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I practice feminist praxis by voting for people who are going to uphold my rights and the rights of others. I vote for people who do not participate in hate campaigns against marginalized groups, don't participate in misogyny, and promise to do what is right to help the people.

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At the beginning of the year, there was a man spewing religious hatred that was rooted in purity culture and Patriarchy, harassed two Muslim students for wearing hijabs, and was being generally racist, homophobic, etc. He had also been arrested for multiple times, one of which was for attempted murder of his ex-wife.

I consider this feminist because students of all genders came together to protest this religious misogyny, as well as protesting other forms of oppression.

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Back in 2018 when Victoria Secret executives explained why they would not allow trans-women or plus-size women to be Angels because they couldn't "sell the [male] fantasy," many women began boycotting the brand to protest their transphobia and fatphobia.

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The Victoria's Secret runway may not be the most important in high fashion, but given the fact it's the only fashion show regularly broadcast around the world, it may be the most important to the popular culture at large. The company has found a formula it finds winning with its parade of taut and toned glamazons sauntering down the runway in over-the-top but barely there ensembles even as some of the oldest legacy brands in fashion have begun to include more models of different shapes, sizes, gender identities, and ages down their runways. Changing cultural mores and an increased recognition of the power of representation coupled with sharply declining ratings for the VS extravaganza has led to a steady drumbeat online asking why the lingerie chain doesn't include plus-size or transgender models in its productions.

The company has never directly responded and instead just kept doing what it's always done. Well, in an interview with Vogue, Ed Razek, the chief marketing officer of VS's parent company and the man behind the show, finally explained why you won't see any plus-size or transgender models as long as he has a job.

At first, Razek notes that he has thought about the issues before, telling Vogue, "If you're asking if we've considered putting a transgender model in the show or looked at putting a plus-size model in the show, we have."

But later, when asked whether he sees any changes in what the "Instagram generation" desires to see on the VS runway, Razek first says he stopped using Instagram months ago before going on to list all the criticism of the brand he sees online.

"Shouldn't you have transsexuals in the show? No. No, I don't think we should," he says. "Well, why not? Because the show is a fantasy. It's a 42-minute entertainment special. That's what it is. It is the only one of its kind in the world, and any other fashion brand in the world would take it in a minute, including the competitors that are carping at us. And they carp at us because we're the leader."

(According to GLAAD, while some people do identify as transexual, transgender or trans are considered the preferred umbrella terms for the community.)

"We attempted to do a television special for plus sizes [in 2000]. No one had any interest in it. Still don't," he also says bluntly.

Razek spends much of the rest of the long interview pointing to the unparalleled cultural success of the show, the work Victoria's Secret does behind the scenes that he thinks doesn't get enough attention, and taking swipes at competitive upstarts who do employ more inclusive casting, particularly Rihanna's Savage x Fenty. ("Everybody keeps talking about Rihanna's show. If we had done Rihanna's show, we would be accused of pandering without question.")

Undoubtedly, because of its position in the culture, the VS show does attract a fair amount of criticism. But in this Trumpian age, those at the top complaining about online criticism from the bottom is a bit, well, tiring. If you look hard enough, you'll find hatred and criticism of just about anything online. There's an entire movement dedicated to hating the humble summer BBQ side dish of coleslaw, after all. You better believe people have found the time to criticize Victoria and her televised angels. There's going to be little sympathy for a multinational brand simply because its marketing efforts aren't beloved by all.

Of course, the fact that Victoria's Secret is a pop cultural leader is the exact reason why so many believe it has a duty to at least attempt to get with the times and show some support for diversity. And, hopefully, to do it in a way that isn't about tokenism, pandering, or simply marketing. After all, not only do all different types of women buy lingerie, but many different women, plus-size and trans included, have successful modeling careers with dedicated fan bases who very much would like to see those models reach what they perceive to be the pinnacle of the industry. To imply that using a trans model or a plus-size model would ruin a "fantasy" and then to expect to get no criticism for it is its own kind of twisted fantasy.

