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A religious upbringing contributes to a wide range of health and well-being outcomes in life.

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Growing up in today's world can be complicated. Parents are often worried about how their children will navigate the social, behavioral, and developmental challenges of life, especially during adolescence, which can be a particularly difficult time. Our research, which was recently published out of Harvard's Chan School of Public Health and co-authored by Ying Chen at the Human Flourishing Program at Harvard, suggests that a religious upbringing can profoundly help adolescents navigate the challenges of these years. We also found that a religious upbringing contributes to a wide range of health and well-being outcomes later in life.

Our study used a large sample of over 5,000 adolescents, followed them up for more than eight years, and controlled for many other variables to try to isolate the effect of religious upbringing. We found that children who were raised in a religious or spiritual environment were subsequently better protected from the "big three" dangers of adolescence.

For example, those who attended religious services regularly were subsequently:

12% less likely to have high depressive symptoms

33% less likely to use illicit drugs

Those who prayed or meditated frequently were:

30% less likely to start having sex at a young age

40% less likely to subsequently have a sexually transmitted infection

Moreover, a religious upbringing also contributed towards to a number of positive outcomes as well, such greater happiness, more volunteering in the community, a greater sense of mission and purpose, and higher levels of forgiveness. For example, those who attended religious services were subsequently:

18% more likely to report high levels of happiness

87% more likely to have high levels of forgiveness

Those who prayed or meditated frequently were subsequently:

38% more likely to volunteer in their community

47% more likely to have a high sense of mission and purpose

These are relatively large effects across a variety of health and well-being outcomes. Religious practice and prayer or meditation can be important resources for adolescents navigating the challenges of life.

Some might wonder if these associations truly imply that religious and spiritual practices really cause the health and well-being outcomes. Could it be that those who are already happier or who refrain from drug use, are those who are naturally drawn to religion? Might this explain the associations, rather than a causal effect of religious and spiritual practices on subsequent health and well-being?

We attempted to deal with this issue in several ways. First, the religious upbringing variables were measured 8-14 years before the health and psychological well-being outcomes were evaluated. This more rigorous longitudinal design helps establish the temporal ordering of the relationships, and in this way is superior to most prior studies on this topic, which used cross-sectional data (where everything is measured at the same time). Second, wherever possible, we controlled also for the health and psychological characteristics of the adolescents at the time that the service attendance and prayer/meditation was assessed to try to rule out that it was just positive health or psychological states that was leading to greater religious practice. Third, we controlled for numerous other social, demographic and health characteristics at the time of adolescence to try to rule out that these might explain the relationship. Finally, for each and every outcome examined, we reported a new measure, called the E-value, that assesses how robust or sensitive results are to potential unmeasured variables, and thereby helps evaluate the evidence for causality (see endnote below for examples). ¹ Although it is difficult to prove "causality," with the sort of observational data we used, the evidence for the effects of a religious upbringing on some of the health and well-being outcomes is, in fact, here quite strong.

But what are the implications of this research? Here, some additional nuance is probably needed. People generally do not make decisions about religious involvement based on health, but rather on beliefs, values, truth claims, relationships, experiences, and so forth. However, for parents and children who already hold religious beliefs, such religious and spiritual practices could be encouraged both for their own sake, as well as to promote health and well-being.

Modern life is very busy, and it can take a strong commitment to participate in a community, or to set time aside for prayer or meditation, and to encourage children in these practices. Our study suggests that for those who already hold these beliefs, setting such time aside in parenting, and for adolescents to engage in these practices, is worthwhile.

Although it is difficult to prove "causality," with the sort of observational data we used, the evidence for the effects of a religious upbringing on some of the health and well-being outcomes is, in fact, quite strong in our study.

There has also been some concern expressed in various settings about whether being raised religiously might be harmful. The sexual abuse scandals in the Catholic Church have led some parents to question whether their children should be present in such settings at all. Certainly, these instances of sexual abuse need to be addressed, and some progress has already been made in that regard, though more work still needs to be done. Those who covered up the abuse cases need to be held accountable; and for the victims of abuse, their harmful and horrifying experiences need to be acknowledged and addressed.

Our own research is based on averages: the statistics average over all of the positive experiences and also all of the negative experiences, too. The research indicates that, on average, the effects of a religious community are profoundly positive. This does not in any way excuse the incidents of harm by religious leaders or institutions, but it does make clear the substantial benefits of religious practice overall. Ceasing those practices will, on average, likely lead to worse health and well-being outcomes.

Some have gone even further in expressing concern that a religious upbringing may be harmful. Recently, the Oxford biologist Richard Dawkins likened a religious upbringing to child abuse, going so far as to claim in a lecture that, "Horrible as sexual abuse no doubt was, the damage was arguably less than the long-term psychological damage inflicted by bringing the child up Catholic in the first place." The point was reiterated in his book The God Delusion (p. 356), and he has even gone on to write another book on Atheism for Children, which he plans to publish this fall.

Our study shows that on a number of important health and well-being outcomes, Dawkin's claim just isn't true. It is disrespectful of those who have experienced sexual abuse, and it is just plain wrong with regard to the average effects on health and well-being that religious practice brings. Religious upbringing is of positive benefit for many health behaviors and psychological well-being outcomes. Before making his claims, it would have been good if Dawkins, the scientist, had actually looked at the science. At the very least, parents who bring up their children religiously can be reassured that, on average at least, they are creating important psychological and behavioral health benefits that their children will carry with them into adulthood.

