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Lindo Jong was married at a very early age and left by her family causing her to have relationship problems with her daughter Waverly. In the text, Lindo states, “I once sacrificed my life to keep my parents’ promise” (Tan 42). Not only is she talking about her own life, but the life and childhood of her daughter as well. This early arranged marriage does not work very well and after she unties herself from the doomed marriage, she will never be the same little girl again. Lindo later states she remembers “how nice it is to be that girl again, to take off my scarf, to see what is underneath and feel the lightness come back into my body” (Tan 63). Lindo knows she will never be the same which can be a result of her early marriage at such a young age. Lindo’s daughter, Waverly, also experiences those effects during her childhood when Lindo puts heavy pressure on Waverly to be the best in chess at such a young age. Waverly says, “If I lost, I would bring shame on my family” (Tan 97). This high achievement demand on Waverly puts a damper on their relationship with each other. Another affect of Lindo’s early trauma with marriage is her over protectiveness with Waverly and her boyfriends. Waverly reveals that Lindo “never thinks anybody is good enough” (Tan 183). This over protectiveness causes Waverly to keep her fiancé Rich a secret which then, generates a divide in their relationship especially when Lindo finds out about him. Lindo reacts in complete calmness that shocks Waverly as Lindo admits their relationship needs work and after finally building up their relationship again, Lindo’s stubborn and protective attitude gets in the way. Her attitude exemplifying how her early marriage causes her to be overprotective and this is bad for their relationship.

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As Adichie’s novel progresses, the audience sees Kambili grow up and eventually become an adult; however, it is clear that she is lacking in her sense of independence. While on her way to her brother’s release from prison she thinks, “It will be hardest because we finally have good news, because the emotions we used to hold back are dissolving and new ones are forming,” (Adichie 302.) The audience is shown that Kambili has somewhat forgotten how to experience emotions, even the happiness that comes from seeing her brother. She explains that feeling these emotions will be “the hardest” which proves she is lost in the sense of who she is. Kambili lacks the ability to freely express her emotions because she grew up in an environment where her happiness was only temporary due to her father’s constant abuse. This caused Kambili to never develop the skills needed to interact and communicate with others; these skills are the base of experiencing emotions healthily. The audience also sees how the abuse has affected her life as an adult when she thinks about the recurring nightmares, she now experiences. Kambili explains them as, “It (shame) mixes with grief and so many other things that I cannot name and forms blue tongues of fire rest above my head, like Pentecost,” (Adichie 305.) While under the constant control and pressure of Papa, Kambili never got to make decisions for herself. She did what Papa said, and there was never any argument. But now that he has passed away, she has no one forcing her do anything, so in turn she has no guidance in decision making. Even though he was terribly cruel to her, Kambili still dreams about Papa because she craves the feeling of achievement that came after she accomplished whatever he had wanted. This leads her to have absolutely no sense of independence because she was never given that chance to decide what she wanted. Papa’s abuse planted the seed of compliance and submission into Kambili.

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Experiences of abuse during childhood cause parents to be prone to abusing their children in the future. In the beginning of the novel, Adichie shows the reader how abusive Papa is. Kambili is in her room, and she hears “Swift, heavy thuds on my parents’ hand-carved bedroom door” (Adichie 32). At first, Kambili thinks that her parents are stuck in their room but once her parents come out of their room, she and Jaja see that there is blood on the floor. It is inferred that Papa Eugene beats Mama and caused her to have a miscarriage, which is another example of how childhood trauma causes people to abuse their family later. After Jaja and Kambili's stay at Aunty Ifeoma’s, Papa Eugene punishes his children for disobeying him and as he pours boiling water on Kambili’s feet, he reveals that “‘the good father, the one I lived with at St. Gregory’s, came in and saw me. He asked me to boil water and soaked my hands in it’” (Adichie 196). In missionary school, Papa Eugene sins and receives a punishment, from the priest, of boiling water poured on him. This punishment influences how he punishes his children and proves that parents with childhood trauma inflict past traumas upon their children.