One such model, Andreja Pejic, responded to the interview on Instagram:

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Victoria's Secret Exec Explains Why They Don't Use Trans or Plus-Size Models

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The Victoria's Secret runway may not be the most important in high fashion, but given the fact it's the only fashion show regularly broadcast around the world, it may be the most important to the popular culture at large.

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When women began working during WWII, it was a pivotal moment for so many of them, because they were finally allowed to find a purpose outside of a traditional household. After women were pushed away from the workplace after the war, their constant fight to be appreciated and given fair positions in the workplace (many were relegated to "Pink Collar" jobs) still inspires so many women today to fight for what we want. We fight for a life outside the confines of a household in their honor.

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I believe this song is a form of feminist praxis because it is an expression of rage against traditional women's roles in society. Myself and many other girls, many of whom are strangers online, have bonded over this song and what it means to us. It unites us to fight against society and the Patriarchy.

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NDSU's campus is not very accessible to students who have problems with mobility. There are some inclines that are difficult to navigate, there is often ice or snow in walkways, and not all buildings have good access for wheelchair users, etc.

Furthermore, not all classes offer Zoom/online options, which can be an issue for those with chronic illnesses, people who are homebound, and even people who simply sustained an injury and cannot navigate campus.

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Rihanna's SavageXFenty fashion show showcased many different body types, races, and expressions of identity.

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LGBTQIA+ Youth of Color experience higher rates of Depression, Suicidal Ideation, etc. 

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LGBTQIA+ Youth of Color experience higher rates of Depression, Suicidal Ideation, etc. 

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As shown in The Trevor Project's 2022 LGBTQIA+ Youth Mental Health Report, youth of color have higher percentages of suicidality, feeling their ethnic identity was not understood my healthcare providers, having been threatened for their identity, etc.

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2022 National Survey on LGBTQ Youth Mental Health

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The Trevor Project’s 2022 National Survey on LGBTQ Youth Mental Health is the organization’s fourth annual national survey, amplifying the experiences of nearly 34,000 LGBTQ youth ages 13 to 24 across…

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Khadija makes so many great videos that revolve around intersectionality. My favorite videos from her are "Why I don't keep up with The Kardashians" about the Kardashian family and "The Menizs are lonely....should we care?" about Andrew Tate and other male dating coaches.

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"Cool, fun, Queer Aunty"- Their branding "Big sister or friend their head."- Their comment section "A sentient garbage disposal."- Their own words

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This TikTok is by a man (Thomas Bishop) complaining about what  he claims is the "Coddling of Men" in out culture.

He discusses how conversations about reproductive rights and abortion are always focused on what women should be doing, and never men. How male dating coaches always focus on what women should be doing to attract and keep a man, and not what men should be doing to improve themselves to be in a long-term relationship. He talk about how women discuss owning a gun for safety and protection, while men seem to focus on it as a right they should have to own whatever they want.

Thomas articulates that he, as a man himself, has benefitted from this mindset and coddling of men's feelings.

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90.3K Likes, 5.7K Comments. TikTok video from Thomas Bishop (@thomas_thevillain_bishop): "#Inverted why are we comfortable with coddling the male ego?#fyp #thevillainsguild #taxthechurch2022". original sound - Thomas Bishop.

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🎶 You're a sour little boy
With a fragile masculinity
You saw me as your toy
Now that I'm not, you abuse me
You're a sour little boy
Absolutely no fun
You saw me as your toy
Now that I am not, you throw a tantrum 🎶

The song LEMONS is about dealing with a toxic man in your life, and how men will often times steamroll a woman's feelings in favor of serving their own ego. It also alludes to how women are often physically and/or emotionally abused when they try to stand up to a man. Women are expected by society to put up with sensitive men, to manage his emotions for him, and to put her own feelings aside to take care of him.

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"Know My Name" by Chanel Miller, the survivor of the infamous Stanford Sexual Assault Case

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"Know My Name" by Chanel Miller, the survivor of the infamous Stanford Sexual Assault Case

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In 2015, Chanel Miller was sexually assaulted by fellow Stanford student Brock Turner. Despite the horrifying nature of the assault, Turner only spent 6 months in a county jail for his crimes. Turner's father told the judge during the trial that his son should not spend 20 years in jail for "20 minutes of fun." That fun, of course, being raping an unconscious Chanel Miller behind a dumpster, where upon being found he fled from the scene, leaving Chanel injured and traumatized and the 2 students who found her deeply shaken.