Questions are sometimes raised as to why these positive effects are present and why they are so substantial. This is a more difficult question and goes beyond what we have in the data. My own speculation would be that, for religious service attendance, we observe these effects, in part, because of the benefits of a shared set of beliefs, and practices, and values; and also, because the adolescents have other adult members of their community, beyond their parents, who can serve as mentors and role models. As for the positive effects of prayer and meditation, as I recently shared with IFS, my speculation would be that an integrated spirituality gives rise to an experience of God or of transcendence so that an adolescent need not turn to drugs or risky sexual behaviors in their search for something more. Moreover, that experience of God may fundamentally make a person more other-oriented, leading to greater volunteering, forgiveness, and a sense of mission, and these things ultimately make one happier and protect against depression. Adolescence is a particularly critical time of development and self-understanding, and the establishing of these practices may shape health and well-being throughout life.

Too often in public health, we do not think very much about religious community or parenting practices. However, the results of our new study suggest fairly substantial positive effects on a number of different health and well-being outcomes. Religious practices, such as attending religious services and engaging in prayer, do shape the health of populations and need to be discussed and considered more frequently. Religion and spirituality are important resources for parents and adolescents alike.
Tyler J. VanderWeele, Ph.D., is Professor of Epidemiology in the Departments of Epidemiology and Biostatistics at the Harvard School of Public Health, a faculty affiliate of the Institute for Quantitative Social Science, and Director of the Program on Integrative Knowledge and Human Flourishing at Harvard University.
1. For example, we reported in our study that for an unmeasured variable to explain away the association between religious service attendance and subsequent volunteering, that unmeasured variable would have to be associated with 1.9-fold higher service attendance, and 1.9-fold higher volunteering, above and beyond everything we already controlled for (which was already a lot). It would thus take quite a lot of confounding to explain away that result. Similarly, to explain away the association between prayer/meditation and the much lower likelihood of subsequently have a sexually transmitted infection, an unmeasured variable would have to be associated both with a 2.7-fold higher likelihood of prayer and a 2.7-fold lower likelihood of a sexually transmitted infection to explain away the results.

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Growing up in today's world can be complicated. Parents are often worried about how their children will navigate the social, behavioral, and developmental challenges of life, especially during adolescence, which can be a particularly difficult time.

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The stress of being a sexual orientation minority can increase developmental risks for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered etc. children and youth.

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Sexual orientation refers to an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes

Cite This Article

American Psychological Association. (2008, October 29). Understanding sexual orientation and homosexuality. https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbtq/orientation

Since 1975, APA has called on psychologists to take the lead in removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated with lesbian, gay, and bisexual orientations. The discipline of psychology is concerned with the well-being of people and groups and therefore with threats to that well-being. The prejudice and discrimination that people who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual regularly experience have been shown to have negative psychological effects. This page provides accurate information for those who want to better understand sexual orientation and the impact of prejudice and discrimination on those who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual.

What is sexual orientation?

Sexual orientation refers to an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes. Sexual orientation also refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions. Research over several decades has demonstrated that sexual orientation ranges along a continuum, from exclusive attraction to the other sex to exclusive attraction to the same sex.

However, sexual orientation is usually discussed in terms of three categories:

heterosexual (having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to members of the other sex)

gay/lesbian (having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to members of one's own sex)

bisexual (having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to both men and women)

This range of behaviors and attractions has been described in various cultures and nations throughout the world. Many cultures use identity labels to describe people who express these attractions. In the United States the most frequent labels are lesbians (women attracted to women), gay men (men attracted to men), and bisexual people (men or women attracted to both sexes). However, some people may use different labels or none at all.

Sexual orientation is distinct from other components of sex and gender, including biological sex (the anatomical, physiological, and genetic characteristics associated with being male or female), gender identity (the psychological sense of being male or female),* and social gender role (the cultural norms that define feminine and masculine behavior).

Sexual orientation is commonly discussed as if it were solely a characteristic of an individual, like biological sex, gender identity, or age. This perspective is incomplete because sexual orientation is defined in terms of relationships with others. People express their sexual orientation through behaviors with others, including such simple actions as holding hands or kissing. Thus, sexual orientation is closely tied to the intimate personal relationships that meet deeply felt needs for love, attachment, and intimacy. In addition to sexual behaviors, these bonds include nonsexual physical affection between partners, shared goals and values, mutual support, and ongoing commitment.

Therefore, sexual orientation is not merely a personal characteristic within an individual. Rather, one's sexual orientation defines the group of people in which one is likely to find the satisfying and fulfilling romantic relationships that are an essential component of personal identity for many people.

* This page focuses on sexual orientation. Answers to your questions about transgender individuals and gender identity addresses gender identity.

How do people know if they are lesbian, gay, or bisexual?

According to current scientific and professional understanding, the core attractions that form the basis for adult sexual orientation typically emerge between middle childhood and early adolescence. These patterns of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction may arise without any prior sexual experience. People can be celibate and still know their sexual orientation-be it lesbian, gay, bisexual, or heterosexual.

Different lesbian, gay, and bisexual people have very different experiences regarding their sexual orientation. Some people know that they are lesbian, gay, or bisexual for a long time before they actually pursue relationships with other people. Some people engage in sexual activity (with same-sex and/or other-sex partners) before assigning a clear label to their sexual orientation. Prejudice and discrimination make it difficult for many people to come to terms with their sexual orientation identities, so claiming a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity may be a slow process.

