# data[].attributes.headline
Boeing B-17 Bomber - The Flying Fortress

# data[].attributes.subject
Boeing B-17 Bomber - The Flying Fortress

# data[].attributes.body
Explore the history of the Boeing B-17 Bomber, also known as the Flying Fortress, with PlaneHistoria. Learn about its development, missions, and impact on World War II.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
One of the most heavily armed bomber aircraft produced, the Boeing B-17 was used extensively by the US Army Air Force during the Second World War and became an iconic symbol of the Allies success in the war.

First developed by the Boeing company in 1935, it would serve with Allied forces up until the end of the conflict. The B-17 was responsible for one of the greatest amount of bombs of any aircraft dropped in the war and also paved the way for technological advancement with aircraft air defences.

Contents

Development

The origins of the B-17 began in 1934 when the former United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) sent out a proposal for a new bomber aircraft that could carry a substantial payload at an altitude of 10,000 ft and be flown at a speed of at least 200 miles per hour.

The proposal was also intended as a competition between what Boeing, Douglas and Martin aircraft manufacturers could produce.

Read More: Hawker Hurricane - The True Hero of the Battle of Britain?

At the Boeing plant in Seattle, the design process for the new bomber was spearheaded by designers E. Gifford Emory and Edward Curtis Wells. The initial prototype was named Model 299 and was intended to feature five defensive machine gun turrets and carry a payload of up to 4,800 lb bombs in a bay located behind the cockpit.

The machine gun turret mounted in the nose was considered innovative by allowing the gunner to fire at all forward-facing angles.

The 229's wingspan totalled 103 ft and it was powered by 1,200 hp Wright R-1820 radial engines.

Boeing also intended their new plane to be the first that could still fly and function in the air in the event of one of its engines failing.

Testing

The Model 299 completed its first flight in July 1935. It was a local reporter for The Seattle Times who first described the prototype as looking like a Flying Fortress when describing the number of machine turrets fitted to the plane. Boeing realized the marketing potential of the name and it remained.

In August 1935, the Flying Fortress made a second test flight from Seattle to Wright Field in nine hours and saw an average cruising speed of 252 miles per hour, a faster average speed than the competition designs proposed by Douglas and Martin. Major General Frank Maxwell Andrews of the USAAC approved Boeing's design based on its performance

In October 1935, Boeing wanted to test the climb rate of the prototype, however, it crashed shortly after takeoff, killing its crew and disqualifying it from the competition.

The cause of the crash was found not to be with the aircraft's design itself, but the crew not removing gust locks fitted to the plane before takeoff. As a result, the accident inspired mandatory checklist procedures for all pilots to follow before takeoff.

Although the B-17 was deemed safe to fly, the USAAC held reservations about the cost of the aircraft units but agreed to order thirteen units of the new bomber in 1936.

The B-17 proved reliable in service, even with reservations about its price, and the USAAC stepped up its orders with 155 B-17 units being delivered between 1937 and 1941. Following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, production and orders were sped up and the B-17 soon broke the record for the fastest production output of a bomber aircraft.

As the B-17 was put into combat, Boeing continued to update and modify the design. Later models replaced the number of guns from seven to thirteen, giving it improved defence capabilities. In the latter stages of the war, the B-17 was fitted with revolutionary technology, including remote-controlled gun turrets, radio controls and precision-guided bombs and missiles.

Read More: Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane - First Ever Cruise Missile

Overall production numbers totalled out at around 12,000 units.

RAF Service

The B-17 first saw its first frontline service with the Royal Air Force in 1941. At the outbreak of the Second World War, the RAF bomber fleet had mostly consisted of twin-engine, medium-range bomber aircraft.

Although larger, heavy-weight bombers such as the Handley Page Halifax and the Short Stirling were under development, the RAF bought 20 B-17 units from the USAAC.

The RAF began using the B-17 against targets in Germany in July 1941. Although the B-17 was an advanced bomber, the RAF lost eight of its Flying Fortresses during initial operations and aircrews also complained of technical problems with the aircraft. The raids ultimately ceased after daylight bombing was deemed too risky.

However, the initial problems demonstrated to Boeing where improvements could be made and the B-17's defences were redesigned and improved as a result.

The RAF redirected many of its B-17s from bombing roles to coastal patrol and reconnaissance missions. Perhaps most notably, the RAF formed the No. 233 Squadron for electronic warfare and the B-17 was used extensively in this role.

The B-17 would accompany bombers on their missions and use electronic equipment to jam or interfere with radio communications between Luftwaffe fighters and ground control.

US Service

In 1941, the USAAC was renamed the United States Army Air Force (USAAF) and the B-17 played an important role in bombing campaigns for the USAAF in all theatres of the war.

In May 1942, USAAF bombers arrived in England and formed the 97 th Bomb Group based at RAF High Wycombe. The arrival of the B-17 forces helped to ease RAF misgivings about the earlier performance of the aircraft after successful bombing campaigns took place against railways in occupied Northern France in August 1942, in which no aircraft were lost.

However, as B-17 raids against occupied Europe and Germany increased, the Luftwaffe stepped up its air defence campaigns against Allied bombers, resulting in mounting losses for the USAAF.

In contrast to other Allied air forces, the USAAF believed that a large number of heavily armed bombers would hold their own against attacking Luftwaffe aircraft despite evidence from RAF and Luftwaffe raids showing that unescorted bombers performing daylight raids were incredibly vulnerable.

The bomber played a crucial role in the Allied Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO) from January 1943 onwards. A raid over Schweinfurt in October 1943 became known as "Black Thursday" as sixty B-17 bombers were shot down during the mission.

Learning from the incident and knowing it was not sustainable to be losing vast numbers of aircraft and crews, B-17 squadrons were escorted over Germany by the P-51 Mustang and the P-47 Thunderbolt fighter aircraft.

The combined power of the bombing abilities of the B-17 and the speed of the escorting Mustang fighters caused significant damage to both the Nazi war effort on the ground and the Luftwaffe fighters sent to attack the large formations.

As such, both aircraft were credited with helping Allied forces gain total air superiority over Europe.

Read More: Northrop XP-79 - The Flying Battering Ram

The B-17 also saw action against the Axis powers in the pacific theatre and was first deployed as a reconnaissance aircraft in the Philippines in December 1941.

As a bomber, the B-17 initially saw a mixed performance in combat over the pacific. At the Battle of Midway, aircrews were instructed to fly their planes at a high altitude to avoid interception and attacks from Japanese A6M Zero fighters. However, bombing from such a height meant a majority of crews were unable to hit their intended targets.

The B-17 saw some success during the Battle of the Bismark Sea in March 1943 and joined forces with aircraft from the Royal Australian Air Force and successfully sunk a number of Japanese troop-carrying ships.

By 1943, the USAAF decided that the B-17 was more suited to use in European airspace and was kept mainly as a search and rescue aircraft in the pacific.

Post-war

The end of the Second World War reduced the need for mass produced heavy bombers and the B-17 was withdrawn from combat roles. The incoming jet-age further rendered high altitude propeller driven bombers obsolete in most war situations.

Some units were reserved for VIP operations but from 1946 onwards began to play an important role during Operation Crossroads: the atomic bomb tests carried out by the US in the south pacific. The B-17 was able to perform atmospheric tests to measure radiation in the air by flying close to the mushroom cloud without endangering the crew inside.

B-17 units also found use as drones or drone-tugging planes for pilots to practice air-to-air combat.

The US Coast Guard also continued to operate units of B-17 and these would rescue people at sea using a special Skyhook system in which a raft or a harness would be dropped to the water with a deployable balloon attached. The person in need of rescue would release the balloon which the B-17 would catch using a hook at the front of the plane.

The B-17 continued in search and rescue roles until its final retirement in 1959.

Legacy

Despite its shaky start in RAF service, the B-17 Flying Fortress played a very significant role with Allied forces in Europe and became synonymous with American air power during the war.

Pilots who flew the B-17 commended it as a dependable and sturdy aircraft. Aircrews also were known to praise the fact Boeing designed the aircraft with the protection of the men serving inside in mind. The B-17 was also known to successfully return to base even after being damaged by enemy fire or suffering technical faults.

Read More: Convair FISH & KINGFISH - The Stealth Parasites

Today, it is estimated around 45 B-17 units remain intact with four being in airworthy condition.

Perhaps the most famous example of a surviving B-17 is the Memphis Belle which became the first American bomber aircraft to complete 25 bombing raids. Its story was the inspiration for the 1990 war film Memphis Belle and the original aircraft was fully restored in 2005.

If you like this article, then please follow us on Facebook and Instagram.

Specifications

Crew: 10: Pilot, co-pilot, navigator, bombardier/nose gunner, flight engineer/top turret gunner, radio operator, waist gunners (2), ball turret gunner, tail gunner

Length: 74 ft 4 in (22.66 m)

Wingspan: 103 ft 9 in (31.62 m)

Height: 19 ft 1 in (5.82 m)

Empty weight: 36,135 lb (16,391 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 65,500 lb (29,700 kg)

Powerplant: 4 × Wright R-1820-97 "Cyclone" turbosupercharged radial engines, 1,200 hp (895 kW) each

Maximum speed: 287 mph (462 km/h, 249 kn)

Range: 2,000 mi (3,219 km, 1,738 nmi) with 6,000 lb (2,700 kg) bombload

Service ceiling: 35,600 ft (10,850 m)

Rate of climb: 900 ft/min (4.6 m/s)

I have a significant interest in aviation and military history, having graduated with a Master's degree in modern history at Oxford Brookes University in the United Kingdom. I have worked variously in the education and private business sectors. Outside of work, I enjoy both factual and fiction writing as a hobby. I currently live on the west coast of America and have been working towards obtaining my private pilot's licence.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Boeing B-17 Bomber - The Flying Fortress - PlaneHistoria

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
One of the most heavily armed bomber aircraft produced, the Boeing B-17 was used extensively by the US Army Air Force during the Second World War and became an iconic symbol of the Allies success in the war. First developed by the Boeing company in 1935, it would serve with Allied forces up until the end of the conflict.

# data[].attributes.headline
Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird Plane | The Plane Designed to Leak

# data[].attributes.subject
Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird Plane | The Plane Designed to Leak

# data[].attributes.body
Discover the incredible story of the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird plane, a strategic reconnaissance aircraft developed for the United States Air Force. Explore this iconic aircraft's history, technology, and legacy with PlaneHistoria.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird was a strategic reconnaissance aircraft developed for the United States Air Force.

For more than 20 years, this Lockheed plane served as the most important reconnaissance aircraft. SR-71 was designed to outperform every Soviet aircraft and missile with speed and altitude, following the 1960 incident, when the Soviets shot down CIA reconnaissance aircraft 1960 and captured its pilot Gary Powers.

Named Blackbird due to its unique blue to black color, this aircraft would set numerous world records for speed and altitude. Its small radar cross-section, paired with high speed, high altitude capabilities, and innovative defensive systems made the aircraft almost for radars. Blackbird was powered by two Pratt & Whitney J58 engines which provided a thrust of 32,500 lbf each.

It had a titanium body and incorporated the most innovative image and signals intelligence technology. Throughout its career, Blackbird would remain undefeated in the air, having escaped hundreds of enemy missiles and aircraft.

Contents

Development

The development of the aircraft which would be known as SR-71 began after a request from the CIA in 1957 to build an undetectable plane that would outperform the CIA's, U2 reconnaissance aircraft.

Read More: The F-22 Raptor - The Fighter of the Future

Lockheed, which had designed and manufactured the CIA's U2, immediately appointed Kelly Johnson and the Skunk Work unit to start sketching the models for the new aircraft.

Following numerous revisions requested by the CIA, Skunk Works prepared the aircraft model named A-12. This model would secure Lockheed a contract from the U.S. Government, and enable them to begin the work on developing and manufacturing the aircraft.

On May 1 st, 1960, the Soviet Air Defense Force managed to shoot down a U2 aircraft with surface-to-air missiles, capturing its pilot Gary Francis Powell and the majority of spying technology on the aircraft.

This incident served as an additional motive for Lockheed and the CIA to work on the development of the new aircraft. Lockheed's task was to develop the fastest aircraft of that time, which would fly at extremely high altitudes and could not be intercepted by even the fastest Soviet aircraft.

The first variant of the plane named A-12 had its first flights on April 30 th, 1962, proving worthy of the investment. Nevertheless, the development of the aircraft would continue. Considering the potential of the A-12, USAF ordered a reconnaissance variant that would be bigger than the A-12 and able to host more signals and intelligence equipment, in addition to a greater fuel capacity.

The aircraft would be designated SR-71 (SR- standing for strategic reconnaissance) and would complete its first flight on December 22, 1964.