Miller's memoir discusses her healing, as well as how sexual assault survivors are treated by college campuses and the courts.

Turner was a 19-year-old white man and a  swimmer at Stanford at the time from a well-off family. Miller is a Chinese woman with immigrant parents.

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BEST BOOK OF THE YEAR in PEOPLE | NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW | WASHINGTON POST | NPR | PARADE | TIME | GLAMOUR | CHICAGO TRIBUNE | MARIE CLAIRE | ELLE | FORTUNE | LIBRARY JOURNAL | KIRKUS | DAILY MAIL| BALTIMORE SUN | SHE READS | MAN REPELLER | BOOKRIOT | SPY.COM

"She has written a memoir that converts the ongoing experience of sexual assault into literature...Beautiful."─The Atlantic

"To tell her story at all is enough...the fact that Miller tells it beautifully, caring enough for her reader to spin golden sentences from her pain, is a gift on top of a gift." ─Vogue

"Know My Name is an act of reclamation. On every page, Miller unflattens herself, returning from Victim or Emily Doe to Chanel, a beloved daughter and sister...Know My Name marks the debut of a gifted young writer. Miller's words are purpose. They are maps. And she is a treasure who has prevailed."─Jennifer Weiner, The New York Times

"In this powerful, gutsy memoir, Miller-the sexual assault survivor in the Stanford case-reclaims her name and her story."-The New York Times Book Review

"Know My Name is a blistering, beautifully written account of a courageous young woman's struggle to hold a sexual predator accountable. Stand back, folks: This book is going to give a huge blast of momentum to the #MeToo movement."─Jon Krakauer

"She writes exquisitely of her pain, makes us feel every fragment of it, but also expounds on the kindness that nourished her spirit...Miller matters. Readers will see every victim matters." ─USA Today

"In a perfect world, Know My Name would be required reading for every police officer, detective, prosecutor, provost and judge who deals with victims of sexual assault." ─LA Times

"Miller is a gifted storyteller...Know her name, know her voice."─The New Yorker

"Miller provides one of the most moving and humanizing depictions of sexual assault I have ever read...Know My Name features the kind of intimate, coming-of-age storytelling that you don't find in a typical story about a crime and its aftermath. She lets us see her in quiet moments and jubilant ones, in moments of doubt and moments of strength...In giving us the gift of knowing her, Miller has written a singular testament to the human cost of sexual violence, and a powerful reminder of why we fight." ─The Cut

"In a world that asks too many survivors to keep their experiences to themselves and shrink their suffering to preserve someone else's potential, Know My Name stands unapologetically large, asking others to reckon with its author's dazzling, undiminishable presence. To read it, in spite of everything, inspires hope."-The Guardian

"I'd never read anything that so vividly paints the bewildering maze that a sexually assaulted woman faces...Know My Name raises crucial questions about the way we treat sexual assault and, indeed, sex itself." ─Katha Pollitt, The Nation

"In its rare honesty and in its small details, Know My Name is both an open wound and a salve, a quiet cry and the loudest scream...Know My Name is more than an indictment, though it is a successful and moving one. It is also an outstretched hand, inviting you to fight alongside her."─Elle

"Miller's memoir is beautifully written, underscored by simmering indignation." ─Jezebel

"Compelling and essential...Miller reminds us that our stories are worth telling, that the names and the lives attached to those names matter." ─SF Chronicle

"Triumphant...Know My Name evokes a woman whose spirit hasn't been broken-a study in what it means to strike back, not in revenge, but in reclamation."-O Magazine

"A stunning book...beautifully written."-Teen Vogue

"Unputdownable...A much-needed memoir giving voice to those who must be heard. Miller's writing stands apart."-Library Journal (starred review)