What causes a person to have a particular sexual orientation?

There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons that an individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual, gay, or lesbian orientation. Although much research has examined the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation, no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or factors. Many think that nature and nurture both play complex roles; most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation.

What role do prejudice and discrimination play in the lives of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people?

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual people in the United States encounter extensive prejudice, discrimination, and violence because of their sexual orientation. Intense prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people was widespread throughout much of the 20 th century. Public opinion studies over the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s routinely showed that, among large segments of the public, lesbian, gay, and bisexual people were the target of strongly held negative attitudes. More recently, public opinion has increasingly opposed sexual orientation discrimination, but expressions of hostility toward lesbians and gay men remain common in contemporary American society. Prejudice against bisexual people appears to exist at comparable levels. In fact, bisexual individuals may face discrimination from some lesbian and gay people as well as from heterosexual people.

Sexual orientation discrimination takes many forms. Severe antigay prejudice is reflected in the high rate of harassment and violence directed toward lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals in American society. Numerous surveys indicate that verbal harassment and abuse are nearly universal experiences among lesbian, gay, and bisexual people. Also, discrimination against lesbian, gay, and bisexual people in employment and housing appears to remain widespread.

The HIV/AIDS pandemic is another area in which prejudice and discrimination against lesbian, gay, and bisexual people have had negative effects. Early in the pandemic, the assumption that HIV/AIDS was a "gay disease" contributed to the delay in addressing the massive social upheaval that AIDS would generate. Gay and bisexual men have been disproportionately affected by this disease. The association of HIV/AIDS with gay and bisexual men and the inaccurate belief that some people held that all gay and bisexual men were infected served to further stigmatize lesbian, gay, and bisexual people.

What is the psychological impact of prejudice and discrimination?

Prejudice and discrimination have social and personal impact. On the social level, prejudice and discrimination against lesbian, gay, and bisexual people are reflected in the everyday stereotypes of members of these groups. These stereotypes persist even though they are not supported by evidence, and they are often used to excuse unequal treatment of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people. For example, limitations on job opportunities, parenting, and relationship recognition are often justified by stereotypic assumptions about lesbian, gay, and bisexual people.

On an individual level, such prejudice and discrimination may also have negative consequences, especially if lesbian, gay, and bisexual people attempt to conceal or deny their sexual orientation. Although many lesbians and gay men learn to cope with the social stigma against homosexuality, this pattern of prejudice can have serious negative effects on health and well-being. Individuals and groups may have the impact of stigma reduced or worsened by other characteristics, such as race, ethnicity, religion, or disability. Some lesbian, gay, and bisexual people may face less of a stigma. For others, race, sex, religion, disability, or other characteristics may exacerbate the negative impact of prejudice and discrimination.

The widespread prejudice, discrimination, and violence to which lesbians and gay men are often subjected are significant mental health concerns. Sexual prejudice, sexual orientation discrimination, and antigay violence are major sources of stress for lesbian, gay, and bisexual people. Although social support is crucial in coping with stress, antigay attitudes and discrimination may make it difficult for lesbian, gay, and bisexual people to find such support.

Is homosexuality a mental disorder?

No, lesbian, gay, and bisexual orientations are not disorders. Research has found no inherent association between any of these sexual orientations and psychopathology. Both heterosexual behavior and homosexual behavior are normal aspects of human sexuality. Both have been documented in many different cultures and historical eras. Despite the persistence of stereotypes that portray lesbian, gay, and bisexual people as disturbed, several decades of research and clinical experience have led all mainstream medical and mental health organizations in this country to conclude that these orientations represent normal forms of human experience. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual relationships are normal forms of human bonding. Therefore, these mainstream organizations long ago abandoned classifications of homosexuality as a mental disorder.

What about therapy intended to change sexual orientation from gay to straight?

All major national mental health organizations have officially expressed concerns about therapies promoted to modify sexual orientation. To date, there has been no scientifically adequate research to show that therapy aimed at changing sexual orientation (sometimes called reparative or conversion therapy) is safe or effective. Furthermore, it seems likely that the promotion of change therapies reinforces stereotypes and contributes to a negative climate for lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons. This appears to be especially likely for lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals who grow up in more conservative religious settings.

Helpful responses of a therapist treating an individual who is troubled about her or his same sex attractions include helping that person actively cope with social prejudices against homosexuality, successfully resolve issues associated with and resulting from internal conflicts, and actively lead a happy and satisfying life. Mental health professional organizations call on their members to respect a person's (patient's) right to self-determination; be sensitive to the patient's race, culture, ethnicity, age, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, religion, socioeconomic status, language, and disability status when working with that patient; and eliminate biases based on these factors.

What is "coming out" and why is it important?

The phrase "coming out" is used to refer to several aspects of lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons' experiences: self-awareness of same-sex attractions; the telling of one or a few people about these attractions; widespread disclosure of same-sex attractions; and identification with the lesbian, gay, and bisexual community. Many people hesitate to come out because of the risks of meeting prejudice and discrimination. Some choose to keep their identity a secret; some choose to come out in limited circumstances; some decide to come out in very public ways.