After another incident on October 27 th, 1962, when another U2 was hit by Soviet surface-to-air missiles during the Cuban crisis, the idea of the plane became very simple. The Blackbird should be able to beat not only the attacks of adversary aircraft but also their missiles, using unmatched high speed and high altitude.

The plane was able to fly at 3 Mach, which was achieved on July 20, 1963, at an altitude of 78,000 ft.

If an aircraft or missile came close to the Blackbird, the aircraft would switch to flying at a higher altitude, leaving enemy aircraft unable to follow, and enemy missiles with exhausted thrust at high altitude. The aircraft would be painted in dark blue and black color to serve as camouflage in the night sky and to increase internal heat emission.

The Skunk Works team had worked so intensively on the aircraft after the U.S. Government feared Soviet Radar advancements that the final model of the aircraft was very impressive.

On the test conducted in absolute secrecy in the Nevada desert, the aircraft which was 100 feet long, would appear on the radar slightly bigger than a bird, but smaller than a man. The radar cross-section had been reduced by 90% after repeated demands from the customer.

However, the whole process of bringing the aircraft to its final form required extensive work. Considering the demand for speed exceeding 3 Mach and the thermal heat's effect on steel, Lockheed's engineers preferred titanium for the structure of the aircraft over steel.

The whole process of working with titanium was a separate challenge for the company. Firstly, securing the titanium required a complex acquisition process because the titanium ore was not available in the U.S.

The company would purchase the ore from the Soviet Union using a Third World country as a disguise.

Secondly, titanium was a very expensive metal, which increased the cost of the aircraft. Thirdly, Lockheed had to change most of its working methods because of titanium, including, using only distilled water and removing cadmium-plated tools due to their corrosive impact on titanium.

Nevertheless, Lockheed's Skunk Works ensured that titanium was the main structural component for the Blackbird while it used a quartz windscreen for the cockpit.

The aircraft was powered by 2 Pratt & Whitney J58 engines, which could produce a static thrust of 32,500 lbf (145 kN). The iconic large inlet shock cones would decrease the air's speed as it entered the engine to subsonic speed.

Surprisingly enough, the engines were the most efficient when the aircraft was flying at 3.2 Mach. Though some flights revealed it could be even more efficient at speeds exceeding 3.2 Mach. The only limitation for the speed of the aircraft was the air temperature entering the engine compressor.

However, with great speed comes high fuel consumption. Lockheed's engineers made sure that the aircraft could be in-flight refueled considering that supersonic flights consumed an immense amount of fuel, and could last no more than 90 minutes.

The SR-71 was infamous for leaking fuel whilst on the runway too. Whilst being designed, the high temperatures and expansion of the materials used had to be taken into account and gaps were left to ensure this did not cause issues in flight. So whilst cold, the SR-71 constantly leaked. The titanium skin could reach almost 1000 Fahrenheit and that heat made the plane grow nine inches longer during a normal flight.

Considering that this aircraft was supposed to be a strategic reconnaissance marvel, great attention was paid to integrating the most cutting-edge technology. The Blackbird had two seats in its cockpit, with the pilot sitting in the front, and the navigator/reconnaissance systems officer sitting in the back.

Read More: AH-64 Apache - Overwhelming Firepower

The aircraft would contain the SLAR - side-looking airborne radar and ELINT - electronic intelligence gathering systems with options to record for both systems. In addition, the Blackbird would carry both Fairchild and infrared cameras and imagery systems.

The aircraft would also be equipped with defensive systems including electronic countermeasure systems and jammers that made the aircraft almost impossible to be intercepted or hit.

Considering the heat generated by the high speed of the aircraft and the decrease in pressure due to high-altitude flights, the cockpit and pilots were equipped with custom-made equipment for protection if exposed to extreme conditions.

The cabin would regulate the pressure and heat to the personnel's benefit, while they would also be given special pressurized suits and masks.

Lockheed would produce 32 units of SR-71 aircraft, 29 of which were the standard A variant, 2 were trainer variant B, and 1 was a hybrid trainer C variant.

Operational History

With only 32 aircraft manufactured, Blackbird had an impressive operational history all over the world. On March 1968, SR-71s would be deployed to Okinawa, Japan as part of the 9 th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing.

From there they would conduct reconnaissance missions over North Vietnam, which were initially codenamed "Black Shield" and later on "Giant Scale". Normally, SR-71s were designated to conduct 1 sortie per week, as they had a long turnaround after mission recovery.

They required constant maintenance and repairs due to the extreme conditions in which the airplane operated. However, by 1970, the demands for intel in North Vietnam had risen forcing the use of SR-71s twice a week.

By 1972, SR-71s were required to perform daily reconnaissance missions over North Vietnam and Laos. The extensive use of Blackbird might be the reason for 2 of these aircraft getting lost in missions in 1970 and 1972, which were attributed to mechanical malfunctions. Nevertheless, Blackbird emerged victorious in all engagements with North Vietnam adversaries.

There were around 800 surface-to-air missiles fired at SR-71s with all of them being unable to hit the aircraft. During its time in Okinawa Japan, the plane would receive its second nickname after the Japanese pit viper, called locally "Habu", which the locals thought the aircraft resembled.

On the other side of the planet, SR-71s would be used to conduct reconnaissance operations over the Soviet bloc.

They would operate out of England, on two main routes. The first one was over the West coast of Norway to the Soviet Kola Peninsula, while the other was over the Baltic Sea. The first route was considered safer since Norway was a NATO member and could be used for an emergency landing if they encountered troubles in flight.

The second route was slightly more complex. The SR-71s were constantly spotted and tracked by Swedish Air Force's radars, which lead the route followed by SR-71s to be named the Baltic Express by the Swedish Air Force.

Eventually, there would be a benefit from being spotted by the Swedish Air Force. On June 29 th, 1987, a Blackbird's engine would explode very close to Soviet airspace. The explosion and loss of altitude would give away the position of the damaged Blackbird.

The plane was spotted by the Swedish Air Force, who send two JA-37 Viggen planes to observe the situation. The Blackbird changed the course and was headed for a Swedish island to do an emergency landing. The Viggens immediately understood the situation and escorted the plane until another pair JA-37s took over and sent it to safety.

Declassified documents revealed that there were many MiG-25 Foxbats in the air ordered to shoot the Blackbird down, with one Foxbat having its missiles locked on the Blackbird. In 2018, the Swedish pilots would receive the USAF medal for their contribution to saving the plane. In 1990 the Blackbird would retire without having been shot down by an enemy.

For numerous political and technical reasons, the Blackbird would retire in 1990. Some politicians and experts named the operational and maintenance costs as the main reason to retire the plane, which presented inflated values to back their claim.

Some other critics claimed the lack of datalink (unavailability of live feed) and substitute technology such as UAVs and Satellite imagery as the reason for the SR-71 to retire. However, the capabilities and technology of SR-71 were still very important and unmatched in 1989.

That was the case with General Norman Schwarzkopf's request for expedited reconnaissance, which could not be fulfilled because the SR-71s were retired.

Until its first retirement, the Blackbird family had flown 53,490 total flight hours, of which 11,008 were mission flight hours.

The plane would come out of retirement to serve in the Bosnian War, after a request from senior military leadership and hearings in the US Congress. This time, Lockheed would equip it with a datalink for near real-time transmission. Only three SR-71s would return to service.
Read More: Lockheed D-21 - A UFO Spotter's Dream
Retirement

The plane would finally retire in 1998, after a long period of controversy regarding funding dedicated to the aircraft. Many were afraid that SR-71s might attract funding and attention from newly developed UAVs. NASA would continue using the Blackbird until 1999.

Today, the surviving SR-71s (12 were lost in different missions) can be found all over United States' Museums. The National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base hosts the SR-71 aircraft that flew a record of 942 total sorties. One SR-71 is also exposed in American Air Museum in Britain, Imperial War Museum Duxford, Cambridgeshire, England.

If you like this article, then please follow us on Facebook and Instagram.

Specifications

Crew: 2; Pilot and reconnaissance systems officer (RSO)

Length: 107 ft 5 in (32.74 m)

Wingspan: 55 ft 7 in (16.94 m)

Height: 18 ft 6 in (5.64 m)

Wheel track: 16 ft 8 in (5 m)

Wheelbase: 37 ft 10 in (12 m)

Wing area: 1,800 sq ft (170 m²)

Aspect ratio: 1.7

Empty weight: 67,500 lb (30,617 kg)

Gross weight: 152,000 lb (68,946 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 172,000 lb (78,018 kg)

Fuel capacity: 12,219.2 US gal (10,174.6 imp gal; 46,255 l) in 6 tank groups (9 tanks)

Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney J58 (JT11D-20J or JT11D-20K) afterburning turbojets, 25,000 lbf (110 kN) thrust each

Maximum speed: 1,910 kn (2,200 mph, 3,540 km/h) at 80,000 ft (24,000 m)

Service ceiling: 85,000 ft (26,000 m)

Rate of climb: 11,820 ft/min (60.0 m/s)

Steve MacGregor is a full-time professional writer who has written (and ghost-written) more than 200 books on non-fiction topics including history, military history, true crime and mysteries. He is a Scot who currently lives in Andalusia and spent around ten years before that living and working in SE Asia. He has a background in engineering and in a previous incarnation he was a technical writer in the oil and gas and marine industries. He loves all aircraft and he has spent way too much time flying gliders over the Highlands of Scotland. He is married with two grown-up children.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird Plane | The Plane Designed to Leak | PlaneHistoria

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird was a strategic reconnaissance aircraft developed for the United States Air Force. For more than 20 years, this Lockheed plane served as the most important reconnaissance aircraft. SR-71 was designed to outperform every Soviet aircraft and missile with speed and altitude, following the 1960 incident, when the Soviets shot down CIA reconnaissance aircraft 1960 and captured its pilot Gary Powers.

# data[].attributes.headline
North American X-15 - The 4000 MPH Rocket Plane

# data[].attributes.subject
North American X-15 - The 4000 MPH Rocket Plane

# data[].attributes.body
Discover the North American X-15, a rocket-powered aircraft that set speed and altitude records in the 1960s, reaching speeds of up to 4000 MPH. Explore its fascinating history on PlaneHistoria.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
North American X-15 - The 4000 MPH Rocket Plane

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
X-15 is a hypersonic rocket aircraft designed and built by North American for NACA (later NASA) testing. It set speed records in the 1960s that remain unbroken some 60 years later. An unbelievably ambitious project that actually paid off. A lot of valuable data was gained and implemented into future aircraft design.

# data[].attributes.headline
Avro Lancaster Bomber | The Dam Busting Bomber

# data[].attributes.subject
Avro Lancaster Bomber | The Dam Busting Bomber

# data[].attributes.body
Explore the history of the most famous iconic Avro Lancaster Bomber aircraft that helped win WWII and played a pivotal role in the Dam Busters raid. Visit PlaneHistoria for more.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
One of the most famous aircraft to take part in the Second World War, the Lancaster was designed and built by AV Row & Company (Avro) for use as a heavy bomber by the Royal Air Force and entered service in 1942. It soon became one of the main heavy bombers to be used extensively for the remainder of the war and took part in what would become some of the war's most famous bombing operations.

Contents

Origins

The Lancaster originated from a smaller aircraft, the twin-engine Avro Manchester which completed her maiden flight in July 1939. The new aircraft had been designed in response to a specification issued by the British Air Ministry between 1936 and 1937.

Read More: F-16XL - The Crank Wing Experiment

The specification called for the creation of a heavy bomber that would be suitable for worldwide use and could also be capable of carrying a substantial payload with a minimum cruising speed of around 275 mph.

Although the Manchester was initially deemed an effective aircraft at the start of its RAF service, it was later found to be underpowered by its twin Rolls-Royce Vulture engines which caused performance and reliability issues in the air. In 1941, the Manchester was suspended from service due to technical problems with its engine bearings.

As a result, the RAF cancelled many orders in favour of the Handley Page Halifax and the Manchester was withdrawn from combat use in 1942. It initially remained as a training aircraft with the RAF before disappearing entirely from service in 1943.

Undeterred, Avro went back to the drawing board and tasked its chief designer Roy Chadwick with creating an updated version of the Manchester. At the time, the British government and aircraft manufacturers had started to note that American and Russian larger aircraft designs featured four smaller engine units on the wings which resulted in better performance.

Chadwick decided to alter the Manchester's design by fitting four less powerful but more reliable and modern Rolls-Royce Merlin engines to a wider wingspan. The new design was initially named the Manchester Mk III but after more modifications, Avro renamed it the Lancaster.

Development

An initial Lancaster prototype known as BT308 was produced at Avro's experimental facility at what is now Manchester Ringway Airport under Chadwick's direction. It completed its maiden flight at Ringway in January 1941.

