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Década de 1940-1950: Fundamentos e Primeiros Passos

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Década de 1940-1950: Fundamentos e Primeiros Passos

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1943: McCulloch e Pitts criam o primeiro modelo matemático de um neurônio artificial.

1950: Alan Turing publica "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", propondo o Teste de Turing.

1956: Conferência de Dartmouth marca o nascimento oficial da IA como campo de estudo. John McCarthy cunha o termo "Inteligência Artificial".

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Década de 1960-1970: Primeiros Avanços e Otimismo

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Década de 1960-1970: Primeiros Avanços e Otimismo

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1961: Unimate, o primeiro robô industrial, é utilizado na linha de montagem da General Motors.

1966: Joseph Weizenbaum desenvolve ELIZA, um dos primeiros programas de processamento de linguagem natural.

1969: Marvin Minsky e Seymour Papert publicam "Perceptrons", abordando limitações dos primeiros modelos de rede neural.

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Redução no financiamento e interesse devido a expectativas não atendidas e limitações tecnológicas.

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1980: Pesquisa em sistemas especialistas cresce, como o XCON da Digital Equipment Corporation.

1986: Introdução do algoritmo de retropropagação, revitalizando redes neurais artificiais.

1987: Lançamento do programa Deep Thought, projetado para jogar xadrez.

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Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov was a pair of six-game chess matches between then- world chess champion Garry Kasparov and an IBM supercomputer called Deep Blue. Kasparov won the first match, held in Philadelphia in 1996, by 4-2. Deep Blue won a 1997 rematch held in New York City by 3½-2½. The second match was the first defeat of a reigning world chess champion by a computer under tournament conditions, and was the subject of a documentary film, Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine.

The 1997 match was widely covered by the media, and Deep Blue became a celebrity. After the match, it was reported that IBM had dismantled Deep Blue, but in fact it remained in operation for several years.

Deep Blue's win was seen as symbolically significant, a sign that artificial intelligence was catching up to human intelligence, and could defeat one of humanity's great intellectual champions. Later analysis tended to play down Kasparov's loss as a result of uncharacteristically bad play on Kasparov's part, and play down the intellectual value of chess as a game that can be defeated by brute force.

In December 2016, discussing the match in a podcast with Sam Harris, Kasparov advised of a change of heart in his views of this match. Kasparov stated: "While writing the book I did a lot of research - analysing the games with modern computers, also soul-searching - and I changed my conclusions. I am not writing any love letters to IBM, but my respect for the Deep Blue team went up, and my opinion of my own play, and Deep Blue's play, went down. Today you can buy a chess engine for your laptop that will beat Deep Blue quite easily."

After Deep Blue's victory, the ancient Chinese game of Go, a game of simple rules and far more possible moves than chess, became the canonical example of a game where humans outmatched machines. Go requires more intuition and is far less susceptible to brute force. It is widely played in China, South Korea, and Japan, and was considered one of the four arts of the Chinese scholar in antiquity. In 1997, many players with less than a year of experience could beat the best Go programs. But the programs gradually improved, and in 2015, Google DeepMind's AlphaGo program defeated the European Go champion Fan Hui in a private match. It then surprisingly defeated top-ranked Lee Sedol in the match AlphaGo versus Lee Sedol in 2016. While Deep Blue mainly relied on brute computational force to evaluate millions of positions, AlphaGo also relied on neural networks and reinforcement learning.

February 10. The first game began with the Sicilian Defence, Alapin Variation. The first game of the 1996 match was the first game to be won by a chess-playing computer against a reigning world champion under normal chess tournament conditions, and in particular, time controls.

Deep Blue vs. Kasparov, Sicilian Defence, Alapin Variation ( B22)
1.e4 c5 2.c3 d5 3.exd5 Qxd5 4.d4 Nf6 5.Nf3 Bg4 6.Be2 e6 7.h3 Bh5 8.0-0 Nc6 9.Be3 cxd4 10.cxd4 Bb4 11.a3 Ba5 12.Nc3 Qd6 13.Nb5 Qe7 14.Ne5 Bxe2 15.Qxe2 0-0 16.Rac1 Rac8 17.Bg5 Bb6 18.Bxf6 gxf6 19.Nc4 Rfd8 20.Nxb6 axb6 21.Rfd1 f5 22.Qe3 Qf6 23.d5 Rxd5 24.Rxd5 exd5 25.b3 Kh8 26.Qxb6 Rg8 27.Qc5 d4 28.Nd6 f4 29.Nxb7 Ne5 30.Qd5 f3 31.g3 Nd3 32.Rc7 Re8 33.Nd6 Re1+ 34.Kh2 Nxf2 35.Nxf7+ Kg7 36.Ng5+ Kh6 37.Rxh7+ 1-0 (Resignation)

February 11. The second game transposed to an line of the Catalan Opening. Kasparov played in what could be called a preemptive style, blocking all Deep Blue's attempts. The game lasted for 73 moves but eventually Deep Blue's operator had to resign the game for the computer in a position where both players had a bishop but Kasparov had three pawns to Deep Blue's one.