"Miller's new memoir echoes her powerful victim-impact statement... It's a beautiful revealing self-portrait. It's funny and it's heartbreaking, and it's an inspiration. There's just no other way to say it: the writing is exquisite." ─The Daily Beast

"Miller's memoir, Know My Name, gives readers the privilege of knowing her not just as Emiy Doe, but as Chanel Miller the writer, the artist, the survivor, the fighter." ─The Wrap

"Miller distinguishes herself not only for her resilience and fortitude, but also for her power of expression. She possesses extraordinary gifts as a writer."─The National Book Review

"Miller makes a powerful case for overhauling a system that retraumatizes victims of sexual violence even in successful cases, perpetuating the feedback loop that discourages victims from coming forward to seek justice." ─Mother Jones

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BEST BOOK OF THE YEAR in PEOPLE | NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW | WASHINGTON POST | NPR | PARADE | TIME | GLAMOUR | CHICAGO TRIBUNE | MARIE CLAIRE | ELLE | FORTUNE | LIBRARY JOURNAL | KIRKUS | DAILY MAIL| BALTIMORE SUN | SHE READS | MAN REPELLER

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Deepfakes Target Women in Media who Choose to Not Sexualize Themselves 

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Deepfakes Target Women in Media who Choose to Not Sexualize Themselves 

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There are many female content creators who actively choose to pass up on potentially millions of dollars by not creating pornographic content of themselves. They choose to cultivate a platform off of themselves as people, rather then allowing men to objectify them.

However, in what I interpret as a disgusting blend of misogyny and infatuation, men have created fake nude images of popular female content creators for their own sick pleasure. Sex is a form of power, and there are men who simply cannot handle the fact that a women who they find attractive would refuse to make herself sexually available to him. Creating these fake images without a woman's consent is a twisted way of taking the power away from a successful woman and giving it back to themselves.

Not only is this type of content a violation of consent, it is also extremely damaging the victim's mental health. It can also jeopardize their careers, as many of these images look very real and could be mistaken for a legitimate image.

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Yesterday, Twitch streamer Brandon "Atrioc" Ewing issued a tearful apology during his livestream after he accidentally revealed that he had deepfake pornography of popular female Twitch streamers open on his computer. The video of his apology-in which he claims to have clicked an ad on PornHub because he was curious-quickly gained traction online. Twitter users, in a misguided attempt to "draw attention" to the controversy, shared screenshots of the original stream, which signal boosted the porn site and its contents. This made matters worse for the affected women, who learned they were on the deepfake site only because of Ewing's slip-up.

What's even worse is that the site Ewing was visiting is a lot like OnlyFans: It requires people to pay a subscription to view its content, and the particular content creator's page he was on was centered entirely around making deepfakes of famous Twitch streamers-several of whom Ewing is real-life friends with.

that the deepfake creator in question has removed all content from their page and issued an apology. Kotaku will not link to the original site (neither did Vice), but can confirm that the apology is there, in place of any content. In it, the creator claims they stopped making videos and deleted them if a particular streamer ever DMed them. They also wrote that seeing the impact of Ewing's stream was "eye-opening" for them, which makes me want to put my foot through a wall because, of course, you'd only find issue with grafting famous streamers' faces onto lewd bodies after Twitter came for you. It's unclear if this person's content exists anywhere else on the internet, but it's not unlikely.

Streamers like QTCinderella and Sweet Anita spoke out against the existence of this deepfake pornography on their respective Twitter accounts yesterday, with QTCinderella expressing the pain she's facing in the wake of such horrors on a Twitch stream. "It should not be part of my job to have to pay money to get this stuff taken down," she said, before promising to sue the people behind the deepfakes.

She's right, she shouldn't have to pay money to get fake, explicit images of herself taken down, and what's even more disconcerting is how difficult it is to get deepfake pornography removed from the internet. If the creator in question didn't pull all of their content down, it's unclear if any of the victims would be able to use the legal system's current laws to effectively get it removed themselves. Several years ago, and PornHub banned deepfake porn, and Discord banned servers selling apps that aided in the creation of it, but smaller sites like the one Ewing was caught on still frequently post such violative pornography with little to no repercussions. That's because, like so many things surrounding the internet, women's bodies, and non-consensual porn, the government doesn't know what the fuck to do about it.