Already, the new Lancaster was seen as an immediate improvement over its predecessor. The first prototype was completed with three rear tailfins at the back of the plane, however, this was changed to two fins for the second prototype and kept for the subsequent production models.

The Lancaster's components were manufactured and put together at different locations before the final assembly process. Most of the Lancaster's body was built at Avro's facility in Oldham, Lancashire before the airframe was taken to Woodford Aerodrome in Cheshire for final assembly and testing.

As the war progressed, manufacturing of Lancaster models continued to be contracted out to other companies including Vickers-Armstrong, Victory Aircraft and the Austin Motor Company.

The Lancaster first saw action in March 1942 when it took part in a mission laying naval mines on the Heligoland Bight off the coast of Germany in what became one of many attempts to sink the German battleship, Tirpitz. That same year the Lancaster was also used in its first bombing mission over the German city of Essen.

Read More: Me 262 Schwalbe - Troubled Development

The Lancaster's design featured a long bomb bay designed to carry significant payloads or larger individual bombs, such as the 12,000 lb "Blockbuster" bomb.

Aircrews noted that the Lancaster demonstrated impressive agility and reliability for a bomber of its size. It could complete a return journey back to England with only two engines running, and in some cases cover a reasonable distance on just one functioning engine.

Some Lancaster pilots reported being able to outmanoeuvre and evade pursuing Luftwaffe fighters thanks to the smooth and responsive nature of its controls.

During bombing campaigns over Germany and occupied Europe, the Lancaster was primarily used as a night bomber due to the higher risk of losing aircrews and aircraft to enemy defences during daylight hours.

It later assumed a wider role as a day bomber once the Allies were able to secure air superiority over Europe. The Lancaster was also famously used in precision-focused bombing missions which involved important or difficult targets and were able to carry more experimental bombs such as the 12,000 lb "Tallboy" for use on strategic targets.

In addition, the Lancaster also performed mapping and photo-reconnaissance roles.

A total of 7,337 Lancaster bombers were built throughout the remainder of the war with six different and updated variants being rolled off the production line.

Operation Chastise

Perhaps the most famous use of the Lancaster in a special military operation occurred in May 1943 with Operation Chastise, an event which would go on to be immortalized as the "Dambusters Raid."

The intended targets of Operation Chastise were the dams that provided electricity and water for steel production in the heavily industrial Ruhr Valley.

For the raid, British engineer Barnes Wallis had conceived the idea of the "Bouncing Bomb," a drum-shaped bomb designed to bounce across the surface of the water towards its intended target before sinking to the bottom and exploding.

The Lancaster was deemed the most suitable plane to transport the bouncing bomb due to its sizeable bomb container and No. 617 Squadron (a unit formed less than two months before the operation began) was selected to carry it out.

Read More: Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 - The Fastest Soviet Jet Fighter

617 Squadron were supplied with specially modified Lancaster Mk IIIs for the raid and practised over various reservoirs across England before a live bombing practice was undertaken using the Lancaster over the Elan Valley Reservoirs.

The raid then took place between 16-17 of May 1943. Nineteen Lancaster bombers took part in the raid with RAF Wing Commander Guy Gibson leading the operation.

Eight Lancaster bombers were lost during the operation, but the remaining crews successfully destroyed two of the intended dams; the Möhne and the Edersee, while the Sorpe Dam received damage but survived the raid.

The overall tactical success of the raid has been the subject of historical debate. British Commander-In-Chief of Bomber Command Arthur Harris and Nazi Armaments Minister Albert Speer both questioned its success, with Harris believing it to be a waste of time and resources while Speer argued in his writing after the war that a more substantial raid would have completely halted German industrial production.

Wallis himself also expressed frustration that a follow-up campaign on the damaged Sorpe Dam was not conducted.

Nevertheless, the raid has also been commemorated as one of the most audacious operations of the war and a triumph of engineering with the bouncing bomb proved to work effectively when it was successfully deployed.

Subsequent RAF reconnaissance missions found that the breached dams had caused significant damage and disruption by flooding the Ruhr. Public opinion research even in Germany at the time viewed it as a strategic success for the British.

The raid also helped to cement the Lancaster's reputation as a bomber aircraft capable of carrying out complex or risky campaigns and as a significant icon of the Second World War.

617 Squadron was maintained by the RAF after the war and continues to fly today.

Post-war

The end of the war reduced the need for the high quantity production of military aircraft and rendered some bombers obsolete. The Lancaster itself was replaced as a frontline bomber by the Avro Lincoln in August 1945, with the Lincoln borrowing much of its design from the Lancaster.

However, the Lancaster remained in RAF service performing both maritime patrol and non-combat roles. It was also retained for a period after the war as a search and rescue and an anti-submarine warfare aircraft before being replaced in both roles by the Avro Shackleton.

The Lancaster also operated several repatriation flights in 1945, ferrying German and Italian prisoners of war back to their countries.

The Lancaster also played an important role in the British development of air-to-air refuelling technology. Two surviving Lancaster aircraft were converted into prototype refuelling and fuel transportation aircraft.

Read More: ATLAS-1 - The Space Mission to Understand the Atmosphere

The tanker Lancaster variants would go on to provide refuelling support to other aircraft during the Berlin Airlift in 1948.

Like other wartime aircraft, some Lancaster models were converted for freight and civilian passenger use.

It was adapted to passenger service by British South American Airways (BSAA) and later British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). In its commercial and civilian service, the Lancaster also set two significant records: in March 1946, a Lancaster tanker variant performed a non-stop flight from London to Bermuda and BSAA Lancaster airliners performed the first scheduled flights from the newly opened London Heathrow Airport in March 1946.

Due to the Lancaster's smaller size, BOAC generally used it for mail carrying, VIP flights and long-distance services to locations as far as Australia and South America. The Lancaster remained in service with BOAC until 1949.

The final RAF military service Lancaster was recorded as having been retired in 1954 after serving as an aerial reconnaissance plane.

Internationally, Lancaster models have also served with the French naval air arm and the French, Canadian and Argentinian air forces. France was one of the final countries to withdraw the Lancaster from military service in the mid-1960s.

Legacy

Out of all the Lancaster aircraft to be built, seventeen are now recorded as being in intact condition and two of these remain airworthy.

The Lancaster has arguably remained one of the most well-known and iconic aircraft to have served during the Second World War with its cultural legacy strongly tied to its role in the Dambusters Raid.

If you like this article, then please follow us on Facebook and Instagram.

Specifications

Crew: 7: pilot, flight engineer, navigator, bomb aimer/nose gunner, wireless operator, mid-upper and rear gunners

Length: 69 ft 4 in (21.13 m)

Wingspan: 102 ft 0 in (31.09 m)

Height: 20 ft 6 in (6.25 m)

Empty weight: 36,900 lb (16,738 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 68,000 lb (30,844 kg)

Powerplant: 4 × Rolls-Royce Merlin XX V-12 liquid-cooled piston engines, 1,280 hp (950 kW) each

Maximum speed: 282 mph (454 km/h, 245 kn) at 63,000 lb (28,576 kg) and 13,000 ft (3,962 m) altitude

Range: 2,530 mi (4,070 km, 2,200 nmi)

Service ceiling: 21,400 ft (6,500 m) at 63,000 lb (29,000 kg)

Rate of climb: 720 ft/min (3.7 m/s) at 63,000 lb (29,000 kg)

I have a significant interest in aviation and military history, having graduated with a Master's degree in modern history at Oxford Brookes University in the United Kingdom. I have worked variously in the education and private business sectors. Outside of work, I enjoy both factual and fiction writing as a hobby. I currently live on the west coast of America and have been working towards obtaining my private pilot's licence.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Avro Lancaster Bomber | The Dam Busting Bomber | PlaneHistoria

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
One of the most famous aircraft to take part in the Second World War, the Lancaster was designed and built by AV Row & Company (Avro) for use as a heavy bomber by the Royal Air Force and entered service in 1942.

# data[].attributes.body
Discover the history and technical features of the YF-23, the stealth fighter jet that competed against the F-22 for the title of America's next fighter plane. Learn about its design, performance, and why it ultimately lost to the F-22.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Northrop YF-23 was unofficially named the Black Widow II for the stealth configurations it employed in its contest against the Lockheed YF-22A, in an epic battle of engineering prowess that would determine the US Air Force's next covert fighter jet.

Although ultimately unsuccessful, the YF-23A was still an incredibly impressive piece of technology, and was in some ways better than the YF-22A, now better known as the F-22 Raptor.

Contents

Background

At the beginning of the Reagan administration, and with the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle of the US fleet becoming increasingly outdated, an Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) competition was established in June 1981 to find a suitable replacement.

Read More: Me 262 Schwalbe - Troubled Development

They were to build on the findings of a study called TAC-85 started in the late 1960s, commissioned even before the F-15 entered service, which focused on the concept of an Advanced Tactical Fighter, and in particular the possible stealth capabilities that could be engineered into future jets.

By 1976 the US Air Force (USAF) was interested in incorporating low-observable technology elements into the F-15 successor and developing methods that could enable planes to travel at supersonic speeds without the use of an afterburner, which could reveal positions because of its noticeable exhaust fume.

As a result, two further studies, which were both initially focused on ground-attack missions since the existing F-15 was considered good enough to match any Soviet air threat, called the Enhanced Tactical Fighter (ETF) and the Advanced Tactical Attack System (ATAS) were commenced in 1978.

Although the ETF was shortly discontinued in April 1980, the ATAS, considered a longer-term project and focused on the creation of cutting-edge weapons and technologies, was re-designated as Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) the same year.

With the rise of more highly advanced Soviet craft such as the MiG-29, MiG-31, and the Su-27, the program also re-considered its original scope, opting to explore ways they could dominate air-to-air combat again in addition to air-to-ground engagements.

Development

Following the issuance of a Request for Information (RFI) in June 1981, which set out all of USAF's specifications, 9 aeronautical companies, namely Boeing, Fairchild, Grumman, General Dynamics, McDonnell Douglas, Lockheed, Northrop, Vought, and Rockwell all expressed interest in the project.

USAF were looking for a fighter that could reduce its vulnerability to Surface to Air Missiles (SAMS) by flying supersonically over enemy territory without the need for an afterburner, could employ Short-Take Off and Landings (STOL) so that it could use damaged runaways, had a superior flying range than the F-15 so it could be operated and maintained at sites further away from the battlefield, and that lastly could be cost-effective.

In addition to this, with the emergence of the F-117A Stealth Fighter, renewed confidence in the capabilities of the F-111, and General Dynamic's and McDonnell Douglas' successful modification of the F-15 and F-16 fighters into effective strike jets, USAF had a renewed confidence in their air-to-ground abilities, and as a result the ATF was to be principally to focus on the air-air arena.

By the end of 1984, more detailed specifications were drawn up, with the ATP now requiring a cruise speed of Mach 1.5 speed, the ability to accelerate from Mach 0.6 to Mach 1 in 20 seconds and between Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.8 at 20,000 to 30,000 feet within 50 seconds, a maximum gross take-off weight of 50,000 pounds, a combat radius of 700 nautical miles, and a maximum unit cost of $40 million.

At the same time, a competition for the ATP engine, called the Joint Advanced Fighter Engine (JAFE) was also set up, pitting seasoned propulsion specialists General Electric and Pratt & Whitney against each other.

They were instructed to come up with a power-plant that could be self-starting and could reliably perform in a high thrust to weight manner.

In September 1985, rather than having a standard head-to-head competition between two manufacturers to determine the contract winner, a Demonstration and Validation (Dem/Val) competition, which involved the creation of a non-flying prototype that would be exclusively tested on the ground, was announced, with the winner given the privilege of building a working model afterwards.

However, by May 1986 this was revised so that two companies would be chosen at the end of the Dem/Val phase to compete in a conventional fly-off showdown.

In total, 7 companies entered including Boeing, General Dynamics, Lockheed, Grumman, Rockwell, McDonnell Douglas, and Northrop, the latter two of which, realizing that the Dem/Val phase was going to be more expensive than USAF had anticipated, decided to team up and agreed that the winning partner would be the project lead.

Read More: Convair FISH & KINGFISH - The Stealth Parasites

In October 1986 it was revealed that Northrop and Lockheed were the victors. Northrop, with McDonnell as the junior partner, were next to compete against Lockheed who had also teamed up with Boeing for the Full Scale Development (FSD) contract that, with USAF stating they were interested in ordering up to 750 units, promised to be a very lucrative prize.

The YF-23

The YF-23A, manned by a single operator, had a height of 13 feet and 11 inches, a length of 67 feet and 5 inches, and a pair of diamond-shaped wings that were swept back at 40 degrees, with a wingspan of 43 feet and 7 inches and a wing area of 900 square feet.