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In Amy Tan’s novel “The Joy Luck Club” An-Mei’s mental well-being adjusts in a negative manner from the tragic death of Bing. In the novel she says to her family, “I told you to stop their fight. I told you to take your eyes off him” (Tan 135). An-Mei immediately carries the weight of her son’s death by blaming only herself for this tragic incident. She creates a mindset that everything is her fault because a mother’s natural instinct involves taking the blame. Carrying this load, she denies the reality and says to her daughter, “we must go and find him, quickly” (Tan 135). An- Mei allows her thoughts to spiral and convince her own self that her son is not dead. By continuing the search for her son, she shows that a “mother cannot conceive of the death of a child emotionally” (Meisenhelder). An- Mei mentally wears herself down to brokenness that generates an immense hole in her heart and unbelievable reality. In the novel it says, “After a dozen or so times, it was sucked into the dark recess, and when it came out, it was torn and lifeless” (Tan 139). An-Mei’s mental stability represents “torn and lifeless” because she experiences an event so grave that she never fully recovers. She is “plunged into indescribable pain” from the loss of her child which is a heart-wrenching experience that no mother should ever have to endure (Meisenhelder). After experiencing her son’s death, An-Mei changes mentally and emotionally while trying to process the awful occurrence of Bing’s death.

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The poor mental health of Ann-Mei and Ying-Ying take a severe toll on the mental health of their daughter shown how Rose and Lena cope with problems in their life. Lena describes a childhood memory when “she could see through me and that she knew I was the the one who had caused Arnold to die. I was terrified” (Tan 154). Ying-Ying is clearly extremely mentally ill, but Lena wants to believe her own mother. This causes her to misinterpret the Chinese stories because of her mother’s prophetic stories. She begins to believe that everything that happens to her is because of her actions. She begins to have an unhealthy relationship with her role in troubling things in her life that she has no power in. Lena displays her unhealthy relationship when she says, “Harold, I love you. And he looked in the rearview mirror, backing up the car, and said, “I love you too. Did you lock the door? And just like that I started to think. It’s just not enough” (Tan 160). Lena is affected by her childhood with a mentally ill mother. She is falling into the symptoms of being in vulnerable situations. She chooses to stay with someone who she knows does not share a loving relationship. She is not happy with her life, but she chooses to stay in a stressful and unfulfilling life because of the comfortableness of living in anxiety.  Rose describes her unhealthy coping mechanism when she realizes “I didn’t know what the choices were. And so, I put the papers and the check away, in a drawer where I kept store coupons which I never threw away” (Tan 252). Rose is affected by her mother’s PTSD by having emotional problems in her adult life. She has a problem with acting decisively, because a choice she once made resulting in her brother dying. She also, ignores issues and lives in an unhealthy environment. She allows herself to be mistreated by her husband without defending herself because she feels that her situation is uncontrollable. Both Lena and Rose show symptoms of how having a mentally ill parent can affect them, both including how they cope with challenges.

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The tragic death of Bing, An-Mei Hsu’s son, impacts her mental well-being and spiritual relationship with God. On the day of Bing’s death, Rose observes An-Mei having a look of “complete despair and horror, for losing Bing, for being so foolish as to think she could use faith to change fate” (Tan 139). An-Mei stands in a state of bewilderment, realizing her youngest baby boy just drowned to death. She brought him into this world and now she will never get him back. An-Mei suffers an “indescribable pain” knowing there is no future or hope for him (Meisenhelder). Additionally, she loses her faith in God and realizes “that things of unquestioned certainty could never be trusted again” (Tan 128). An-Mei used to give her whole heart to God, but now she does not know what to expect. She expresses anger towards him because she constantly prays, goes to church, donates money, and receives his blessings. She wonders how God could allow such agony on her. Fletcher describes maternal anger as a way of “protection to attempt to smother the intense, overwhelming, and intolerable sense of loss” (Meisenhelder). An-Mei uses God as a scapegoat to manage her strong feelings. Although her faith in God is a battle, An-Mei navigates her grief one day at a time.