February 13. As in the first game, Kasparov played the Sicilian Defence to which Deep Blue again responded with the Alapin Variation. The game lasted for 39 moves and was drawn.

Deep Blue vs. Kasparov, Sicilian Defence, Alapin Variation ( B22)
1.e4 c5 2.c3 d5 3.exd5 Qxd5 4.d4 Nf6 5.Nf3 Bg4 6.Be2 e6 7.0-0 Nc6 8.Be3 cxd4 9.cxd4 Bb4 10.a3 Ba5 11.Nc3 Qd6 12.Ne5 Bxe2 13.Qxe2 Bxc3 14.bxc3 Nxe5 15.Bf4 Nf3+ 16.Qxf3 Qd5 17.Qd3 Rc8 18.Rfc1 Qc4 19.Qxc4 Rxc4 20.Rcb1 b6 21.Bb8 Ra4 22.Rb4 Ra5 23.Rc4 0-0 24.Bd6 Ra8 25.Rc6 b5 26.Kf1 Ra4 27.Rb1 a6 28.Ke2 h5 29.Kd3 Rd8 30.Be7 Rd7 31.Bxf6 gxf6 32.Rb3 Kg7 33.Ke3 e5 34.g3 exd4+ 35.cxd4 Re7+ 36.Kf3 Rd7 37.Rd3 Raxd4 38.Rxd4 Rxd4 39.Rxa6 b4 ½-½ (Draw by Agreement)

February 14. The fourth game was the second to end in a draw, although at one point Deep Blue's team declined Kasparov's draw offer. The opening transposed to a line of the Queen's Gambit Declined.

February 16. The fifth game was the turning point of the match. Its opening transposed to the Scotch Four Knights Game, an opening combining the characteristics of the Scotch Game and the Four Knights Game. Game 5 was considered an embarrassment for the Deep Blue team because they had declined Kasparov's draw offer after the 23rd move. This was the only game in the match that Black won.

Deep Blue vs. Kasparov, Scotch Four Knights Game ( C47)
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6 3.Nc3 Nc6 4.d4 exd4 5.Nxd4 Bb4 6.Nxc6 bxc6 7.Bd3 d5 8.exd5 cxd5 9.0-0 0-0 10.Bg5 c6 11.Qf3 Be7 12.Rae1 Re8 13.Ne2 h6 14.Bf4 Bd6 15.Nd4 Bg4 16.Qg3 Bxf4 17.Qxf4 Qb6 18.c4 Bd7 19.cxd5 cxd5 20.Rxe8+ Rxe8 21.Qd2 Ne4 22.Bxe4 dxe4 23.b3 Rd8 (=) 24.Qc3 f5 25.Rd1 Be6 26.Qe3 Bf7 27.Qc3 f4 28.Rd2 Qf6 29.g3 Rd5 30.a3 Kh7 31.Kg2 Qe5 32.f3 e3 33.Rd3 e2 34.gxf4 e1=Q 35.fxe5 Qxc3 36.Rxc3 Rxd4 37.b4 Bc4 38.Kf2 g5 39.Re3 Be6 40.Rc3 Bc4 41.Re3 Rd2+ 42.Ke1 Rd3 43.Kf2 Kg6 44.Rxd3 Bxd3 45.Ke3 Bc2 46.Kd4 Kf5 47.Kd5 h5 0-1 (Resignation)

February 17. The sixth game, like the fourth, transposed to the same line of the Queen's Gambit Declined. The final game was an illustration of just how badly chess engines could play in some positions at the time. Employing anti-computer tactics and keeping the focus of the game on long-term planning, Kasparov slowly improved his position throughout the mid-game while Deep Blue wasted time doing very little to improve its position. By the end of the game, Deep Blue's pieces were crammed into its queenside corner, with no moves to make aside from shuffling its king. Kasparov had all the time in the world to finish the rout. Kasparov's next move would probably have been 44.Qe7 to exchange the queens. That would have allowed his pawn, which was about to promote, to advance.

May 3. The 1997 rematch began with a line of the Réti Opening which later developed into the King's Indian Attack. Kasparov won the game in 45 moves.