With an altitude ceiling of 65,000 feet and a combat takeoff weight of 62,000 pounds, it was powered by two Pratt & Whitney YF119-PW-100 engines or two General Electric YF120-GE-100 after-burning turbofans, which gave it a maximum speed of Mach 2.0 and a range of 750 to 800 nautical miles.

In order to save weight and maximize stealth, Northrop opted not to use thrust vectoring, a technique allowing the pilot to manipulate thrust from the engine to perform tight maneuvers.

Its body was of sleek design with a smooth lengthwise cross-section engineered to reduce drag and blend together a variety of dimensions, including a modified double trapezoid shape at the fore-body, which housed the cockpit, nose landing gear, electronics, and weapon bays, and a more circular section at the aft region.

It also features two widely separated engine nacelles that transitioned neatly into the wing, underneath of which were trapezoid air inlets linked with inlet ducts that led into the engine and were curved upwards and inwards to deflect radar emission beams coming from the forward direction.

At the forward fuselage, it was installed with a large chine which gave it greater pitch and yaw stability during high angles of attack, an innovation that dramatically boosted its turn performance to such a degree that, without artificially imposed limits, is superior in this aspect to many modern-day fighters.

At the upper fuselage, the YF-23A featured a mid-air refueling array, and at the rear fuselage, it was fitted with two V-tails angled at 50 degrees which hid fumes from the engine exhaust.

Fully loaded, it was armed with four AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles deposited inside internal bays at the sides of the engine ducts as well as 4 AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles carried inside an additional internal bay located beneath the air intakes.

In an effort to reduce radar detection, all of the armaments remained inside of the plane, and when released the projectile would be extended into the air stream and the bay doors would immediately shut in order to minimize its radar signature.

Finally, to save money, the manufacturers used components from existing planes, fitting the YF-23A with modified F-18 landing gears as well as a nose and a cockpit salvaged from an F-15.

Testing and Results

Northrop and McDonnell Douglas produced two Prototype Air Vehicles (PAV), the first, known as PAV1 and installed with a Pratt & Whitney engine, was transported to Edward Air Field Base in 1989 where it was unveiled to the public in a ceremony on June 22nd, 1990.

Operated by test pilot Paul Metz, it conducted its first test flight on August 27th, 1990, flying for an hour and encountering a minor issue with the left main gear which failed to latch properly, before it was trialed a further 4 times by September, undergoing a supersonic speed and in-flight refueling evaluation on September 14th.

The second prototype named PAV2, propelled by a General Electric YF120 engine, was finished on October 26th, 1990, and with Paul Metz again at the helm, it was able to match very closely the predicted computer-simulated characteristics while also being the first YF-23A to achieve a 'super-cruise' maneuver in which it traveled to Mach 1 speed without employing afterburners.

On the other hand, there were a few minor accidents in follow-up runs, with test pilot Bill Lowe's outer windscreen shattering at Mach 1.5 speed on October 30th, with the polycarbonate inner layer luckily remaining intact enough for him to perform a safe landing.

A few days before PAV1 was retired, both prototypes flew together in formation over the Mojave Desert on November 29th, and in general, despite some hiccups, they achieved excellent all-round data.

Nevertheless, on April 23rd, 1991, Secretary of the Air Force Donald Rice proclaimed Lockheed's YF-22A and Pratt & Whitney's YF119-PW-100 engines as the respective winners of the ATF and JSAF competitions.

Although the YF-23A had superior speed and greater stealth design than its rival and was only trumped by the impressive low-speed maneuverability displayed by the YF-22A, USAF's decision ultimately hinged on their greater confidence in Lockheed to deliver the program in a timely and cost-efficient manner.

Read More: ATLAS-1 - The Space Mission to Understand the Atmosphere

With Lockheed commencing work on what would later become the F-22 Raptor, both YF-23As were placed in storage at Edwards Air Force Base, where after briefly being considered in 1993 by NASA as candidates for the structural testing of composite airframes, were later transferred to the Air Force Museum in Dayton, Ohio and the Western Museum of Flight in Torrance, California, where they still reside today.

More recently, a repeat of the 1991 competition may be in the works, after Northrop-Grumann proposed a modernized version of the YF-23A to the Japanese military who in 2018 announced their desire for a brand new fighter jet, and who have also been approached by Lockheed-Martin.

If you like this article, then please follow us on Facebook and Instagram.

Specifications

Crew: 1

Length: 67 ft 5 in (20.55 m)

Wingspan: 43 ft 7 in (13.28 m)

Height: 13 ft 11 in (4.24 m)

Empty weight: 29,000 lb (13,154 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 62,000 lb (28,123 kg)

Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney YF119 or General Electtric YF120 afterburning turbofan engines, 35,000 lbf (160 kN) with afterburner

Maximum speed: Mach 2.2 (1,450 mph, 2,335 km/h) at high altitude

Range: 2,424 nmi (2,789 mi, 4,489 km)

Service ceiling: 65,000 ft (20,000 m)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Northrop YF-23 - The F-22 Competitor - PlaneHistoria

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Northrop YF-23 was unofficially named the Black Widow II for the stealth configurations it employed in its contest against the Lockheed YF-22A, in an epic battle of engineering prowess that would determine the US Air Force's next covert fighter jet.

# data[].attributes.headline
Focke-Wulf Fw-190 - Butcher Bird - PlaneHistoria

# data[].attributes.subject
Focke-Wulf Fw-190 - Butcher Bird - PlaneHistoria

# data[].attributes.body
Discover the history and features of the Focke-Wulf Fw-190, nicknamed the "Butcher Bird," a fearsome fighter plane used by the German Luftwaffe during World War II.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
When the Second World War began in September 1939, the Luftwaffe had only one front-line, single-seat fighter: the Messerschmitt Bf 109. In many ways, the 109 was an effective combat aircraft, but it had some notable and inherent design flaws that limited its usefulness and led to the Fw-190.

Most notable was the 109's narrow-track undercarriage. The undercarriage legs were mounted in the narrow fuselage. This simplified maintenance: the wings could be removed without the need for placing the aircraft on stands.

However, it also made the 109 tricky during taxiing, landing and take-off. Precise figures are disputed, but a substantial proportion of 109s were lost due to non-combat accidents that may be partly attributable to its unusual undercarriage design.

The 109 also had very thin wings which reduced drag but made if difficult to fit internal weapons. On most models, armament was slung under the wings on pods, which increased drag, negating the advantage conferred by the thin wings.

Finally, its cockpit was claustrophobic and the canopy used a complex design of framing and plexiglass panels that reduced visibility.

Even before the war began, these issues were recognised and a specification was issued for the design of another single-seat fighter than would succeed the 109 and overcome its inherent flaws.

Contents

Background

Kurt Tank was born in 1898 in Bromberg-Schwedenhöhe, Germany. After serving in the German Army in World War One, he gained a degree in electrical engineering at the Berlin Institute of Technology and, in 1924, gained his private pilot's license.

Tank became interested in aircraft design and joined the design department of the Rohrbach Metallflugzeug aircraft company where he was involved in the design of an early airliner, the Ro VIII Roland.

In 1930, he joined Bayerische Flugzeugwerke in Augsburg where he served under Chief Designer Willy Messerschmitt, the man who would go on to lead the design of the Bf 109. Although they were the same age, it's said that the two men did not get along: some accounts suggest that their brief period of working together led to a life-long feud.

Whatever the truth, Tank left Bayerische Flugzeugwerke the following year when he was offered the position of design director and head of flight testing for Focke-Wulf in Bremen.

This was a very prestigious position for an engineer who was just 31 years of age at the time, and Tank quickly became involved in the design of influential aircraft including the Fw-200 Condor, an airliner specifically designed for transatlantic journeys between Germany and the US (and later to become a very successful maritime patrol aircraft during World War Two).

In 1937, the Reichsluftfahrtministerium issued a contract for the design of a new single-seat fighter that would eventually replace the new Bf 109B that was then entering production and beginning to reach front-line units.

Design

The initial specification issued to Focke-Wulf specified a design capable of utilizing either one of two engines: the Daimler-Benz DB601 liquid-cooled V12 (as fitted to the Bf 109) or the BMW 139 18-cylinder, two-row, air-cooled radial.

Tank and his design team produced a design for a low-wing monoplane fighter that could use either engine. After these were reviewed, the Air Ministry announced in the Summer of 1938 that design work should continue on the version using the BMW radial engine. A contract was placed for the construction of three prototypes.

Tank later explained the reasoning behind the design. He and his team wanted to produce a fighter:
"That could operate from ill-prepared front-line airfields; one that could be flown and maintained by men who had received only short training; and one that could absorb a reasonable amount of battle damage and still get back."
The decision to use the radial engine came as a complete surprise to Tank and his team. In a combat aircraft, radial engines are a good choice because they lack the complex and vulnerable cooling systems of in-line engines, making them better able to resist battle damage. However, radial engines are bulkier, reducing the pilot's forward view and making it more difficult to design a streamlined fuselage.

It seems that the German Air Ministry was keen to avoid overburdening Daimler-Benz, who were already struggling to keep up with demand for the DB601, and that was why they insisted on a radial engine for the new fighter.

The new aircraft was given the RLM designation 190 and in June 1939, the initial prototype flew for the first time. The new Fw-190 incorporated several lessons learned from the 109.

Its undercarriage retracted inwards from pivot points located well outboard in the wings, giving the new aircraft one of the widest-track undercarriages of any contemporary single-seat fighter. The cockpit was spacious and the canopy was a single plexiglass bubble, giving superb all-around visibility. Flaps and landing gear were electrically operated, an unusual feature at the time.

However, the new prototype also had some problems. It was fitted with a large ducted spinner to assure cooling of the radial engine, but this was found to reduce performance.

It was quickly replaced with a conventional spinner that improved performance and did not cause overheating in the fan-cooled engine.

A second prototype was completed in October 1939, and this version was armed with two 7.9mm MG 17 and two 13mm MG 131 machine guns, all located in the inboard section of the wings.

However, it was also noted that the engine lacked power and a decision was made that all future versions would be fitted with the new, more powerful (and heavier) BMW 801C, 14-cylinder radial engine.

An order was placed for 18 pre-production aircraft, designated Fw-190 A-0. These were to be used for flight and armament testing before full-scale production. This version was armed with four 7.9mm MG 17 machine guns, two on the engine cowling and two in the inboard section of the wings.

Production

Early flight testing of the pre-production version involved dealing with continuous problems with overheating on the rear bank of cylinders on the new engine. In a few cases, the engines overheated so badly that they caused the ammunition for the cowling-mounted machine guns to explode!

Read More: Sukhoi Su-34 Fullback - Russia's Supermaneuverable Bomber

This issue was so serious that there was the consideration of abandoning the whole Fw-190 project. Instead, Tank and his team designed an improved fan-cooling system for the engine and BMW introduced an improved version of the engine, the 801C-1. These were used to create the next version, the Fw-190 A-1.

Tank also began work on the Kommandogerät, an electro-hydraulic system that provided automatic control of mixture setting, propellor pitch, fuel flow, ignition and operation of the supercharger to ensure that the engine was always in an optimal setting for the altitude at which the aircraft was flying, though it would be almost two years before this was fitted to operational aircraft.

Several Fw-190 A-1s were provided to JG 26, then based in France, for what was effectively combat testing.

Overheating engines continued to cause problems (some engines overheated before the aircraft even got off the ground!) and the armament of four machine guns was considered inadequate, but overall, pilots were sufficiently impressed with the new fighter that it was decided to go ahead with what would effectively be the first true production version, the Fw-190 A-2.

This version finally addressed the overheating issue by introducing new cooling vents into the cowling. It also replaced the wing-mounted machine guns with 20mm MG 151 cannon.

An additional pair of 20mm FF cannon were also provided in some versions, located further outboard in the wings. From the introduction of this version, the Fw-190 became unofficially known in Luftwaffe service as the Würger (Shrike, also known in English as the Butcher Bird).

Subsequent versions, the A-3 - A-5, introduced in 1942, featured a new and even more powerful BMW 801D-2 engine and, from the A-5, the possibility to use the aircraft in the " Jabo " ground attack role with the provision of underwing pylons for bombs and rockets.

The A-6 - A-10 versions, first introduced in April 1943, focused on the close support role, including additional armour and increased capacity for carrying bombs and rockets. These became the main aircraft used by the Luftwaffe Schlach t (battlefield support) force and gradually replaced the existing Ju 87 dive-bomber.

The Fw-190 A-8 became the most produced of all variants of this fighter with over 1,300 manufactured, including the R8 Sturmbock (Battering Ram), provided with even more frontal armour and intended for use in attacking US heavy bombers.

The Fw-190 D-9, which first began to appear in August 1944, was the only version of this fighter to be provided with a Jumo in-line engine. This proved to be faster and to have better climb performance than the A model.