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In the novel A Thousand Splendid Suns Lalia and Mariam are forced to depend on men like their husband Rasheed due to Taliban rule but defy multiple times to do what is right. When Rasheed would not let Laila go visit their daughter in the orphanage, she would defy him and go outside without a male presence. While outside the Taliban would question, “What is your name? Where are you going? Why are you alone? Where is your mahram?” (Hosseini, 320), before punishing her by whipping or slapping her because she broke the rules. The Taliban made rules that women had to depend on men to go or do anything. Laila defies these rules because even though she would be punished, her love for her daughter is stronger than the pain the Taliban inflicted on her. In their house, Rasheed ruled with abuse and oppression. Laila and Mariam were trapped in the abusive household because women could not live without men. Challenging Rasheed’s rule Mariam “was deciding the course of her own life. And, with that, Mariam brought down the shovel” (Hosseni 349). Mariam kills Rasheed knowing that her life will be taken from her soon after. Abuse is common in households under Taliban rule because of the disregard of women and the praising of men. Mariam fights for herself and Laila and gives them the freedom that Rasheed took from them. Even though in Afghanistan they as women could not live their life without Rasheed, they saved themselves from his abuse and gave Laila and their children a shot at freedom.

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Rose defies the expectations placed upon women to not get divorced and instead follows what she believes to be the right path for her to find her own happiness. Rose avoids talking to her mother about her and Ted’s divorce in an almost shameful way, “I don’t think we should talk about Ted right now, not here” (209). It is evident that Rose finds it inappropriate to talk about the divorce. She mentions it as though it is a disgraceful mark instead of a sad, yet unavoidable part of her life. She says this confusion is one that only Chinese people can have demonstrating how her culture can influence how she views the divorce (Tan 209). She eventually realizes that Ted is cheating on her and decides to follow her own happiness by proceeding with the divorce: “There were no choices. I had an empty feeling- and I felt free, wild. From high inside my head I could hear someone laughing” (Tan 216). Rose sees the divorce as so much of an obvious choice, that there are no other options. She feels liberated from putting herself first despite her previous apprehensions from biases that society placed on her. The decision and freedom that comes with it makes her giddy and ecstatic. Rose does not let societal stigmas hold her back from her autonomy and happiness.

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Suyuan’s authoritarian parenting style caused by PTSD leads Jing-Mei to rebel against her and the future that she had hoped her daughter to have. Suyuan experiences PTSD early in her motherhood when she was forced to leave her babies because “she knew she could not bear to watch her babies die with her” (Tan 322). This traumatic event in Suyuan’s life causes her to be strict on her daughter. Because of this trauma, Suyuan sets extremely high standards for her daughter. Jing – Mei and her mother often fight because she does not believe her mother’s parenting is in her best interest. Their constant budding at each other causes Jing Mei to rebel as she trusts that she will “will never be the kind of daughter you (Suyuan) want me to be!” (Tan 153). Jing – Mei explains that her mother has held her to such high standards that she can not comply with. Jing – Mei wants to be her own person, but her mother constantly gets in the way and demands “only one kind of daughter can live in this house. Obedient daughter!” (Tan 153). Suyuan believes she knows best for her daughter and does not let Jing-Mei make her own decisions. Suyuan’s authoritarian parenting style causes Jing – Mei to feel hopeless and out of control of her own life.

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Mariam’s barbarous childhood and Layla’s neglectful childhood have impactful consequences on their future actions. Mariam’s negative background fuels her in the novel when it says, “He’d taken so much from her in twenty-seven years of marriage. She would not watch him take Laila too. Mariam steadied her feet and tightened her grip around the shovel’s handle. She raised it. She said his name. She wanted him to see. ‘Rasheed.’ He looked up. Mariam swung” (Hosseini chapter 46 find page). In this shocking moment, Mariam gains the courage to react in such a way due to Rasheed’s continuous abuse throughout her and Layla’s life. When Mariam first leaves to live with Rasheed, she has a powerful spirit, but as life carries on, the light inside her fades. She becomes a shell of a woman due to Rasheed’s mistreatment and assault. As Layla arrives and bonds with Mariam, Mariam becomes fueled with rage from her past and saves Layla by ending Rasheed’s life. Second, Layla’s neglectful childhood impacts her life and this impact shows when the novel writes, “ (cant find quote) (Chapter 42). Layla continuously visits her daughter, Aziza, to show her unbreakable love despite the violent punishments she endures from the Taliban. As a child, Layla’s mother abruptly becomes emotionless when hearing the tragic news of her son’s death. She starts neglecting Layla, and this neglect takes a toll on her mental health. Layla sees Aziza in herself as a child and begins to strive never to let Aziza feel the way she once felt. Layla goes to extreme measures to prove she refuses to neglect her daughter due to her inattentive past.

