forester neer was so merry before
As then he was with these brave souls,
Who never would fail, in wine, beer or ale,
To take off their cherishing bowls.

Then Robin Hood gave him a mantle of green,
Broad arrows, and a curious long bow;
This done, the next day, so gallant and gay,
He marched them all on a row.

Quoth he, "My brave yeomen, be true to your trust,
And then we may range the woods wide:"
They all did declare, and solemnly swear,
They'd conquer, or die by his side.

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Robin Hood and the Ranger (Child Ballad No. 131)

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When Phoebus had melted the sickles of ice, With a hey down, &c. And likewise the mountains of snow, Bold Robin Hood he would ramble to see, To frolick abroad with his bow. He left all his merry men waiting behind, Whilst through the green vallies he passd; There did he behold a forester bold, Who cry'd out, "Friend, whither so fast?"

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Geordie (versione originale - 1966) - Fabrizio De André e Maureen Rix

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Nadia Birkenstock - Celtic Harp and Song

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"The Cruel Sister" (trad.) Celtic Harp and Vocals

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Lord Randall arranged, sung and played by an Italian musician

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Lord Randall arranged, sung and played by an Italian musician

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in the 11th and 12th century church clerks started to write down Anglo-Saxon poetry 

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in the 11th and 12th century church clerks started to write down Anglo-Saxon poetry 

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"Heofones candel" is a kenning which stands for... 

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"Heofones candel" is a kenning which stands for... 