The cowling machine guns were replaced with a pair of 13mm MG 131 cannons in the same position, supplemented by a wing-mounted 20mm cannons. This was arguably the best of all variants of the Fw-190 in terms of performance, but fuel and spares shortages meant that though large numbers were produced, relatively few saw action.

Many were used to provide top cover for airfields operating the new Me 262 jet which was vulnerable during take-off and landing.

The final versions of this aircraft were the Fw-190F and G. Both were designed to be Schlachtjaeger (battlefield support fighters) and included additional armour beneath the engine and cockpit.

Read More: SEPECAT Jaguar - Jet Trainer turned Nuclear Attacker

The addition of this armour degraded overall performance but made these versions lethally effective in the close-support role. The G version differed from the F in that it was designed specifically for long-range close support missions and the cowling guns were omitted to increase range.

Fw-190 in Combat

When the Fw-190 A-2 was first encountered by the RAF over France in September 1941, it caused consternation. It was significantly faster than the Spitfire V at all altitudes and had superior roll and climb rates. Its mix of machine gun and cannon armament also proved to be lethally effective against British fighters.

For a short time, the superiority of the Fw-190 was so pronounced that some people came to believe that the usefulness of the Spitfire as a fighter was reaching its end.

However, the Spitfire IX, introduced in June 1942, finally achieved parity with the German fighter and the Griffon-powered Spitfire XIV, introduced in 1943, finally provided the RAF with a fighter superior to the Fw-190.

The most notable feature of the Fw-190 in service was the versatility provided by sound basic design. It was used not just as a fighter but also proved to be effective as a bomber-interceptor, ground-attack aircraft, long-range escort and even (in small numbers) as a night fighter.

Over 20,000 examples of all variants of this fighter were produced from 1941 - 1945. The Fw-190 was used extensively on the Eastern and Western fronts, in North Africa and over Germany to defend against Allied bombers.

Many German pilots (and their Allied and Russian counterparts) believed that the Fw-190 was the most effective German single-seat fighter of World War Two.

Conclusion

There was nothing radical about the Fw-190. However, it was a balanced design that took the lessons learned from the more fragile Bf 109 to create an aircraft that was rugged and effective in the air superiority and ground-attack roles.

The large radial engine provided in most versions proved capable of absorbing combat damage while continuing to operate and it protected the pilot during a frontal attack. It's sturdy, widely spaced main undercarriage made it capable of operating reliably from rough forward airfields and its bubble canopy allowed excellent situational awareness.

The sophisticated Kommandogerät automated engine control system introduced in 1943 significantly reduced pilot workload while ensuring optimal performance at all altitudes.

Overall, there wasn't any one aspect of this aircraft that made it outstanding, but rather an aggregation of features that together made it one of the most effective combat aircraft of World War Two.

When it was first introduced, the Fw-190 had superior performance to most contemporary Allied fighters, though as the war progressed, its performance was reduced by the fitment of additional armour while new and improved Allied fighters first matched and then exceeded its ability.

Read More: Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird - The Plane Designed to Leak

Of course, it wasn't perfect. The bulky engine reduced pilot visibility to the front, particularly while taxiing, and this caused problems and even the loss of some aircraft. The initial engine overheating problems almost led to the cancellation of this fighter, but when these were finally addressed, it became a reliable and resilient aircraft.

Kurt Tank also went on to use the basic design of the Fw-190 to create arguably the best piston-engine fighter of World War Two, the Ta 152, but that is a story best covered in a separate article...

If you like this article, then please follow us on Facebook and Instagram.

Specifications

Crew: One

Length: 8.95 m (29 ft 4 in)

Wingspan: 10.506 m (34 ft 6 in)

Height: 3.15 m (10 ft 4 in)

Empty weight: 3,200 kg (7,055 lb)

Max takeoff weight: 4,900 kg (10,803 lb)

Powerplant: 1 × BMW 801D-2 14-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engine 1,700 PS (1,677 hp; 1,250 kW) and up to 1,980 PS (1,953 hp; 1,456 kW) for up to 10 minutes of emergency power

Maximum speed: 652 km/h (405 mph, 352 kn) at 5,920 m (19,420 ft)

Range: 900-1,000 km (560-620 mi, 490-540 nmi)

Service ceiling: 10,350 m (33,960 ft)

Rate of climb: 15 m/s (3,000 ft/min)

Steve MacGregor is a full-time professional writer who has written (and ghost-written) more than 200 books on non-fiction topics including history, military history, true crime and mysteries. He is a Scot who currently lives in Andalusia and spent around ten years before that living and working in SE Asia. He has a background in engineering and in a previous incarnation he was a technical writer in the oil and gas and marine industries. He loves all aircraft and he has spent way too much time flying gliders over the Highlands of Scotland. He is married with two grown-up children.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Focke-Wulf Fw-190 - Butcher Bird - PlaneHistoria

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
When the Second World War began in September 1939, the Luftwaffe had only one front-line, single-seat fighter: the Messerschmitt Bf 109. In many ways, the 109 was an effective combat aircraft, but it had some notable and inherent design flaws that limited its usefulness and led to the Fw-190.

# data[].attributes.body
The Me 262 Schwalbe was a revolutionary German jet fighter developed during WWII. However, its development was plagued with technical problems and setbacks. Learn more about the troubled history of the Me 262 Schwalbe on PlaneHistoria.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Me 262 is one of the great " What Ifs " of World War Two. What if Germany had been able to introduce larger numbers of this jet fighter, earlier in the war?

Could this really have changed the outcome of the air war? Was the development of this radical fighter really hampered by the personal intervention of Hitler? Few aircraft have generated more myths and more misunderstandings than the Me 262.

What is certain is that this was the first jet fighter to enter operational service with any nation and that it was remarkably advanced in many respects.

But it was also flawed and hampered by the fact that, by the time that it finally entered service, Nazi Germany was critically short of the resources needed to build these aircraft and the time and facilities needed to train pilots. This is the real story of the Me 262.

Contents

Origin

In the period between the wars, the concept of what would become the turbojet engine was well understood and it was generally accepted that such an engine might be capable of developing considerably more thrust than a conventional piston engine driving a propellor.

However, it was also recognised that considerable technical challenges would have to be overcome to make a reliable jet.

Read More: Convair FISH & KINGFISH - The Stealth Parasites

It wasn't until the 1930s that the first attempts were made to turn the jet engine into practical reality. By coincidence, these took place in three countries almost simultaneously and completely independently.

In Britain, RAF officer Frank Whittle applied for a patent for a reciprocating engine driving a compressor to produce a jet in early 1930.

In America, Vladimir Pavlecka, Chief of Structural Research at Douglas Aircraft, began sketching out designs for a gas-turbine engine in 1933. However, the first operational jet engine would be built in Germany, with a design created by a young German engineering student, Hans von Ohain.

Von Ohain applied for a patent for a turbojet engine in 1934. In early 1936, he joined Heinkel Flugzeugwerke. Just over one year later, in March 1937, the very first jet engine in the world was run at the Heinkel works.

It was crudely constructed out of sheet metal, but it provided over 500 pounds of thrust, far more than had been expected. Clearly, building a jet engine was possible, and soon, Junkers also began building its own jet engine, in secret and without reference to the work done by Heinkel.

By mid-1939, the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM - the German Air Ministry) had become aware of these developments.

It was clear to most people that a new war was coming and that the jet engine might offer the possibility of more performance than could be provided by any piston engine.

To avoid duplication of effort, Heinkel was ordered to cease work on jet engines, and two aero-engine companies, Junkers Motoren (Jumo) and BMW, were formally instructed to conduct research into jet engine development. This would lead to the creation of two new turbojet engines, the BMW 003 and the Jumo 004.

Two aircraft manufacturers, Heinkel and Messerschmitt AG, were instructed to begin design work on a completely new airframe for a military aircraft powered by a pair of these engines and capable of a top speed of not less than 530mph (the Luftwaffe's most advanced front-line fighter at this time, the Bf 109E, had a top speed of around 350mph).

This was certainly a startlingly advanced specification, and the fact that it was raised before World War Two had even begun has led to speculation that Germany could have had an operational jet fighter much earlier than it did, but the truth was that the technology involved in jet engines was still immature and it was this that led to the protracted development of the new aircraft.

Projekt 1065

The Messerschmitt response to the RLM specification was Projekt 1065, a straight-wing design with a pair of BMW 003 engines buried in the wing roots. The aircraft was provided with two main wheels and a single small tailwheel, all retractable.

However, although the airframe design was largely complete by June 1939, engine development was lagging far behind. Both the BMW 003 and Jumo 004 engines were struggling with a lack of an alloy light enough to build the internal parts of the engine but were able to resist the very high temperatures encountered.

As a result, development was slow and it quickly became apparent that the BMW engine in particular would be considerably heavier than anticipated.

Partly because of this, and partly because Messerschmitt engineers realised that engines embedded in the wing roots would be difficult to access for maintenance, that led to a significant design change.

The engines were moved outboard, to pods slung underneath the wings. This improved access, but it also affected the aircraft's centre of gravity.

Rather than consider a completely new design, it was decided to sweep the wings back at 18.5°. This gave the Me 262 its distinctive appearance and led to the name it was later given: Schwalbe (Swallow).

However, one year after the initial airframe design was completed, there were still no jet engines available from either BMW or Jumo.

To allow at least some basic flight testing to take place, it was decided to fit the new aircraft with a conventional piston engine. The first flight of what was designated the Me 262V1 would be powered not by jet engines, but by a single, 750hp piston engine driving a two-blade wooden propellor mounted in the nose.

Flight Testing the Me 262

The first flight of the Me 262V1 took place in April 1941 and the aircraft achieved a speed of just 260mph. The first BMW 003 engines did not arrive at the Messerschmitt plant until November 1941 and were not ready for the first flight test until March 1942.

During the first flight, the aircraft was able to take off, but both jet engines flamed out and the pilot was forced to make an emergency landing using only the power of the Jumo 201 which was fortunately still fitted in the nose.

It was clear that further development work was needed on the BMW engine, but the new 003A would not be available until October 1943.

As an interim measure, the Me 262 was designed to use the Jumo 004 engine. However, the development of this engine had been hampered by instructions that it should use as little " essential war material " as possible.

This included scarce alloys which were needed for the production of conventional aircraft and other weapons.

Read More: Kaman K-MAX Helicopter - Function over Form

This was understandable: no one really knew if jet-powered aircraft would be viable, and it made sense to focus skilled workers and resources on known technology, but as a result, the Jumo 004 would have inherent flaws and would never be entirely reliable.

The third prototype Me 262, fitted with two Jumo 004A engines, but without the Jumo piston engine in the nose, flew for the first time in July 1942. The fifth prototype was the first to use the tricycle undercarriage seen on all subsequent models - pilots had complained about poor visibility while taxiing but the long, fragile front undercarriage leg would prove to be an enduring problem for this aircraft.

By November 1943, the sixth prototype was able to achieve speeds of 450mph and it was demonstrated in front of Adolf Hitler. He was extremely impressed with the new fighter but insisted that it also be developed as a high-speed bomber.

Hitler's unexpected intervention is often cited as the main reason for the delay in bringing the Me 262 into service, but that's simply not true.

Messerschmitt AG was already working to a tight schedule, and they were certainly taken by surprise by this new requirement, but there is no evidence that work on the fighter-bomber version, which became known as the Sturmvogel (Storm Bird), caused lengthy delays in the introduction of the fighter.

However, indeed, Hitler's later insistence that a proportion of Me 262s was produced as Stormvogel did limit the total number of fighter versions available.

Far more significant delays to the Me 262 programme were caused by other factors. On August 17 th, 1943, the Messerschmitt AG plant at Regensburg was badly damaged in a bombing raid by B-17s of the USAAF.

This destroyed some of the Me 262 prototypes under construction and, critically, some of the jigs and tools used for airframe production. However, the most serious delays were caused by continuing problems with the Me 262s engines.

By mid-1943, the Jumo 004A engine was becoming more reliable and successfully completed several 100-hour tests.

But, its construction still used nickel and molybdenum. These were in critically short supply, and as a result a new version, the Jumo 004B, was designed to use mild steel parts with an aluminium coating to prevent oxidisation.

However, this new version of the engine took time to develop and was found to have a service life of just 10 - 25 hours. Due to this redesign, the Jumo 004B engine would not go into production until June 1944 and it wasn't until August 1944 that the first batch of 90 Me 262s was delivered to the Luftwaffe. By that time, it was much too late for this radical aircraft to have any significant impact on the course of the war.

In Service

A training unit, Erprobungskommando 262, was created in April 1944 to undertake combat testing of a handful of pre-production Me 262s, but it wasn't until September that substantial numbers of these aircraft began reaching front-line Luftwaffe units.