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Antigone betrays Creon by burying her brother Polyneices after Creon ordered that Polyneices’s body be abandoned. Arguably, Antigone’s actions come from a sense of duty, to fulfill her job as Polyneices’s sister. But Antigone argues to Creon, “Your edict, king, was strong, / But all your strength is weakness itself against / The immortal unrecorded laws of God” (Sophocles Scene 2, 59-61). Antigone blatantly tells Creon that his reign is strong, but no will is stronger than the will of the gods. She points out to him that burials are sacred, and by not doing so, they are dishonoring the dead and losing what little honor Antigone’s family has left (Bobko). While explaining to her sister Ismene, Antigone explains her motives more in depth, saying “But I will bury him; and I must die, / I say that this crime is holy: I shall lie down / With him in death, and I shall be as dear / To him as he is to me” (Sophocles Prologue, 55-58). Antigone makes it expressly clear that her motives come from her moral compass leading her to do what she believes is right. Bobko analyzes, “Love, not rashness, is the clear motivation behind Antigone’s decision.” Antigone knows the risks, and is willing to lay down her life for her brother. Her actions in the play speak even louder than the words she tells Ismene. Antigone disobeyed Creon not for the sake of rebellion, but for the love of her brother. While Polyneices may have fought against Creon in the war that ended his life, Antigone knows he deserves to be buried.

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As a young man, Eugene lived with many hardcore Catholic missionaries whose way of life affected him in his adulthood. He tells Kambili that once, when he went to St. Gregory’s, the father he lived with found him committing a sin against his own body. Papa states, “He asked me to boil water for tea. He poured the water in a bowl and soaked my hands in it” (Adichie 196). Papa’s abusive childhood had a significant impact on him as he grows older. It shaped his behavior and influenced how he treated others, especially his family. He has an image of perfection in his head, most likely from his own traumatic experiences, and he pushes it onto his children and wife. The trauma he experienced affected his ability to express love and affection, leading to his cruel and controlling behavior. He always wanted to maintain a perfect image for society, so he was often harsh and did not tolerate any challenges to his authority. This created a tense and fearful environment at home, impacting his relationships with his wife and children, who struggle under his rigid expectations. His childhood trauma twisted his love into something harmful and emotionally damaging.

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In the novel, Jaja asserts his dominance towards his father whilst at the dinner table “Mba, there are no words in my mouth" (Adichie 13). This comment signifies the moment that Jaja’s character begins to have a turning point. He will now resist his father’s control and take charge of his own life. Papa replies in a state of awe. “What?” (Adichie 13). There was a shadow clouding Papa’s eyes, a shadow that had been in Jaja’s eyes. Fear. It had left Jaja’s eyes and entered Papa’s. “I have nothing to say,” (Adichie 13). Papa’s reaction suggests that he is caught off guard, and he is now left with the challenge of maintaining his authority over his entire family.  The interaction between the two reflects the dynamics of authoritarian parenting. Papa expresses the traits of an authoritarian parent through his harsh enforcement of religious and social ideals, but also through his violent outbursts. Overall, this interaction between Papa and Jaja emphasizes the conflict and strain that an authoritarian approach has on a parent and child relationship. It also shows that the rigorous enforcement of rules and lack of emotional support from Papa creates a hostile environment that prompts resentment and rebellion in Jaja.