Kasparov vs. Deep Blue, Réti Opening, King's Indian Attack ( A07)
1.Nf3 d5 2.g3 Bg4 3.b3 Nd7 4.Bb2 e6 5.Bg2 Ngf6 6.0-0 c6 7.d3 Bd6 8.Nbd2 0-0 9.h3 Bh5 10.e3 h6 11.Qe1 Qa5 12.a3 Bc7 13.Nh4 g5 14.Nhf3 e5 15.e4 Rfe8 16.Nh2 Qb6 17.Qc1 a5 18.Re1 Bd6 19.Ndf1 dxe4 20.dxe4 Bc5 21.Ne3 Rad8 22.Nhf1 g4 23.hxg4 Nxg4 24.f3 Nxe3 25.Nxe3 Be7 26.Kh1 Bg5 27.Re2 a4 28.b4 f5 29.exf5 e4 30.f4 Bxe2 31.fxg5 Ne5 32.g6 Bf3 33.Bc3 Qb5 34.Qf1 Qxf1+ 35.Rxf1 h5 36.Kg1 Kf8 37.Bh3 b5 38.Kf2 Kg7 39.g4 Kh6 40.Rg1 hxg4 41.Bxg4 Bxg4 42.Nxg4+ Nxg4+ 43.Rxg4 Rd5 44.f6 Rd1 45.g7 1-0 (Resignation)

Deep Blue's 44th move in this game was allegedly the result of a bug in which Deep Blue, unable to determine a desirable move, resorted to a fail-safe.

May 4. The second game began with the Ruy Lopez opening, Smyslov Variation. Kasparov eventually resigned, although post-game analysis indicates that he could have held a draw in the final position. After this game Kasparov accused IBM of cheating, by alleging that a grandmaster (presumably a top rival) had been behind a certain move. The claim was repeated in the documentary Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine.

Deep Blue vs. Kasparov, Ruy Lopez, Smyslov Variation ( C93)
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.0-0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.c3 0-0 9.h3 h6 10.d4 Re8 11.Nbd2 Bf8 12.Nf1 Bd7 13.Ng3 Na5 14.Bc2 c5 15.b3 Nc6 16.d5 Ne7 17.Be3 Ng6 18.Qd2 Nh7 19.a4 Nh4 20.Nxh4 Qxh4 21.Qe2 Qd8 22.b4 Qc7 23.Rec1 c4 24.Ra3 Rec8 25.Rca1 Qd8 26.f4 Nf6 27.fxe5 dxe5 28.Qf1 Ne8 29.Qf2 Nd6 30.Bb6 Qe8 31.R3a2 Be7 32.Bc5 Bf8 33.Nf5 Bxf5 34.exf5 f6 35.Bxd6 Bxd6 36.axb5 axb5 37.Be4 Rxa2 38.Qxa2 Qd7 39.Qa7 Rc7 40.Qb6 Rb7 41.Ra8+ Kf7 42.Qa6 Qc7 43.Qc6 Qb6+ 44.Kf1 Rb8 45.Ra6 1-0 (Resignation)

At the time it was reported that Kasparov missed the fact that after 45...Qe3 46.Qxd6 Re8, Black (Kasparov) can force a draw by perpetual check. His friends told him so the next morning. They suggested 47.h4 h5!, a position after which the black queen can perpetually check White. This is possible as Deep Blue moved 44.Kf1 instead of an alternative move of its king. Regarding the end of game 2 and 44.Kf1 in particular, chess journalist Mig Greengard in the film states, "It turns out, that the position in, here at the end is actually a draw, and that, one of Deep Blue's final moves was a terrible error, because Deep Blue has two choices here. It can move its king here or move its king over here. It picked the wrong place to step." Another person in that film, four-time US champion Yasser Seirawan, then concludes that "The computer had left its king a little un-defended. And Garry could have threatened a perpetual check, not a win but a perpetual check."

The moves that surprised Kasparov enough to allege cheating were 36.axb5! axb5 37.Be4! after which Black is lost. A more machine could have won two pawns with 36.Qb6 Rd8 37.axb5 Rab8 38.Qxa6, but after 38...e4! Black would have acquired strong . Deep Blue could have also won material with the move 37.Qb6. Kasparov and many others thought the move 37.Be4! ignored material gain by force and was too sophisticated for a computer, suggesting there had been some sort of human intervention during the game.

May 6. In the third game, Kasparov chose to employ the irregular 1.d3, the Mieses Opening. The game then transposed to a line of the English Opening. Kasparov believed that by playing an esoteric opening, the computer would get out of its opening book and play the opening worse than it would have done using the book. Although this is nowadays a common tactic, it was a relatively new idea at the time. Despite this anti-computer tactic, the game was drawn.

May 7. The fourth game began with the initial moves defining the Caro-Kann Defence (1.e4 c6); however, the opening then transposed to the Pirc Defense. Kasparov got into time trouble late in the game. The sub-optimal moves he played in a hurry may have cost him victory. The game ended with a draw.

May 10. The fifth game of the rematch began identically with the first, with a line of the Réti Opening developing into the King's Indian Attack. As in the fourth game, Deep Blue played a brilliant endgame that secured a draw, when it was looking as if Kasparov would win. It was later discovered that Kasparov had a win beginning with 44.Rg7+.