Two principal versions were used: the Me 262 A-1a Schwalbe interceptor armed with four 30 mm MK 108 cannons in the nose and the Me 262 A-2a Sturmvogel armed with two MK 108 cannons and capable of carrying either two 250kg or one 500kg bomb.

There were also experimental night-fighter, two-seat bomber, and reconnaissance versions, but none were produced in large numbers.

The Me 262 was certainly fast, more than 100mph faster than the fastest Allied single-engine fighter at the time, the P-51 Mustang, but all versions needed very careful handling.

Thrust was poor at low speeds, which made this aircraft very vulnerable during take-off and landing - standing patrols of Fw 190 fighters were needed to provide top cover to protect jet airfields.

The Jumo 004B was prone to compressor stall and flame-out if the throttle was opened or closed too quickly and it required a major overhaul after just ten hours of running. Even then, the jet engines were not reliable and it was believed that many Me 262s were lost due to engine failures, partly attributable to insufficient training of inexperienced pilots.

In combat, the Jumo engine also left a distinctive trail of black smoke that made the Me 262 easy to spot and attack.

A total of around 1,400 Me 262s were produced, but only around 300 were used in combat, and in general, no more than 30 - 40 of these aircraft were operational at any one time.

Conclusion

The Me 262 was a radical aircraft, but it was never a war-winning weapon. The fragile Jumo engines were a limitation that was never overcome and the protracted development of this immature technology meant that the Me 262 was never available in large numbers.

The Schwalbe was an awesome bomber interceptor, but it certainly wasn't invulnerable in air combat. The Sturmvogel version was fast enough to avoid most ground fire, but it could only carry a tiny bomb load and it was too fast for accurate bombing or strafing: it wasn't uncommon for bombs dropped by Sturmvogels to land a mile or more from their targets.

Some people have suggested that if it had been available in larger numbers and earlier, the Me 262 might have changed the course of World War Two.

Luftwaffe General Adolf Galland, for example, claimed after the war that, if the Me 262 had been available one year before and in substantial numbers, that it might have been possible to use it to end the American daylight bombing campaign against Germany.

The evidence suggests that this is simply not true. Nazi Germany had limited resources and production facilities. Switching to focus on the more rapid development of the Me 262 and its jet engines would have meant producing fewer of the piston-engine aircraft that Germany so desperately needed to maintain the war effort.

Even if a large number of the Me 262 had been available earlier, the evidence suggests that this wouldn't have made a major difference.

Read More: ATLAS-1 - The Space Mission to Understand the Atmosphere

For example, in April 1945, one of the largest forces of Me 262s ever assembled attacked an American formation over Northern Germany. Almost 60 Me 262s of JG 7 attacked the fighter escorts protecting a massive USAAF bomber formation.

The German jets claimed 18 kills, but 27 Me 262s were lost, almost half of the entire attacking force! The Me 262 has earned its place in history as the first operational jet fighter, but it was never the wonder weapon that is sometimes claimed.

If you like this article, then please follow us on Facebook and Instagram.

Specifications

Crew: 1

Length: 10.6 m (34 ft 9 in)

Wingspan: 12.6 m (41 ft 4 in)

Height: 3.5 m (11 ft 6 in)

Empty weight: 3,795 kg (8,367 lb)

Max takeoff weight: 7,130 kg (15,719 lb)

Powerplant: 2 × Junkers Jumo 004B-1 axial-flow turbojet engines, 8.8 kN (1,980 lbf) thrust each

Maximum speed: 900 km/h (560 mph, 490 kn)

Range: 1,050 km (650 mi, 570 nmi)

Service ceiling: 11,450 m (37,570 ft)

Rate of climb: 20 m/s (3,900 ft/min) at max weight of 7,130 kg (15,720 lb)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Me 262 Schwalbe - Troubled Development - PlaneHistoria

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Me 262 is one of the great " What Ifs " of World War Two. What if Germany had been able to introduce larger numbers of this jet fighter, earlier in the war? Could this really have changed the outcome of the air war?

# data[].attributes.headline
DH 98 Mosquito Bomber | The Versatile Wooden Wonder

# data[].attributes.subject
DH 98 Mosquito Bomber | The Versatile Wooden Wonder

# data[].attributes.body
Discover the Mosquito Bomber, a versatile wooden wonder that played a crucial role in WWII. Learn about its design, capabilities, and impact on history. Explore the PlaneHistoria website now.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Some aircraft are created great such as the DH 98 Mosquito. As soon as they roll off the production lines they are welcomed into service and soon fit perfectly into the role for which they are designed. In other aircraft, greatness only becomes apparent over time and often in roles for which they may not have been originally designed.

The Mosquito was designed in the late 1930s in Britain as a light bomber. However, the RAF weren't much interested. The new aircraft was to be constructed of wood as opposed to the all-metal warplanes then coming into service around the world. It seemed like a throwback to an earlier era and it was only reluctantly accepted because it didn't require the scarce metals needed to build other combat aircraft.

This was seen by many as a short-term, second-best, interim solution that would have to be tolerated only until resources were available for other new all-metal designs to be produced. Instead, the DH 98 Mosquito proved to be one of the best and most versatile designs of World War Two that, rather than being an antiquated wooden design, was actually a forerunner of entirely new approaches to aircraft design and construction.

Contents

Origin

During the 1930s, most military aircraft manufacturers in Britain and elsewhere were beginning to move away from the braced wooden structures used in earlier fighters and bombers and towards all-metal construction.

Read More: Got $10 million? XP-82 Twin Mustang for Sale

The benefits were obvious - metal construction was stronger and more resistant to combat damage and avoided the need for drag-inducing external struts and bracing. But one British aviation company continued to explore the possibilities of wood construction: de Havilland.

In the early 1930s, de Havilland produced several very successful civilian biplanes including the DH 89 Dragon Rapide airliner and what would become the RAF primary trainer, the DH 82 Tiger Moth.

However, the company was also experimenting with the design of advanced monoplanes. The DH 88 Comet was a sleek, low-wing, twin-engine monoplane with retractable gear that was designed primarily to take part in air races. Just five were built but this aircraft set new speed and distance records and in 1934, a DH 88 won the prestigious Victorian Centenary Air Race from Mildenhall in England to Melbourne in Australia.

Experience gained from the design and build of the DH 88 Comet led to the creation of the DH 91 Albatross Airliner/Mail Plane. This was another sleek, low-wing monoplane with twin tails (it looked rather like a scaled-down version of the later Lockheed Constellation airliner) designed for high speed and long range.

At a time when many airliners were biplanes or ungainly monoplanes with fixed undercarriage, the DH 91 looked futuristic and elegant, but just seven were built before World War Two began in September 1939.

What both the DH 88 Comet and DH 91 Albatross had in common was a unique form of construction. Both were built primarily of wood but used a quite different approach to the braced structures of earlier wooden aircraft. The wings used spruce spars and outer skin and the fuselage was built from a unique sandwich of two skins of plywood around a core of balsa wood.

This approach allowed the creation of a much more streamlined design that featured more aerodynamically efficient curves than were possible using metal structures.

No fasteners were used in basic construction - all major components were glued. This created an immensely strong structure that avoided the need for external fasteners, reducing drag and improving streamlining. At the time, the use of a wooden structure in an aircraft looked a little old-fashioned to many people. Now, we can see this as the forerunner of the composite structures used in most military aircraft.

Birth of the DH 98

In 1936, the British Air Ministry issued specification P.13/36 calling for designs for a new high-speed medium bomber. De Havilland responded in April 1938 with a design derived from the Albatross airliner, with a wooden structure and power provided by a pair of the then-new Rolls-Royce Merlin water-cooled engines but lacking any defensive armament.

Their proposal was rejected. The Air Ministry felt that de Havilland lacked experience in military aircraft design (they hadn't created a new military aircraft since World War One) and they didn't like the notion of an unarmed bomber - all the other British medium bomber designs of the period, including the Blenheim, Wellington and Hampden, featured defensive gun positions. But most of all, they disliked the proposed wooden structure.

Undeterred, de Havilland continued to refine the design of what was designated the DH 98 under the leadership of Chief Engineer Ronald E. Bishop. Leaving out heavy and drag-inducing gun turrets also meant that the crew could be reduced to just two: a pilot and Navigator/Bomb Aimer, making the aircraft even lighter.

De Havilland believed that it would be possible to create an aircraft capable of carrying a bomb load of 1,000lb over a range of 1,500 miles and with a startling top speed of over 400mph, making it faster than any fighter then in service.

The RAF remained unconvinced of the need for a fast light bomber, and the DH 98 project might have died on the drawing board but for one important fact: Britain was critically short of metals needed to create the aluminium alloys used in the construction of most metal military aircraft. The wooden DH 98 could be produced without the extensive use of strategic materials.

Despite this, many in the RAF were not at all happy with the notion of a wooden aircraft. Air Chief Marshall Sir Wilfrid Freeman (a personal friend of Geoffrey de Havilland), disagreed and an initial order for 50 DH 98 aircraft was placed in March 1940. To many in the RAF, the new aircraft became known as " Freeman's Folly. "

In Service

The construction of the DH 98 was truly unique. The wings were made from spruce spars and stringers covered in a double layer of birch plywood skin and finished with a layer of fabric.

The fuselage comprised seven bulkheads created from spruce blocks covered in layers of plywood and an outer skin formed of a sandwich of outer plywood around a balsa-wood core. This created a structure that was both immensely strong but also very light. The DH 98 had an empty weight of around 14,000 lbs compared to, for example, the Wellington Bomber which had an empty weight of around 19,000 lbs.
Read More: Savoia-Marchetti S.55 - The Unlikely Endurance Athlete
This construction approach not only saved on vital alloys, it saved on the creation of machine tools and even allowed firms with no previous experience in aircraft production to manufacture parts of the airframe - furniture and even piano manufacturers were able to become part of the expanded DH 98 manufacturing process. The first prototype flew in May 1940 and it proved to be just as fast as de Havilland had promised, reaching a top speed of over 380 mph.

The aircraft was given the official name " Mosquito" and following the first delivery in the summer of 1941 a total of over 7,500 DH 98s would be manufactured in Britain, Canada and Australia in over twenty-five different variants that would see service with the RAF, the Royal Navy, the USAAF and the Red Air Force. It didn't take long for the derisive nickname " Freeman's Folly" to be replaced by a new name given to the DH 98 by the men who flew it: the Wooden Wonder.

The last operational flight of an RAF DH 98 would not take place until 1963, not a bad service record for an aircraft that many in the RAF had not wanted at all!

Variants

The first 50 models of the DH 98 ordered by the Air Ministry in 1940 were all photo-reconnaissance (PR) versions. The PR.1, provided with a Perspex nose section for camera aiming and five camera ports, performed its first sorties in September 1941. It proved so successful that a range of Mosquito PR versions followed culminating in the PR.32, used in the final months of World War Two and able to achieve a top speed of 430mph and a maximum altitude of 42,000 feet.

Although only unarmed PR versions were originally ordered, the design team at de Havilland had incorporated provisions for the fitment of armament in the design of the DH 98 from the beginning. The second prototype, designated the F.II, was intended as a long-range fighter version and was armed with four .303-caliber Browning machine guns in the solid nose and four Hispano 20mm cannons in a ventral tray.

This gave the aircraft devastating firepower, but continuing night-time bombing raids by German aircraft meant that what the RAF particularly needed in 1941 was a night-fighter that could replace the effective but slow Bristol Beaufighter.

In the summer of 1941, an F.II was fitted with Mark IV (AI.IV) airborne intercept radar to create the first Night Fighter Mosquito, the NF.II. Several improved variants were produced culminating in the NF-30, introduced in August 1944 and fitted with more powerful engines and AI.IX radar in a nose radome. The speed of the Mosquito made it an ideal night fighter and by the time that the war ended, NF versions of the Mosquito had accounted for the destruction of more than 600 enemy aircraft.

The bomber and fighter/bomber versions of the DH 98 also proved to be very effective indeed. The first Bomber Mark IV (B.IV) Series I incorporated the same Perspex nose used in the PR version, deleted all defensive armament and was able to carry up to 1,000 lbs of bombs.

Subsequent versions of the bomber version were able to carry up to 2,000 lbs of bombs and a few were even modified to carry the 4,000lb High Capacity (HC) Cookie bomb. The fighter/bomber (FB) version retained the machine gun and cannon armament and added a small bomb bay that could carry up to 1,000 lbs of bombs.

Read More: Fw 200 Condor - The Airliner that went to War

Bomber variants took part in several low-level precision strike missions including an attack on the Gestapo prison at Amiens in occupied France that led to the escape of over 250 Allied prisoners. In another low-level raid, DH 98 aircraft destroyed the main Berlin Broadcasting Station on the day that Herman Goering was planning to make a nationally broadcast speech. That led to an outburst in which the head of the Luftwaffe complained:
"It makes me furious when I see the Mosquito. I turn green and yellow with envy. The British, who can afford aluminium better than we can, knock together a beautiful wooden aircraft that every piano factory over there is building!"
There is probably no greater accolade that any combat aircraft can receive than to be singled out for envious comment by the head of the enemy air force!