Coming out is often an important psychological step for lesbian, gay, and bisexual people. Research has shown that feeling positively about one's sexual orientation and integrating it into one's life fosters greater well-being and mental health. This integration often involves disclosing one's identity to others; it may also entail participating in the gay community. Being able to discuss one's sexual orientation with others also increases the availability of social support, which is crucial to mental health and psychological well-being. Like heterosexuals, lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people benefit from being able to share their lives with and receive support from family, friends, and acquaintances. Thus, it is not surprising that lesbians and gay men who feel they must conceal their sexual orientation report more frequent mental health concerns than do lesbians and gay men who are more open; they may even have more physical health problems.

What about sexual orientation and coming out during adolescence?

Adolescence is a period when people separate from their parents and families and begin to develop autonomy. Adolescence can be a period of experimentation, and many youths may question their sexual feelings. Becoming aware of sexual feelings is a normal developmental task of adolescence. Sometimes adolescents have same-sex feelings or experiences that cause confusion about their sexual orientation. This confusion appears to decline over time, with different outcomes for different individuals.

Some adolescents desire and engage in same-sex behavior but do not identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual, sometimes because of the stigma associated with a nonheterosexual orientation. Some adolescents experience continuing feelings of same-sex attraction but do not engage in any sexual activity or may engage in heterosexual behavior for varying lengths of time. Because of the stigma associated with same-sex attractions, many youths experience same-sex attraction for many years before becoming sexually active with partners of the same sex or disclosing their attractions to others.

For some young people, this process of exploring same-sex attractions leads to a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity. For some, acknowledging this identity can bring an end to confusion. When these young people receive the support of parents and others, they are often able to live satisfying and healthy lives and move through the usual process of adolescent development. The younger a person is when they acknowledge a nonheterosexual identity, the fewer internal and external resources they are likely to have. Therefore, youths who come out early are particularly in need of support from parents and others.

Young people who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual may be more likely to face certain problems, including being bullied and having negative experiences in school. These experiences are associated with negative outcomes, such as suicidal thoughts and high risk activities, such as unprotected sex and alcohol and drug use. On the other hand, many lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths appear to experience no greater level of health or mental health risks. Where problems occur, they are closely associated with experiences of bias and discrimination in their environments. Support from important people in the teen's life can provide a very helpful counterpart to bias and discrimination.

Support in the family, at school, and in the broader society helps to reduce risk and encourage healthy development. Youth need caring and support, appropriately high expectations, and the encouragement to participate actively with peers. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth who do well despite stress-like all adolescents who do well despite stress-tend to be those who are socially competent, who have good problem-solving skills, who have a sense of autonomy and purpose, and who look forward to the future.

In a related vein, some young people are presumed to be lesbian, gay, or bisexual because they don't abide by traditional gender roles (i.e., the cultural beliefs about what is appropriate "masculine" and "feminine" appearance and behavior). Whether these youths identify as heterosexual or as lesbian, gay, or bisexual, they encounter prejudice and discrimination based on the presumption that they are lesbian, gay, or bisexual. The best support for these young people is school and social climates that do not tolerate discriminatory language and behavior.

At what age should lesbian, gay, or bisexual youths come out?

There is no simple or absolute answer to this question. The risks and benefits of coming out are different for youths in different circumstances. Some young people live in families where support for their sexual orientation is clear and stable; these youths may encounter less risk in coming out, even at a young age. Young people who live in less supportive families may face more risks in coming out. All young people who come out may experience bias, discrimination, or even violence in their schools, social groups, work places, and faith communities. Supportive families, friends, and schools are important buffers against the negative impacts of these experiences.

What is the nature of same-sex relationships?

Research indicates that many lesbians and gay men want and have committed relationships. For example, survey data indicate that between 40% and 60% of gay men and between 45% and 80% of lesbians are currently involved in a romantic relationship. Further, data from the 2000 U.S. Census indicate that of the 5.5 million couples who were living together but not married, about 1 in 9 (594,391) had partners of the same sex. Although the census data are almost certainly an underestimate of the actual number of cohabiting same-sex couples, they indicate that there are 301,026 male same-sex households and 293,365 female same-sex households in the United States.

Stereotypes about lesbian, gay, and bisexual people have persisted, even though studies have found them to be misleading. For instance, one stereotype is that the relationships of lesbians and gay men are dysfunctional and unhappy. However, studies have found same-sex and heterosexual couples to be equivalent to each other on measures of relationship satisfaction and commitment.

A second stereotype is that the relationships of lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people are unstable. However, despite social hostility toward same-sex relationships, research shows that many lesbians and gay men form durable relationships. For example, survey data indicate that between 18% and 28% of gay couples and between 8% and 21% of lesbian couples have lived together 10 or more years. It is also reasonable to suggest that the stability of same-sex couples might be enhanced if partners from same-sex couples enjoyed the same levels of support and recognition for their relationships as heterosexual couples do (i.e., legal rights and responsibilities associated with marriage).

A third common misconception is that the goals and values of lesbian and gay couples are different from those of heterosexual couples. In fact, research has found that the factors that influence relationship satisfaction, commitment, and stability are remarkably similar for both same-sex cohabiting couples and heterosexual married couples.

Far less research is available on the relationship experiences of people who identify as bisexual. If these individuals are in a same-sex relationship, they are likely to face the same prejudice and discrimination that members of lesbian and gay couples face. If they are in a heterosexual relationship, their experiences may be quite similar to those of people who identify as heterosexual unless they choose to come out as bisexual; in that case, they will likely face some of the same prejudice and discrimination that lesbian and gay individuals encounter.