Only California and Virginia have explicit laws surrounding deepfake pornography: AB 602 and HB 2678, respectively. allows California residents to sue if their image is used for sexually explicit content, and "seek injunctive relief and recover reasonable attorney's fees and costs." But according to Andy I. Chen, a California-based lawyer I spoke with over the phone, it could be difficult for the victim to sue any defendant outside of the state.

Back in 2019 Virginia added an amendment to its revenge porn law that covers "falsely created videographic or still images." Violation of that law is a class 1 misdemeanor, which could result in "confinement in jail for not more than 12 months and/or a possible fine of not more than $2,500."

QTCinderella is based in California (as are several other streamers who were reportedly targeted by the deepfake creator), so if she wants to sue the fuck out of them she is within her rights based on state laws. But Sweet Anita lives in the United Kingdom. An Online Safety Bill, which would include protections against both revenge and deepfake porn, is currently making its way through the House of Lords in the UK Parliament. I reached out to QTCinderella, Sweet Anita, and Twitch for comment, but did not receive a response back before publication.

Deepfake pornography is not a new problem, but it's incredibly disheartening, saddening, and infuriating that it has now bled into the streaming world. Victims can visit C.A. Goldberg Law's website for information regarding revenge porn laws throughout the United States, or get support by reaching out to the Cyber Civil Rights Initiative online or via their 24/7 hotline at 1-844-878-2274.

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Popular Female Twitch Streamers Targeted In Deepfake Pornography Scandal

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Yesterday, Twitch streamer Brandon "Atrioc" Ewing issued a tearful apology during his livestream after he accidentally revealed that he had deepfake pornography of popular female Twitch streamers open on his computer. The video of his apology-in which he claims to have clicked an ad on PornHub because he was curious-quickly gained traction online.

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Racial Bias in Media Coverage of Crime: Representation of Whites vs. POC

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Racial Bias in Media Coverage of Crime: Representation of Whites vs. POC

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This study reports that there is very blatant racism in the way news and the media cover crime.

There are amazing infographics that display how POC defendants are represented negatively, were more likely to have their mugshot shown in the news, less likely to have picture with family/friends released, and more likely to have words like "murder" or "arrested" used to describe them.

White defendants were more likely to have pictures of them with family/friends, be shown wearing a suit from court, and be described as a "Father," "Son," and/or "Man."

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In collaboration with EJI, Global Strategy Group has published a report on the role of racial bias in the media as it pertains to coverage of people prosecuted in the criminal court system.

The report, Innocent Until Proven Guilty? A look at media coverage of criminal defendants in the U.S., uses data from 10 criminal cases to analyze differing portrayals of Black defendants and white defendants, resulting in unreliable court outcomes.

The data points to racial bias in over 20 different topics surrounding media coverage including the use of imagery, language choices, the framing of the accused and the victim, and reporter background.

"Racially biased media coverage has been a substantial factor contributing to unreliable and unjust outcomes in the criminal legal system," EJI director Bryan Stevenson said. "News media have often reinforced a presumption of guilt and dangerousness assigned to Black people when reporting on crime while devaluing the lives of Black people and the harm they suffer when victimized. American media can and should do better in eliminating racially biased coverage."

Some of the findings from the report include:

Mugshots were used in coverage of 45% of cases involving Black people accused of crimes compared to only 8% of cases involving white defendants

White victims were nearly four times more likely to be presented in photos with friends and family than Black people victimized by crime

Media coverage was 50% more likely to refer to white defendants by name as compared to Black defendants

Read the full report:

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Report Documents Racial Bias in Coverage of Crime by Media

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In collaboration with EJI, Global Strategy Group has published a report on the role of racial bias in the media as it pertains to coverage of people prosecuted in the criminal court system. The report, Innocent Until Proven Guilty? A look at media coverage of criminal defendants in the U.S.