Conclusion

The DH 98 excelled in every role in which it was used. It was an outstanding fighter and night fighter, a superb precision bomber, an effective fighter/bomber, a useful photo-reconnaissance aircraft and a great pathfinder for heavy bombing raids. Yet this was an aircraft that many people in the RAF hadn't wanted back in 1939. Then, its wooden construction was seen as a backward step, reluctantly accepted only because it saved the use of scarce alloys.

Only later would it become apparent that this was a design of genius, creating a lightweight, fast, reliable and versatile aircraft that became one of the best combat aircraft of World War Two. Rather than simply being an interim design used until all-metal replacements were available, the DH 98 showed that the innovative use of composite materials could create sleek, fast, effective combat aircraft. De Havilland would go on to design some iconic post-war jet aircraft including the Vampire, Venom and Sea Vixen but none would achieve the impact or lasting appeal of the Wooden Wonder.

If you like this article, then please follow us on Facebook and Instagram.

Specifications

Crew: Two: pilot, bomb aimer/navigator

Length: 44 ft 6 in (13.56 m)

Wingspan: 54 ft 2 in (16.51 m)

Height: 17 ft 5 in (5.31 m)

Empty weight: 14,300 lb (6,486 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 25,000 lb (11,340 kg)

Powerplant: 1 × Rolls-Royce Merlin 76 V-12 liquid-cooled piston engine, 1,710 hp (1,280 kW) driving the left propeller

Powerplant: 1 × Rolls-Royce Merlin 77 V-12 liquid-cooled piston engine, 1,710 hp (1,280 kW) fitted with a blower for cabin pressurisation, driving the right propeller

Maximum speed: 415 mph (668 km/h, 361 kn) at 28,000 ft (8,500 m)

Range: 1,300 mi (2,100 km, 1,100 nmi)

Service ceiling: 37,000 ft (11,000 m)

Rate of climb: 2,850 ft/min (14.5 m/s)

Steve MacGregor is a full-time professional writer who has written (and ghost-written) more than 200 books on non-fiction topics including history, military history, true crime and mysteries. He is a Scot who currently lives in Andalusia and spent around ten years before that living and working in SE Asia. He has a background in engineering and in a previous incarnation he was a technical writer in the oil and gas and marine industries. He loves all aircraft and he has spent way too much time flying gliders over the Highlands of Scotland. He is married with two grown-up children.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
DH 98 Mosquito Bomber | The Versatile Wooden Wonder | PlaneHistoria

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Some aircraft are created great such as the DH 98 Mosquito. As soon as they roll off the production lines they are welcomed into service and soon fit perfectly into the role for which they are designed. In other aircraft, greatness only becomes apparent over time and often in roles for which they may not have been originally designed.

# data[].attributes.headline
Me 163 Komet - The Rocket-Powered Fighter that Dissolved Pilots

# data[].attributes.subject
Me 163 Komet - The Rocket-Powered Fighter that Dissolved Pilots

# data[].attributes.body
Learn about the Me 163, a rocket-powered fighter plane used by the Germans in World War II. Despite its speed, the plane had significant drawbacks that led to the dissolution of pilots. Discover the history of this unique aircraft on PlaneHistoria.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet was one of the most radical combat aircraft to see service with any nation during World War Two. This tiny, tailless, rocket-powered aircraft was faster than anything else in the sky.

It was principally intended as a point-defence fighter to combat the US daylight bombing campaign over Germany and in service, it proved to have both advantages and some major drawbacks.

The Me 163 was capable of a top speed of over 600mph, making it considerably faster than any other contemporary aircraft. But it had an endurance of only around six minutes. It also trialled some very effective new weapon systems and it proved extremely lethal, but mainly to those who flew and serviced it.

This Nazi wonder weapon is believed to have killed and injured more German pilots and ground crew than enemies. This is the bizarre story of the world's first and only rocket interceptor.

Contents

Origins of the Komet

Although it ended up being built in the Messerschmitt factory in Augsburg, the design of this aircraft owned nothing to Willy Messerschmitt. Instead, it was the product of an eccentric genius, Alexander Lippisch. Lippisch served as a photographer and aerial mapper in the Zeppelin Company where he worked as a designer and engineer. However, his real interest lay in the design of radical gliders.

Read More: Me 262 Schwalbe - Troubled Development

After World War One, Germany was banned from possessing military aircraft under the terms of the Versailles treaty. However, the sport of gliding was unaffected by this ban and in the 1920s and 1930s Germany took the lead in the design and building of advanced gliders. None were more radical than those developed by Lippisch.

Lippisch would design more than 50 gliders. While a few early designs were conventional, he rapidly began to explore different configurations.

The Ente (duck) was a tail-first canard design. By chance, Fritz von Opel (better known as " Rocket Fritz ") of the Opel company saw the one and only Ente flying in the late 1920s in the Rhön Mountains.

Von Opel was interested in using rocket propulsion in an aircraft, and the Ente seemed like an ideal candidate as it lacked a tail that might be damaged by the rocket exhaust.

Several small, black-powder rockets were installed in the Ente and, in the Summer of 1928, it became the world's first full-sized aircraft to fly under rocket power.

The rockets used provided only a few seconds of thrust, but this was sufficient to allow the Ente to take off without the need for a catapult or tow launch. After the rockets cut out, it reverted to being a sailplane, precisely the same approach that would later be used in the Me 163.

Like many of Lippisch's experimental aircraft, the Ente proved hazardous to its pilot. On only its second flight, one of the rocket motors exploded, setting it on fire. Fortunately, this happened at a low altitude and the pilot was able to make an emergency landing and exit the burning Ente before it was completely destroyed.

Undeterred, Lippisch continued to build experimental gliders. By the mid-1920s he had been appointed President of the Rhön-Rossitten Gesellschaft (RRG), an influential German gliding federation that included research and construction facilities.

Lippisch became obsessed with the design of tailless delta gliders and produced several variants of the Storch (Stork) in 1928-1929 before beginning work in 1930 on the model that would be the direct antecedent of the Me 163, the Delta.

The Delta

The Delta 1 was provided with a triangular wing with ailerons and elevators in the trailing edge. Small rudders were provided in the wingtips and a tiny 8hp engine was used to turn this into a motor-glider. Despite the limited power of its engine, the Delta 1 was able to achieve a top speed of almost 80mph (125kmh).

Three subsequent Delta designs were produced, each a little more refined than what had come before. However, though all made successful flights, these were not easy aircraft to fly and several pilots were killed and injured in flying accidents.

The accident rate in Lippisch designs became so serious that a commission headed by the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM - German Air Ministry) actually banned all further development of tailless delta aircraft in 1936.

However, intervention by the RRG led to the ban being lifted, and, by 1937, Lippisch was working on his most advanced design to date, the two-seat DFS-39 delta glider powered by a 75hp piston engine driving a pusher propellor.

Then he received a secret instruction from RLM and a new contract to install a rocket motor in the DFS-39 to create a fighter.

This led to the creation of the DFS-194, essentially the DFS-39 fitted with a liquid fuel R I-203 rocket motor designed by Hellmuth Walter. By late 1938, this aircraft was nearing completion when RLM decided that progress would be improved if Lippisch and his small team were made part of a larger aircraft manufacturer.

In January 1939, the team joined the Messerschmitt factory in Augsburg, though they remained a separate and autonomous group working on a top-secret project known only as " X."

The DFS-194 made its first flight using rocket power at the secret research facility in Peenemünde in August 1940. The aircraft proved easy to fly and achieved a speed of over 340mph. RLM immediately raised the priority of the project and provided additional funds.

Me 163

This project was so secret that even the new aircraft's designation was selected carefully. The designation Me 163 had originally been allocated to a Messerschmitt competitor to the Fieseler Storch STOL aircraft.

That aircraft never went into production, so the designation was given to the new aircraft in the hope that, even if information about the project was discovered, foreign agents would assume that it applied to the earlier Army Co-operation aircraft.

Read More: Kaman K-MAX Helicopter - Function over Form

The DFS-194 was quickly modified to become the Me 163A. Fitted with a Walter RII-203 rocket engine producing around 1,300lb of thrust, it was able to achieve a top speed of over 560mph.

However, it was limited by the fact that the rocket provided thrust for only a few minutes, and after taking off, it had little propellant left for level flight. As a test, the prototype was towed aloft in October 1941 and released at altitude.

It then became the first aircraft in the world to exceed a speed of 1,000km/h (621mph) in level flight. Clearly, the tiny aircraft had potential. But it also had problems.

At high speeds, severe vibration in the rudder, elevators, and ailerons caused control problems. In the flight where the aircraft had reached 1,000km/h, this had become so severe that the test pilot was forced to shut down the engine and glide into a landing.

Despite these problems, work continued developing a new engine for the Me 163.

The existing engine did not have a throttle - it provided full power until the fuel was exhausted, meaning that the aircraft could become uncontrollable if it was held in level flight with the engine running.

In a climb, the RII-203 allowed the aircraft to reach an altitude of fewer than 20,000 feet before the fuel was exhausted. If it was to become an effective combat aircraft, the fighter would need a controllable throttle and more thrust for longer.

The result was the Walter HWK 109-509, an entirely new bipropellant rocket engine that provided thrust by mixing two compounds, known as " T-Stoff" and " C-Stoff."

When separate, these were inert (though T-Stoff was highly corrosive) but when mixed in the engine's combustion chamber, these created a violent reaction that produced almost 4,000lbs of thrust.

The new engine was installed in what would become the main production variant of this aircraft, the Me 163B Komet. This was a tiny all-metal delta design with a conventional tailplane and rudder and with ailerons and elevators in the training edge of the wings.

No undercarriage was provided: the aircraft took off on a wheeled trolley which was jettisoned when it was in the air and it landed on an extendable landing skid under the fuselage. Like all Lippisch's designs the Me 163 was essentially a powered glider, using the thrust of its rocket engine to quickly reach an altitude of up to 39,000 feet and then gliding back to land.

In Service

The Me 163B was armed with a pair of 30mm Rheinmetall Borsig MK 108 cannons mounted in the wing roots. However, a lack of space meant that each was provided with just 60 rounds of ammunition.

When operational testing began in August 1943, this wasn't the only problem encountered. When it was dropped just after take-off, the trolley on early models tended to bounce back into the air, sometimes striking the aircraft and causing damage.

Landings were hazardous too. If the pilot forgot to extend the landing skid (or sometimes even if he did) hard landings could cause injuries - three test pilots involved in the programme suffered spinal injuries and even skull fractures as a result of hard landings and these continued to be a problem during operational testing.

If a landing was attempted with fuel remaining, there was an additional hazard. T-Stoff was extremely corrosive to organic material. Pilots were provided with acid-resistant flight suits, but these did not provide complete protection.

On one occasion, an Me 163 was damaged by its own take-off trolley and was forced to make an emergency landing. The aircraft flipped over and by the time rescue crews arrived, the unconscious pilot had been completely dissolved by leaking T-Stoff!

The Me 163 was a supremely effective glider when it had exhausted its fuel. It simply didn't lose height on the approach like a conventional fighter and landing accidents involving overshooting the runway were also common.

For ground crew too, the Me 163 and its volatile fuel were hazardous. One ground crew member was, literally, blown to pieces when he inadvertently poured T-Stoff into a container in which there was a small amount of C-Stoff.

Other ground crew members were killed during accidents during refueling. Despite these issues, Germany was in desperate need of a point defence fighter capable of climbing rapidly to engage formations of US bombers, and in May 1944, the first Luftwaffe squadron to use the Me 163 began combat operations.

It quickly became apparent that there were yet more problems. If attacking an enemy aircraft while still powered by the rocket motor, the sheer speed of this aircraft meant that pilot had less than 3 seconds to identify, aim and fire at the enemy.

Few pilots proved sufficiently skilled to achieve this consistently. After the rocket had cut out after six minutes or less, the Me 163 became a glider and was extremely vulnerable to attack by enemy fighters.

In order to address the problems of aiming the cannon at high speed, at least one Me 163 was equipped with an experimental new weapon, the SG 500 Jagdfaust.

This consisted of five 30mm cannons, mounted in the wing roots and pointing vertically. These were automatically triggered by a photo-electric cell so that when the Me 163 flew into the shadow of an aircraft above, all the cannons fired simultaneously.

In one combat test, the pilot reported that a B-17 " simply disintegrated" when being attacked using this system, but the war ended before the SG 500 Jagdfaust could be deployed in numbers.