Kasparov vs. Deep Blue, Réti Opening, King's Indian Attack ( A07)
1.Nf3 d5 2.g3 Bg4 3.Bg2 Nd7 4.h3 Bxf3 5.Bxf3 c6 6.d3 e6 7.e4 Ne5 8.Bg2 dxe4 9.Bxe4 Nf6 10.Bg2 Bb4+ 11.Nd2 h5 12.Qe2 Qc7 13.c3 Be7 14.d4 Ng6 15.h4 e5 16.Nf3 exd4 17.Nxd4 0-0-0 18.Bg5 Ng4 19.0-0-0 Rhe8 20.Qc2 Kb8 21.Kb1 Bxg5 22.hxg5 N6e5 23.Rhe1 c5 24.Nf3 Rxd1+ 25.Rxd1 Nc4 26.Qa4 Rd8 27.Re1 Nb6 28.Qc2 Qd6 29.c4 Qg6 30.Qxg6 fxg6 31.b3 Nxf2 32.Re6 Kc7 33.Rxg6 Rd7 34.Nh4 Nc8 35.Bd5 Nd6 36.Re6 Nb5 37.cxb5 Rxd5 38.Rg6 Rd7 39.Nf5 Ne4 40.Nxg7 Rd1+ 41.Kc2 Rd2+ 42.Kc1 Rxa2 43.Nxh5 Nd2 44.Nf4 Nxb3+ 45.Kb1 Rd2 46.Re6 c4 47.Re3 Kb6 48.g6 Kxb5 49.g7 Kb4 ½-½ (Draw by Agreement)

If White plays 50.g8=Q, then Black can force a draw by threefold repetition, starting with 50...Rd1+ and then 51...Rd2+.

May 11. The final, deciding game of the rematch was a , by far the shortest of any played during either match. Before the sixth game, the overall score was even: 2½-2½. As in game 4, Kasparov played the Caro-Kann Defence. Deep Blue made a knight sacrifice which wrecked Kasparov's defense and forced him to resign in less than twenty moves. As Kasparov later recounts, he chose to play a dubious opening in an effort to put Deep Blue out of its comfort zone. Although the knight sacrifice is a well-known refutation, Kasparov reasoned that an engine wouldn't play the move without a concrete gain.

Major sources

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Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov - Wikipedia

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Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov was a pair of six-game chess matches between then- world chess champion Garry Kasparov and an IBM supercomputer called Deep Blue. Kasparov won the first match, held in Philadelphia in 1996, by 4-2. Deep Blue won a 1997 rematch held in New York City by 3½-2½.

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1997: Deep Blue, da IBM, derrota o campeão mundial de xadrez Garry Kasparov.

1999: Lançamento de AIBO, o cão-robô da Sony, um marco na robótica doméstica.

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Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.

Aibo é um cão robô fabricado pela empresa japonesa Sony.

Seu protótipo foi anunciado em 1998, e foi lançado dia 11 de maio de 1999, o seu desenvolvimento e produção foram descontinuados em 2006, quando já ia na terceira geração. Embora tenha o aspecto de um brinquedo, trata-se de um robô sofisticado. Seu software registra e trata os dados recolhidos pelos seus sensores e produz reações apropriadas para a rotina do cão.

Em outubro de 2017, o produto foi re-lançado, aibo ERS-1000, com um software mais sofisticado, respondendo a uma quantidade maior de comandos de voz e um novo sistema, com o qual poderá conectar-se a internet. Desde 1 de novembro de 2017, sua comercialização ocorreu somente no Japão e em 1 de janeiro de 2018, em outros países.

Referências

Commons

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Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre. Aibo é um cão robô fabricado pela empresa japonesa Sony. Seu protótipo foi anunciado em 1998, e foi lançado dia 11 de maio de 1999, o seu desenvolvimento e produção foram descontinuados em 2006, quando já ia na terceira geração.

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Década de 2000: IA em Aplicações do Cotidiano

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Década de 2000: IA em Aplicações do Cotidiano

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2000: Algoritmos de IA começam a ser usados em motores de busca e recomendações online.

2005: STANLEY, da Universidade de Stanford, vence o DARPA Grand Challenge, demonstrando a viabilidade de veículos autônomos.

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2010-presente: IA Moderna e Aprendizado Profundo

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2010-presente: IA Moderna e Aprendizado Profundo

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2011: Watson, da IBM, vence o programa de TV Jeopardy!.

2012: Redes neurais profundas ganham destaque com a vitória do AlexNet na competição ImageNet.

2016: AlphaGo, do Google DeepMind, derrota o campeão mundial de Go, Lee Sedol.

2020: GPT-3 é lançado pela OpenAI, impressionando com suas capacidades avançadas de processamento de linguagem natural.

2023: ChatGPT é amplamente adotado para várias aplicações de IA generativa.