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This song subverts societal constructs and expectations by proudly proclaiming that:

🎶Bitches gettin' money all around the world
'Cause girls is players too🎶

It's an anthem about being financially and emotionality independent from men.

It is also an absolute BANGER.

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🎶One man can build a bomb, another run a race
To save somebody's life and have it blow up in his face
I'm not the only one who finds it hard to understand
I'm not afraid of God, I am afraid of man🎶

🎶Another day, another tale of rape
Another ticking bomb to bury deep and detonate
I'm not the only one who finds it hard to understand
I'm not afraid of God, I am afraid of man🎶

🎶All the hate coming out from a generation
Who got everything and nothing guided by temptation
Were we born to abuse, shoot a gun and run
Or has something deep inside of us come undone?
Is it a human trait or is it learned behavior
Are you killing for yourself or killing for your savior?🎶
(This verse has a direct connection to heading #20/Pg. 136)

🎶Underneath it all we're just savages
Hidden behind shirts, ties and marriages
How could we expect anything at all?
We're just animals still learning how to crawl🎶

I think this song is an effective commentary on gender construction; it illustrates not only the struggles that women face, but how patriarchy has deteriorated our society. In a verse at the beginning and another towards the end of the song, Marina questions if this is truly an animalistic urge in our DNA, or if something inside of us has been broken due to the extremism that has been born from overbearing social roles.

I HIGHLY recommend listening to the whole song to analyze the full commentary. And also because I'm a MARINA Stan.

Reference the textbook page 136 about gun violence, aggression, and masculinity as well as the lecture and page 120 about the social construction of gender, patriarchy, toxic masculinity, etc.

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Instagram Promoted ED Accounts in Teen Girls' FYP

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Instagram Promoted ED Accounts in Teen Girls' FYP

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“There’s no long-term benefit to killing members of your largest user base, because eating disorders are incredibly dangerous, there’s no way that’s what [Instagram] wants,” Keel said. “My one request would be just to be more transparent. You’re tracking this, you’re trying to do things to minimize the risk of your site, and just be more transparent about what you’re trying to do.”

It was found that Instagram was not only failing to crack down on pro-ED accounts, but they were actively pushing ED accounts onto the FYP's of accounts registered as 13-year-old girls.

The social expectation for women to be thin and "perfect" is a form of social control and toxic gender construction. I also can't help but notice the pedophilic undertones of wanting grown women to have a thin, dainty figure reminiscent of a preteen girl.

See pages 171-174 in the textbook for reference about Eating Disorders, as well as the lecture about body image/shape.

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computer science and information technology

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Instagram promoted pages glorifying eating disorders to teen accounts | CNN Business

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"I have to be thin," "Eternally starved," "I want to be perfect." These are the names of accounts Instagram's algorithms promoted to an account registered as belonging to a 13-year-old girl who expressed interest in weight loss and dieting.

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Brand "Dolls Kill" Promotes Inappropriately Themed Undergarments for Teens

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Brand "Dolls Kill" Promotes Inappropriately Themed Undergarments for Teens

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This brand has committed acts of intellectual property theft, as well has having racist and pro-police state founders.

One of the main things I wanted to touch on here is how the brand is targeted towards mainly teen girls, yet has a "lingerie" section for them; one of the sets was themed after the novel/movie Lolita where a man in his 30's obsesses over and eventually kidnaps and rapes a 14-year-old girl. (If I ever see someone call Lolita a love story ever again, I'm going to lose my damn mind. I have read it twice and I can and will rip anyone who tries to romanticize it to shreds.)

I personally find it strange to connect undergarments so heavily with femininity, but it is widely considered to be one of the most important things about growing up as a woman.

Reference heading #23 (pg. 176) about how pubescent girls have been commodified, and how undergarments have been stigmatized/sexualized, even on little girls.

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Dollskill is Killing Their Brand: Corporate Casket

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🎶"Devil, " you call me
But seems to be enjoying
The fruits of my labor that came to me too young
When he stole my virtue
I'm glad it seems to serve you
That I was born a daughter and not a son🎶

A woman's worth is so often defined by how well she can serve a patriarchal system by making children and being a "Homemaker." This still applies to AFAB non-binary people, who are just as likely to be a victim of this type of objectification as a cisgender woman. When we are all reduced to nothing but a uterus by a sexist society, we are all fighting the same fight, whether we still identify as a woman or not.