Can lesbians and gay men be good parents?

Many lesbians and gay men are parents; others wish to be parents. In the 2000 U.S. Census, 33% of female same-sex couple households and 22% of male same-sex couple households reported at least one child under the age of 18 living in the home. Although comparable data are not available, many single lesbians and gay men are also parents, and many same-sex couples are part-time parents to children whose primary residence is elsewhere.

As the social visibility and legal status of lesbian and gay parents have increased, some people have raised concerns about the well-being of children in these families. Most of these questions are based on negative stereotypes about lesbians and gay men. The majority of research on this topic asks whether children raised by lesbian and gay parents are at a disadvantage when compared to children raised by heterosexual parents. These are the most common questions and answers:

1. Do children of lesbian and gay parents have more problems with sexual identity than do children of heterosexual parents?
For instance, do these children develop problems in gender identity and/or in gender role behavior? The answer from research is clear: sexual and gender identities (including gender identity, gender-role behavior, and sexual orientation) develop in much the same way among children of lesbian mothers as they do among children of heterosexual parents. Few studies are available regarding children of gay fathers.

2. Do children raised by lesbian or gay parents have problems in personal development in areas other than sexual identity?
For example, are the children of lesbian or gay parents more vulnerable to mental breakdown, do they have more behavior problems, or are they less psychologically healthy than other children? Again, studies of personality, self-concept, and behavior problems show few differences between children of lesbian mothers and children of heterosexual parents. Few studies are available regarding children of gay fathers.

3. Are children of lesbian and gay parents likely to have problems with social relationships?
For example, will they be teased or otherwise mistreated by their peers? Once more, evidence indicates that children of lesbian and gay parents have normal social relationships with their peers and adults. The picture that emerges from this research shows that children of gay and lesbian parents enjoy a social life that is typical of their age group in terms of involvement with peers, parents, family members, and friends.

4. Are these children more likely to be sexually abused by a parent or by a parent's friends or acquaintances?
There is no scientific support for fears about children of lesbian or gay parents being sexually abused by their parents or their parents' gay, lesbian, or bisexual friends or acquaintances.

In summary, social science has shown that the concerns often raised about children of lesbian and gay parents, concerns that are generally grounded in prejudice against and stereotypes about gay people, are unfounded. Overall, the research indicates that the children of lesbian and gay parents do not differ markedly from the children of heterosexual parents in their development, adjustment, or overall well-being.

What can people do to diminish prejudice and discrimination against lesbian, gay, and bisexual people?

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual people who want to help reduce prejudice and discrimination can be open about their sexual orientation, even as they take necessary precautions to be as safe as possible. They can examine their own belief systems for the presence of antigay stereotypes. They can make use of the lesbian, gay, and bisexual community, as well as supportive heterosexual people, for support.

Heterosexual people who wish to help reduce prejudice and discrimination can examine their own response to antigay stereotypes and prejudice. They can make a point of coming to know lesbian, gay, and bisexual people, and they can work with lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals and communities to combat prejudice and discrimination. Heterosexual individuals are often in a good position to ask other heterosexual people to consider the prejudicial or discriminatory nature of their beliefs and actions. Heterosexual allies can encourage nondiscrimination policies that include sexual orientation. They can work to make coming out safe. When lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people feel free to make public their sexual orientation, heterosexuals are given an opportunity to have personal contact with openly gay people and to perceive them as individuals.

Studies of prejudice, including prejudice against gay people, consistently show that prejudice declines when members of the majority group interact with members of a minority group. In keeping with this general pattern, one of the most powerful influences on heterosexuals' acceptance of gay people is having personal contact with an openly gay person. Antigay attitudes are far less common among members of the population who have a close friend or family member who is lesbian or gay, especially if the gay person has directly come out to the heterosexual person.

Where can I find more information about homosexuality?

American Psychological Association
Office on Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity
750 First Street, NE
Washington, D.C. 20002
Website
Email

Mental Health America (formerly the National Mental Health Association)
2000 N. Beauregard Street, 6th Floor
Alexandria, VA 22311
Main Switchboard: (703) 684-7722
Toll-free: (800) 969-6MHA (6642)
TTY: (800) 433-5959
Fax: (703) 684-5968
Website

American Academy of Pediatrics
Division of Child and Adolescent Health
141 Northwest Point Boulevard
Elk Grove Village, IL 60007
Office: (847) 228-5005
Fax: (847) 228-5097
Website

Suggested bibliographic citation

American Psychological Association. (2008, October 29). Understanding sexual orientation and homosexuality. https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbtq/orientation

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Sexual orientation refers to an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes.

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A child's gender expression at any time seems to be influenced by exposure to stereotypes and their identification with the people in their lives.

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By: Jason Rafferty MD, MPH, EdM, FAAP

There are many ways parents can promote healthy gender development in children. It helps to understand gender identity and how it forms.

What's the difference between gender and sex?

Being a boy or a girl, for most children, is something that feels very natural. At birth, babies are assigned male or female based on physical characteristics. This refers to the or "assigned gender" of the child.

Meanwhile, "gender identity" refers to an internal sense people have of who they are that comes from an interaction of biological traits, developmental influences and environmental conditions. This may be male, female, somewhere in between, a combination of both or neither.