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Kambili and Jaja struggle with the fear of their father and telling people about his abuse throughout the novel. One example of Kambili and Jaja trying to hide their father’s abuse is when Kambili says, “When people asked, he always said his finger was “something” that had happened at home. That way, it was not a lie and it let them imagine some accident, perhaps involving a heavy door” (Adichie 154). Jaja’s finger had been broken by his father for previously making mistakes on a test. In order to hide the truth, Jaja tells people it was just something that happened at home making them think it was just an accident. They are so fearful of what would happen to them or their father if anyone found out the truth. A time when Kambili truly fears her father is when she says, “Even though it was in an obscure side pocket of my bag, I was too scared to unwrap it. Papa would know, somehow. He would smell the painting in his house” (Adichie 196). Kambili brings a painting of Papa-Nnukwu back home from Amaka and is afraid her father will find out. Even though Kambili wants to unwrap the painting she is too scared her father will find it. She believes he is so powerful he will somehow find it and fears what he will do to her.

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In the novel, Mariam sacrifices her own life to provide Laila and Aziza a better one, knowing the consequences she would receive. Hosseini provides details of the abuse Rasheed implements on his family, “CHEW!” he bellowed. A gust of his smoky breath slammed against her face. She chewed. Something in the back of her mouth cracked” (Hosseini 67). At first, Mariam despised Laila for being blessed with children when she herself was not so fortunate. However, Mariam and Laila’s relationship grows throughout the book. Mariam even grows close with Laila’s daughter, Aziza, and treats her as her own. Unfortunately, extreme actions must take place to save Laila’s life, “And with that, Mariam brought down the shovel. This time, she gave it everything she had” (Hosseini 211). Mariam is stuck between the decision of life and death, and Mariam chooses the latter, owning up to the murder of her husband for the safety of Laila and Aziza.

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As women living under the control of the Taliban, Mariam and Laila do not receive the chance to get a full education or make their own money. Before school for girls is banned by the Taliban, Mariam’s and Laila’s families possess different views of education. When Mariam is young, she “picture[s] herself in a classroom with other girls her age,” but her mother believes that there is no point “in schooling a girl like [her]” and that Mariam would “learn nothing of value in those schools” (Hosseini 17-18). Mariam received basic education from a tutor, yet she longed to attend a real school despite her mother’s opposition to this. After her mother dies, the only focus is on her becoming a wife. For Laila, her father believes that “a society has no success if its women are uneducated. No chance” (Hosseini 114). Laila’s father knows that she shows promise in her education and that she is a very smart girl. However, Laila does not get to continue schooling once her family dies. Mariam and Laila never get to receive a full education because of how the Taliban later closes all schools for girls. The Taliban also forbids women from working, so Mariam and Laila have no choice but to depend on Rasheed.

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Lindo Jong, like most women in China at the time, is forced into marriage in her early years of life by her parents. When Lindo was just 2 years old, her future was already decided for her by her parents. Lindo states “Because I was promised to the Huangs’ son for marriage, my own family began treating me as if I belonged to somebody else … ‘Look at how much Huang Taitai’s daughter can eat’” (Tan 45). Lindo’s entire childhood is based on the fact that she is going to marry into another family and her family expects her to have a successful arranged marriage to uphold the family name. When Lindo arrives at her new family home she states “I was also determined to honor my parents’ words so Huang Taitai could never accuse my mother of losing face. She would not win that from our family” (Tan 49). Although she is no longer under her mother and father’s control, she still wants to live up to their family name to make her parents proud. At the beginning of her marriage, Lindo thinks of Tyan-Yu, her husband, as a god whose opinion is worth more than hers. According to Women in China, all a wife is, is another piece of property that belongs to her husband. This aligns with Sancong, she is now in phase two, putting her husband and his family above all else (Cartwright). But soon Lindo realizes this is not how she will live her life, so she begins to look for a way out.  She escapes the Sancong cycle by manipulating the Huangs’ to believe her dreams, in which her ancestors speak to her about her marriage beginning to crumble. Through autonomy and hope, she is allowed to leave the marriage and immigrate to America where she hopes to create a positive and free life for her children.