Reference the 2/06 lecture slide regarding using brain-dead women as "incubators" for embryos (that could not even make it to term in a brain-dead body).

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Paris Paloma - the fruits [Official Video]

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"More generally speaking, there is no reason to expect a perfect gender balance in college. Women and men face different incentives and should be expected to make different choices."

Obviously, women being in college and becoming self-sufficient and educated is a major threat to patriarchal structure. It's not lost on me that so many "pick up artists" that target their content towards young men constantly push the idea that college-educated women are "undesirable" and that "high-value men" don't date women who could threaten their misogynist worldviews.

See page 120 for how women/men are ascribed different roles and how those may effect how and why someone will get an education. what workforce they enter, etc.

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When the fall college enrollment numbers came in, we learned that, for every man, there are now almost two women attending college. These numbers indicate the highest recorded gender imbalance favoring women seen in U.S. college enrollment. The media discussion that ensued (for example, see this WSJ article) has, for the most part, sympathized with the young men and focused on identifying possible causes of such a stark gender imbalance. Questions were raised: Are girls receiving preferential treatment in high school and boys increasingly slipping through the cracks? Did the recent change in SAT scoring disproportionately favor female test-takers? Are the college admissions to blame?

In this blog post, we argue against these explanations, showing it is unlikely that the gender gap in college attendance reflects some sort of failure on the part of educators or college admissions officers. A more likely explanation is that the labor markets reward women with relatively higher financial returns to college enrollment.

Women Outnumbering Men in College

Let's begin by looking at the next figure, which shows how the relative female-to-male undergraduate enrollment (the gender enrollment gap) at two-year (blue line) and four-year (orange line) institutions evolved over time.
Female-to-Male Ratio in Undergraduate College Enrollment
SOURCES: National Center for Educational Statistics, Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) and authors' calculations.

NOTES: Our sample consists of degree-granting, Title IV-complying undergraduate institutions from 1970 to 2019; data before 1986 were available only every five years. Undergraduate enrollment encompasses all students enrolled at these institutions regardless of year or attendance status.

In 1970, men outnumbered women in college, accounting for 59% of undergraduate enrollment in two-year institutions and 57% in four-year institutions. This was partly due to the high numbers of men enrolling for the purpose of avoiding conscription during the Vietnam War. In fact, the gender enrollment gap closed sharply as soon as the draft ended in 1973. By 1980, gender was perfectly balanced in four-year colleges, and women outnumbered men in two-year schools, accounting for 55% of enrollment in those institutions.

Since 1980, the female-to-male ratio in two-year college enrollment continued to increase until it hit about 1.4 in 1995, stabilizing at that point. The relative female-to-male ratio in four-year college enrollment, however, increased steadily throughout this time period, reaching 1.3 in the fall of 2019.

What all of this means is that the stark gender imbalance featured in recent media discussions is simply a continuation of an ongoing historical trend and that no recent policy change (e.g., reforms in SAT scoring) can explain the presence of a historical trend.

Academic Performance

One potential reason that could explain this trend is a similar one in the relative academic performance of girls versus boys at the high school level. If girls are increasingly outperforming boys in high school-whatever the reasons may be-it would make sense that they would increasingly outnumber boys in college (although this would not imply causal influence). If this were the case, we would delve into those underlying reasons.

However, it does not appear that there is a systematic trend in the relative performance of boys and girls at the high school level. The next figure shows the relative female-to-male SAT score in reading and math.
SAT Performance: Women's Scores Relative to Men's
SOURCE: College Board.

NOTE: The values are averages calculated based on seniors who had taken the SAT at least once. For the class of 2016, the average represents scores through January 2016, capturing the old test version only.