Self-recognition of gender identity develops over time, much the same way a child's physical body does. Most children's asserted gender identity aligns with their assigned gender (sex). However, for some children, the match between their assigned gender and gender identity is not so clear.

How does gender identity develop in children?

Gender identity typically develops in stages:

Around age two: Children become conscious of the physical differences between boys and girls.

Before their third birthday: Most children can easily label themselves as either a boy or a girl.

By age four: Most children have a stable sense of their gender identity.

During this same time of life, children learn gender role behavior-that is, doing "things that boys do" or"things that girls do." However, cross-gender preferences and play are a normal part of gender development and exploration regardless of their future gender identity

The point is that all children tend to develop a clearer view of themselves and their gender over time. At any point, research suggests that children who assert a gender-diverse identity know their gender as clearly and consistently as their developmentally matched peers and benefit from the same level of support, love and social acceptance.

What parents can do:

All children need the opportunity to explore different gender roles and different styles of play. Parents can make sure their young child's environment reflects diversity in gender roles and encourages opportunities for everyone. Some ideas would be to offer:

Children's books or puzzles showing men and women in non-stereotypical and diverse gender roles (stay-at-home dads, working moms, male nurses and female police officers, for example).

A wide range of toys for your child to choose from, including baby dolls, toy vehicles, action figures, blocks, etc.

By age 6, most children spend most of their playtime with members of their own sex. They may also gravitate towards sports and other activities that are associated with their gender. It is important to allow children to make choices regarding friend groups, sports and other activities they get involved in. It is also a good idea to check in with your child to learn about their preferences and to make sure they feel included without teasing or bullying.

How do children typically express their gender identity?

In addition to their choices of toys, games, and sports, children typically express their gender identity in the following ways:

Clothing or hairstyle

Preferred name or nickname

Social behavior that reflects varying degrees of aggression, dominance, dependency and gentleness.

Manner and style of behavior and physical gestures and other nonverbal actions identified as masculine or feminine.

Social relationships, including the gender of friends, and the people they decide to imitate.

Gender expression & gender identity

A child's gender-specific behavior (gender expression) at any time seems to be influenced by exposure to stereotypes and their identification with the people in their lives. However, the internal sense of being a girl, boy, in between or something else (gender identity) cannot be changed.

How have gender stereotypes changed over time?

Our expectations of "what girls do" and"what boys do" have changed. Many female athletes excel at their sports. Girls increasingly pursue subjects traditionally thought of as"masculine." There are many famous male chefs, artists, and musicians―fields traditionally thought of as"feminine."

Over time, society has recognized that stereotypes of "masculine" and"feminine" activities and behaviors are inaccurate and limiting to a child's development. Such interests also do not determine or influence one's gender identity. Plus, our ability to predict who a child is based on early preferences is not very accurate-and may be harmful if it leads to shame or attempts to suppress their skills, talents and genuine self.

Still, when a child's interests and abilities are different from what society expects, they may face discrimination and bullying. It is natural for parents to have gender-based expectations for their children and to want to protect them from criticism and exclusion. Instead of pushing children to conform to these pressures and to limit themselves, parents can play an important role in advocating for safe spaces where their children can feel comfortable and good about themselves.

If your child doesn't excel in sports or even have an interest in them, for example, there will still be many other opportunities and areas in which they can thrive. Regardless of gender identity, each child has their own strengths that may not always conform to society's or your own expectations, but they will still be a source of current and future success.

Gender development is a normal process for all children. Some children will exhibit variations―similar to all areas of human health and behavior. However, all children need support, love and care from family, school and society, which fosters growth into happy and healthy adults.

More information

About Dr. Rafferty

Jason Rafferty, MD, MPH, EdM, FAAP, is pediatrician and child psychiatrist at Thundermist Health Centers, a Patient-Centered Medical Home in Rhode Island. He specializes in adolescent substance use disorders and gender and sexual development, and also practices in related specialty clinics at Hasbro Children's Hospital and Emma Pendleton Bradley Hospital. Dr. Rafferty is an advocate in his local community and on a national level through work with the American Academy of Pediatrics on issues including the emotional health of young men, access to care for LGBTQ youth, and prevention of childhood homelessness.

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There are many ways parents can promote healthy gender development in children. It helps to understand gender identity and how it forms.

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Culture plays an important role in how parents raise their children.

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How Can Culture Affect A Child’s Development? - post

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Explore how culture affects child development and learn strategies for creating inclusive, culturally sensitive classrooms in early childhood education.

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Those who experience family transitions are at greater risk for subsequent transitions and their concomitant stresses.

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*American College of Pediatricians, May 2014. Used with permission (http://www.acpeds.org).

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The impact of family structure on the health of children: Effects of divorce

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Nearly three decades of research evaluating the impact of family structure on the health and well-being of children demonstrates that children living with their married, biological parents consistently have better physical, emotional, and academic…

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The effects of concentrated poverty in schools may include disciplinary problems and chaotic learning environments.

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Socioeconomic Status and the Fates of Adolescents

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In this issue of Health Services Research, Newacheck and colleagues update the evidence on the association between socioeconomic status—specifically, income–and the health care and health status of adolescents in the United States. Using the 1999 and 2000 editions of the National Health Interview Survey, they find that poor and low-income adolescents are more likely than their more affluent counterparts to be in fair or poor (versus good or excellent) health, have limitations in their activities, and have had behavioral or emotional problems. Poor and low-income adolescents also are more likely than their peers to be uninsured, have no usual source of care, face financial and nonfinancial barriers to access, and have gone without medical or dental care during the preceding year. These findings are consistent with those of earlier studies (e.g., Montgomery, Kiely, and Pappas 1996; Ford, Bearman, and Moody, 1999), and reinforce concerns about the impact of low socioeconomic status on adolescent health.