Somewhere in the region of 350 Me 163s were built in total, though many were produced towards the end of the war and did not see operational use due to a lack of fuel.

Conclusion

The Me 163 was the fastest fighter to see service in World War Two. But its limitations meant that its combat record was disappointing. Me 163 pilots claimed the destruction of 16 Allied aircraft, though only nine of these claims have been confirmed. In return, nine Komets were shot down and at least nine more were lost in accidents.

Read More: "Taffy" Holden - The Aircraft Engineer Who Accidently Took Off

Like many other German scientists and engineers, Alexander Lippisch moved to the US after World War Two as part of Operation Paperclip. The advent of reliable and powerful jet engines rekindled interest in his delta designs and his influence can be seen on several subsequent US combat aircraft including the F-102 Delta Dagger and the F-106 Delta Dart.

However, he is best remembered today for the Me 163. And that aircraft is principally a reminder that focusing on only one aspect of performance (in this case, climb and speed) at the expense of all others may lead to remarkable performance, but not to an effective combat aircraft.

If you like this article, then please follow us on Facebook and Instagram.

Specifications

Crew: 1

Capacity: (Me 163S + 1)

Length: 5.7 m (18 ft 8 in)

Wingspan: 9.3 m (30 ft 6 in)

Height: 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in)

Empty weight: 1,905 kg (4,200 lb)

Max takeoff weight: 4,309 kg (9,500 lb)

Powerplant: 1 × Hellmuth Walter Kommanditgesellschaft HWK 109-509A-2 bi-propellant liquid-fuelled rocket motor, 14.71 kN (3,307 lbf) thrust maximum; 980 N (220 lbf) minimum, fully variable

Best climbing speed: 700-720 km/h (430-450 mph; 380-390 kn)

Endurance: 7.5 mins powered

Rate of climb: 81 m/s (16,000 ft/min)

Steve MacGregor is a full-time professional writer who has written (and ghost-written) more than 200 books on non-fiction topics including history, military history, true crime and mysteries. He is a Scot who currently lives in Andalusia and spent around ten years before that living and working in SE Asia. He has a background in engineering and in a previous incarnation he was a technical writer in the oil and gas and marine industries. He loves all aircraft and he has spent way too much time flying gliders over the Highlands of Scotland. He is married with two grown-up children.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Me 163 Komet - The Rocket-Powered Fighter that Dissolved Pilots - PlaneHistoria

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn about the Me 163, a rocket-powered fighter plane used by the Germans in World War II. Despite its speed, the plane had significant drawbacks that led to the dissolution of pilots. Discover the history of this unique aircraft on PlaneHistoria.

# data[].attributes.headline
P-51 Mustang – The Most Iconic Fighter Ever?

# data[].attributes.subject
P-51 Mustang – The Most Iconic Fighter Ever?

# data[].attributes.body
Discover the history and legacy of the P-51 Mustang, an American fighter plane that played a vital role in World War II and beyond. Learn about its design, performance, and impact on aviation history.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The North American P-51 Mustang was one of the more successful and iconic fighter planes of the Second World War. Despite its very American origins, the P-51 was designed in response to a specification from the British government and a request from the Royal Air Force to build North American Aviation planes under license. Although altitude problems designated it to RAF army-cooperation roles, the P-51 was known for its incredible speed and fast production output.

Contents

Origins

The development process for the P-51 began in Great Britain and was prompted by a purchasing commission call by British civil servant Sir Henry Self in 1938. Self was tasked with buying American military equipment to bolster the British armed forces, particularly in response to growing rearmament in Nazi Germany.

However, in the late 1930s, there were no American-manufactured fighter aircraft that met European specifications. The Curtiss P-40 was identified as the fighter that came closest to meeting the standards required, however, these were in short supply at the time.

Read More: Got $10 million? XP-82 Twin Mustang for Sale

Self asked the North American Aviation (NAA) company if they could build the P-40 under license as he was concerned by the fact NAA had not designed a fighter plane before. However, NAA executive James Kendelberger stated their company could design and build a superior fighter plane in a shorter time, rather than modifying their production line to build the P-40.

Development

NAA began work on drawing designs for the aircraft in January 1940. Kendelberger found inspiration for the design by studying aircraft produced in Britain and Germany. NAA also purchased design blueprints of the experimental Curtiss XP-46 which they factored into their own design.

The NAA prototype was named the NA-73X and the process was overseen by designer Edgar Schmued. Some of the design was lifted from the T-6 Texan trainer NAA had produced but improvements were made to the wings to reduce drag. NAA also fitted the powerful turbocharged Allison V-1710 found in the P-40.

The NA-73X completed its maiden flight in October 1940, which was considered a short development period as the plane had been commissioned only 149 days before its first flight.

Production was given the green light and the plane was given the name Mustang.

Test pilots noted that the NA-73X showed good handling and economical fuel consumption. However, while the Allison engine produced an incredible speed, it was also found to be underpowered at a higher altitude which the RAF feared could make the aircraft unsuitable for use during dogfights above Europe which took place at a high altitude.

British RAF test pilots also reported that below fifteen thousand feet, the Mustang showed incredible speed but expressed a reluctance to fly the aircraft any higher as the handling would grow weaker.

NAA felt that developing and fitting a new engine would take time and money. In May 1942, British test pilot Ronald Harker suggested switching the Mustang's engine to the Rolls-Royce Merlin that had been fitted to the Supermarine Spitfire.

As a result, the Mustang Mk X was produced featuring the Merlin engine was produced at Rolls-Royce's facility in Hucknall, England in October 1942.

American production of the Mustang replicated the Merlin engine under license as the Packard V-1650-3 Merlin engine.

British Service

Although conceived in America, the RAF became the first operators of the Mustang and the first Mustang squadron, No. 26 Squadron was formed in October 1942 and in May that year, the Mustang was sent for its first mission over occupied France.

Due to the altitude performance issues, many Mustangs ended up with the RAF's integrated Army Cooperation Command to perform observational, ground attack and light but long-range bombing duties.

While it was deemed unsuitable as a dogfighter in European airspace, the Army Cooperation Command exploited its power and range to make the Mustang a dependable aircraft for performing high-speed missions over occupied Europe and sometimes Germany itself.

Read More: The Quest to Build a Flying Submarine

Between 1943 and 1944, the Army Cooperation Command used the Mustang to locate V-1 missile launching sites.

US Service

Prior to the Second World War, the United States Airforce placed a lesser emphasis on fighter escort of bombers, believing that a large and tight formation of bomber aircraft would combine enough firepower to ward off attacking enemy fighters.

However, existing evidence and aircrew reports from RAF and Luftwaffe daylight bombing raids showed that unescorted bombers were vulnerable to both air and ground fire.

The creation of the Allied Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO) in 1943 was intended to pave the way for a full-scale Allied invasion of Europe through preemptive bombing raids from above.

US Army Air Forces (USAAF) daylight bombing raids encountered stiff Luftwaffe air defense over Germany and lost significant amounts of Boeing B-17, including seventeen B-17s lost in October 1943 during a bombing raid over Schweinfurt in October that year.

As a result, the USAAF began exploring options for a bomber escort plane. The P-51 was deemed the most suitable option with its efficient range enabling it to escort B-17 bombers to their target and then back to American bases in England.

The Mustang was deployed alongside USAAF bombers in 1944 and quickly proved effective in air-to-air combat with Luftwaffe fighters.

In February 1944, Allied air forces launched what was known as the "Big Week" which consisted of a week-long bombing offensive against German aircraft manufacturing facilities. During the raids, USAAF Mustang squadrons depleted the Luftwaffe of an estimated seventeen percent of their most skilled fighter pilots. Nazi military chief Hermann Goring allegedly stated during the war that he knew German air superiority was lost once the Mustang entered the fight.

In April 1944, USAAF Mustangs took part in Operation Jackpot which involved direct strikes on Luftwaffe fighter airfields. The attacks proved successful and decimated much of the Luftwaffe's fighter capabilities.

In part due to the P-51's abilities in the air and its success against Luftwaffe fighters, the RAF began to perform daylight bombing missions again over the German mainland from 1944 onwards.

However, the operations also exposed certain flaws with the Mustang's design. The Mustang was found to be more vulnerable to defensive fire from the ground when taking part in strafing and ground attacks due to the engine being more exposed compared to other fighter planes.

The external fuel tanks on the wings were sometimes known to destabilize the aircraft and cause the P-51 to enter a spin when it was performing a dive manoeuvre.

Rather than risk losing more pilots to accidents, USAAF Lieutenant Colonel Thomas J. Hitchcock (then serving as an air force attaché at the American Embassy in London) decided to investigate the problem himself. Although not a frontline combat pilot during the Second World War, Hitchcock was an experienced pilot and a World War One ace who had played a role in the Mustang's development.

To work out the problem, Hitchcock took a test flight in a Mustang in April 1944 but was unable to pull the plane out of a controlled dive and was killed when it crashed near Salisbury, England.
Read More: Mosquito NZ2336 Found in a Barn - John Smith Collection
Although considered a tragic incident, the Mustang remained in service and continued to help the Allies gain air superiority over Europe which laid the groundwork for the successful D-Day landings in 1944.

By 1945, three P-51 USAAF squadrons claimed to have shot down 4,950 enemy aircraft, one of the most successful scores recorded by a fighter type.

The P-51 saw less action in the pacific theatre compared to other American-made aircraft due to its heavy demand in Europe. But as the Allies established total superiority in European airspace and land forces closed in on Germany, Mustangs began to be deployed more steadily against Japanese forces.

The Mustang first saw action in the pacific war in 1945 when a number were donated to the Chinese Air Force as part of air defence against Japan.

After US forces successfully captured Iwo Jima in March 1945, the USAAF stationed Mustang squadrons on the island to escort Boeing B-29 bombers on raids against the Japanese mainland.

Post-war

Unlike other fighter aircraft, the Mustang continued to be used for frontline sorties in the immediate post-war period.

At the start of the Korean War in 1950, the P-51 served a frontline role as a ground attack strike aircraft and for photo reconnaissance. Both the post-war United States Air Force, US Navy and the South Korean Air Force used the Mustang extensively during the Korean War, with US forces responding to South Korea's invasion by exploiting the Mustang's range as a long-distance bomber to attack North Korean targets.

However, with the jet age approaching, both the US and South Korea opted to replace their Mustang units with jet fighter aircraft such as the Grumman F9F Panther.

The Australian, South African and combined British Commonwealth Air Forces both deployed the Mustang as an attack aircraft in Korea. However, heavy losses prompted the Australian and South African militaries to switch to the F-86 Sabre jet while the British replaced their P-51 units with the Gloucester Meteor.

Legacy

The Mustang became known as one of the fastest planes to take to the skies during the Second World War. It proved versatile in all theatres during the war, and military historians have credited the Mustang with destroying over five thousand enemy aircraft in total.

In doing so, it is credited with helping the Allies gain European air superiority.

The Mustang was also notable for achieving other significant records during its service: it was the first American-built fighter plane to achieve a speed of over 400 miles per hour and held the record for the fastest climb to 20,000 ft, which it managed in just over four minutes.
Read More: Payen Pa 49 - The Petite Plane with a Galactic Legacy
Perhaps most notably, American flying ace Chuck Yeager piloted a Mustang during the Second World War before he would go on to become the first pilot to break the sound barrier in 1947.

If you like this article, then please follow us on Facebook and Instagram.

Specifications

Crew: 1

Length: 32 ft 3 in (9.83 m)

Wingspan: 37 ft 0 in (11.28 m)

Height: 13 ft 4.5 in (4.077 m) tail wheel on ground, vertical propeller blade

Empty weight: 7,635 lb (3,463 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 12,100 lb (5,488 kg) 5,490

Powerplant: 1 × Packard (Rolls-Royce) V-1650-7 Merlin 12-cylinder liquid cooled engine, 1,490 hp (1,110 kW) at 3,000 rpm; 1,720 hp (1,280 kW) at WEP

Maximum speed: 440 mph (710 km/h, 383 kn)

Range: 1,650 mi (2,660 km, 1,434 nmi) with external tanks

Service ceiling: 41,900 ft (12,800 m)

Rate of climb: 3,200 ft/min (16 m/s)

I have a significant interest in aviation and military history, having graduated with a Master's degree in modern history at Oxford Brookes University in the United Kingdom. I have worked variously in the education and private business sectors. Outside of work, I enjoy both factual and fiction writing as a hobby. I currently live on the west coast of America and have been working towards obtaining my private pilot's licence.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
P-51 Mustang - The Most Iconic Fighter Ever? - PlaneHistoria

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The North American P-51 Mustang was one of the more successful and iconic fighter planes of the Second World War. Despite its very American origins, the P-51 was designed in response to a specification from the British government and a request from the Royal Air Force to build North American Aviation planes under license.