Up until the 2016 changes to the SAT, the relative performance fluctuated around 0.99 for the reading section and around 0.93 for the math section, which indicates that boys scored slightly higher on these tests. There is a slight upward trend for the relative math score, but the change is very small-from 0.93 for the class of 1970 to 0.94 for the class of 2016. It seems unlikely that changes in the relative preparedness for college explain why many more women enroll in college today. If anything, girls are still lagging behind boys in SAT scores.

However, in March 2016, the College Board remodeled the SAT, introducing changes to the structure and timing of different sections, the nature of questions, and scoring rules. It is seen clearly from the second figure that girls' relative performance on the SAT shot up in the 2017 class, although they continued to slightly lag behind boys in their total score. One potential reason why girls have benefited more from this change is that the College Board tried to make an effort to better align the SAT with high school curriculum, thereby rewarding successful study habits developed in school.

This 2017 uptick in female relative performance on the SAT (the second figure) did coincide with the uptick in their relative enrollment (the first figure), so some causal influence is possible in this case. It would work by helping women be more competitive in the college admissions process. And greater access to higher-quality schools would, of course, increase enrollment.

Relatively Higher Returns to College Education

Nevertheless, the upward trend in relative female enrollment was there already before the 2017 SAT reform, and it is important to understand the forces behind it. We argue that women face greater financial returns to college entry-this is the most likely explanation for why they outnumber men in college today.

To show that women enjoy greater financial returns to college, we examine the variation in real hourly wages among 30- to 40-year-old full-time workers in 2015 census data. The results from the regression estimates are reported in the table below.

Male Hourly Wage

Difference in the Female Hourly Wage Relative to the Male Wage

Those with Only a High School Diploma

$11.93

-24.4%

Difference in Wage for Those with an Associate Degree, Relative to Those with a HS Diploma

22.3%

5.3%

Difference in Wage for Those with a Bachelor's Degree, Relative to Those with a HS Diploma

62.2%

5.3%

SOURCES: 2015 ACS data and authors' calculations.

NOTES: We regressed logarithmic real hourly wage (in 2015 dollars) on indicator variables for sex, associate degree and bachelor's degree, as well as the interaction terms between each degree type and sex. Using census data for 2015, we consider 30- to 40-year-old full-time workers with at least a high school degree. A full-time worker is defined as anyone who has worked more than 30 hours a week and 35 weeks per year.

The first column reports the statistical results on education group indicators-the high school degree representing the baseline group. It shows that, on average, male workers with a high school degree made about $12 per hour (2.478 in logs) in 2015. Male workers with an associate degree made 22% more, and those with at least a bachelor's degree earned 62% more.

The second column shows how these estimates differ for female workers. Women with only a high school diploma made about 24% less per hour compared with men in that same education group. Relative to men, women saw an additional 5.3% return to getting an associate or a bachelor's degree; that is, women with an associate degree made 28% more relative to women with only a high school degree, whereas women with a bachelor's degree made 68% more.

What these numbers reveal is that, indeed, getting more education is an important way to close the gender pay gap. College entry-whether it is to get an AS or a BS-helps women gain access to careers where they have a comparative advantage (e.g., office work). Men on the other hand have better access to lucrative careers that don't require a college degree (e.g., construction work). This appears to be the most reasonable explanation for why women outnumber men in college.

Why wasn't this the case in the late 1960s? Why did the female relative enrollment increase gradually over time? This is because fewer married women used to work in the market, so the investment aspect of college was not as relevant in the 1960s. As women increased their labor force participation over time, financial returns to college investment became more important, and more women chose to enter college so as to gain access to more lucrative careers.

More generally speaking, there is no reason to expect a perfect gender balance in college. Women and men face different incentives and should be expected to make different choices.
Notes and References

1. The estimates are all highly statistically significant; we omit standard errors for simplicity.

2. Granted, these numbers should not be literally interpreted as "returns" to getting a degree because workers in different education groups differ on their innate characteristics and those differences partly account for differential wages.

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Why Do Women Outnumber Men in College Enrollment?

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When the fall college enrollment numbers came in, we learned that, for every man, there are now almost two women attending college. These numbers indicate the highest recorded gender imbalance favoring women seen in U.S. college enrollment.