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Each factor can have either a negative or positive impact in the classroom setting. Factors such as sexual orientation, gender identity, economic status, and family unit can impact a child negatively as the child could be bullied due to not having something, or identifying as something, or left out of certain things due to not having a parent there or able to afford something. Religion can be a positive if it is in a certain setting such as a religious school and being closer to the religion will help make friends and focus on studies.

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Implicit Bias exists when we unconsciously hold attitudes towards others or associate negative stereotypes with them.

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Cultural competence is defined as the ability to work effectively with people from different cultural backgrounds

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Cultural Competence: What, Why, and How - Global Cognition

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Cultural competence means you can work effectively with people from diverse backgrounds. It comprises mindset, learning, reasoning, and interaction skills.

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Implicit biases can negatively affect education when teachers, administrators, and other school staff make decisions and interact with students and families in ways that are influenced by their implicit biases.

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Implicit biases can negatively affect education when teachers, administrators, and other school staff make decisions and interact with students and families in ways that are influenced by their implicit biases. As a result, implicit bias in the context of education creates unfairness on the individual level (e.g., biased speech) and injustice at the institutional or systemic level (e.g., discrimination).

Educators's implicit biases can influence how teachers grade students as well as to whom they give their attention and who they ignore. It can affect which students they praise and reprimand, their body language, and tone of voice. Biases can influence the curriculum choices and which perspectives are highlighted in classrooms. It can affect choices related to guest speakers, books, stories, and more. Implicit biases can also influence how teachers and administrators react to student behaviors and result in inconsistencies across how students are disciplined that fall along racial and ethnic lines.

Implicit biases in education may help to explain pervasive inequities in educational institutions such as gaps in achievement scores based on racial and gender groups, differences in participation in advanced level courses, and differences in detention and suspension rates. It can also influence hiring and promotion practices.
Examples
Biases in Evaluation. A teacher may hold implicit biases about the mathematical abilities of certain groups of students. These beliefs in turn could influence the type of feedback provided, how frequently the teacher calls on students, the types of support and assistance provided, and decisions related to grouping students based on "learning needs."

In a randomized controlled study of 390 teachers, Copur-Gencturk et al. (2019) used randomly assigned gender- and race-specific names on 18 mathematical solutions. The teachers did not show biases in assessing the correctness of the answers; however, when the teachers were asked to evaluate the students' abilities using the same solutions, teacher biases against Black, Hispanic and female students' mathematical abilities emerged. The biases were the largest for Black and Hispanic girls.

Using a large dataset of ~40,000 teachers across the nation, Chin et al.(2020) found that counties in which teachers had higher pro-White compared to Black implicit bias (i.e., IAT scores averaged among teachers in each county) also had larger test score disparities between White and Black students.

Biases in Discipline. For the same behavior, implicit biases may lead a teacher to react to one student's behavior differently than another's. It may lead to inconsistent consequences, such as being sent to "time-out," calls to parents, suspension or expulsion. Nationally, African Americans are four times more likely, and Latinos twice as likely, to be suspended or expelled in elementary school for minor infractions than their peers (Skiba et al., 2011). In Hawaiʻi, higher rates of suspensions appear to be correlated with enrollment of low-income, multi-racial and Native Hawaiian students (Terrell, 2015). Disproportionate representation in arrests and ensuing outcomes (e.g. time in juvenile detention) for youth of Native Hawaiian, Samoan, Filipino, mixed-race and other Pacific Islander backgrounds are also evident in the State's juvenile justice system (Umemeto et al, 2012).

These patterns have been referred to as the "school to prison pipeline" and disparities in discipline have been connected to implicit biases. Using a large dataset of ~1.6 million Americans, Riddle and Sinclair (2019) found that county-level estimates of implicit White/Black bias (and county-level explicit biases, as well) are associated with racial disciplinary disparities seen in those counties across ~96,000 schools in the U.S.

It is important to promote awareness of biases so that educators and institutions can manage their effects (Derman-Sparks & Olsen Edwards, 2016). Developing equitable institutional protocols for such things as hiring procedures and evaluating teachers, as well as on-going professional development with coaching, may help. Additionally, frameworks for Anti-Bias Education can be used to guide educators (e.g., Learning for Justice Social Justice Standards). Such actions can help to mitigate implicit biases that are unfair and disruptive to learning and encourage practices that are restorative versus punitive.
References
Chin, M. J., Quinn, D. M., Dhaliwal, T. K., & Lovison, V. S. (2020). Bias in the Air: A Nationwide Exploration of Teachers' Implicit Racial Attitudes, Aggregate Bias, and Student Outcomes. Educational Researcher.

Copur-Gencturk, Y., Cimpian, J. R., Lubienski, S. T., & Thacker, I. (2020). Teachers' bias against the mathematical ability of female, Black, and Hispanic students. Educational Researcher, 49(1), 30-43.

Derman-Sparks, L., & Olsen Edwards, J. (2016). Goals of anti-bias education: Clearing up some misconceptions. Exchange, 14-18.

Riddle, T., & Sinclair, S. (2019). Racial disparities in school-based disciplinary actions are associated with county-level rates of racial bias. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(17), 8255-8260.

Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C., Rausch, M. K., May, S. L., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40(1), 85-107.

Terrell, J. (2015, June). Hawaii school suspensions: Are they fair? Can they be reduced? Honolulu Civil Beat. https://www.civilbeat.org/2015/06/hawaii-school-suspensions-are-they-fair-can-they-be-reduced/

Umemeto, K., Spencer, J., Miao, T., & Momen, S. (2012, June). Disproportionate Minority Contact in the Hawaiʻi Juvenile Justice System: 2000-2010. http://ag.hawaii.gov/cpja/files/2013/01/DMC-FINAL-REPORT-2012.pdf

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Implicit biases can negatively affect education when teachers, administrators, and other school staff make decisions and interact with students and families in ways that are influenced by their implicit biases. As a result, implicit bias in the context of education creates unfairness on the individual level (e.g., biased speech) and injustice at the institutional or systemic level (e.g., discrimination).

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Culturally competent education has proven benefits for students, institutions, and society as a whole.

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What Is Cultural Competence In Education? Why It’s Important

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Explore the importance of cultural competence in education, its benefits, and practical strategies to create inclusive classes.

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I believe in equality and justice for all. I believe everybody should be taught equally and loved in this life. If I do have any unaware Implicit Bias I will work to resolve them so everyone feels like they are treated equally. If I had Implicit Bias this will effect the students by teaching toward a certain group of students and not being inclusive to all. This Bias may affect the students by thinking a certain race may not know how to do a certain thing and not trying to teach them.

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Displaying the cultural competency behaviors of active listening, empathy, and effective engagement can help us to create a welcoming environment and establish the appreciation of similarities and differences among cultures.

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Jackie M. Guzman, Extension Educator

Why Is Cultural Competence Important?

Demographic shifts and an increasingly diverse population

The United States has always had an ethnically diverse population, including African Americans, Native Americans, and Japanese Americans, to name a few. In recent years, our country has undergone dramatic shifts in its population, particularly as rapid migration has changed its landscape. For example, the Hispanic population in the U.S. rose from approximately 12.5 percent in 1990 to over 16 percent by 2009, and is anticipated to comprise 25 percent of the population by 2050. The U.S. Census Bureau estimates that by 2043, the U.S. will become a "majority minority" country. This means that although the non-Hispanic white population will still be the biggest group, a single group will no longer make up the majority. More than 50 percent of the population will identify as belonging to an ethnic minority group or any group other than non-Hispanic white.

In other words, although we have always lived in an ethnically diverse society, we are all operating in an increasingly culturally diverse environment where we need to be able to interact, communicate, build relationships, and work effectively with people from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Moreover, those of us working with youth need to prepare them to operate in a society that will be even more diverse in terms of religion, ethnic background, and sexual orientation.

Societies are increasingly becoming globalized

Today's world is diverse and global. Technology has made interactions across cultures around the world a very common experience. Social networking sites, blogs, and chat rooms are letting people regularly interact across national borders. Many industries currently have a significant amount of international collaboration, and careers in many fields increasingly entail working with people from different countries, both directly and indirectly. Children and youth today need to be prepared to enter a workforce and adult society that spans across borders and involves interacting with people of diverse backgrounds in myriad settings.

Recognizing our increasingly globalized society, many industries and professional organizations (e.g., National Education Association, RAND Corporation) are emphasizing the importance of cultural competence and related skills (e.g., global awareness) as essential in today's workplace. Numerous universities are also incorporating cultural awareness and development as part of the higher education experience and career preparation by creating opportunities for students to participate in international experiences. Successfully navigating our globalized society entails being able to understand and appreciate diversity in its many forms, and to effectively engage and communicate with people from different cultures.

Persistence of issues around cross-cultural contact, discrimination, and related challenges

Despite the fact that societies are becoming more culturally diverse and globalized, issues surrounding inequality, bias, and breakdowns in intercultural communications persist. The FBI reports that in 2013, there were almost 6,000 reported incidences of hate crimes in the United States. Of these, almost 60 percent had racial or ethnic motivations; 20 percent were around sexual orientation; and 17 percent involved religion. There are also numerous bias incidents, persistent inequalities around racial and ethnic lines, and institutional policies that perpetuate inequalities at both the individual and institutional levels. One need not look beyond recent news reports to find that ethnic tensions persist.

Discrimination and bias in various forms are hurtful all around

Discrimination and bias have serious consequences. For example, stereotypes and bias have been claimed as the foundation for the surge in reported incidences of police brutality and the deaths of African Americans. A substantial body of work has also shown that victims of bias suffer in ways that may be less visible-in their academics, work performance, and other domains of life-even when those biases are subtle. Research on "microaggressions" (i.e., regular or daily subtle and minor acts of bias that may be consciously or unconsciously expressed) illustrate this point and show that even subtle incidences can have cumulative and serious consequences for socio-emotional well-being.

Negative effects are evident not just for the victims of biases. Recent research suggests that stereotyping, bias, and incidences of microaggressions not only affect the victim but also contribute to a hostile environment for everyone so that people in the broader setting (e.g., workplace) might feel invalidated or even intimidated and abused.

In addition, holding biases and prejudice also negatively affects the very persons holding those stereotyped beliefs. Experimental research shows that individuals with racial biases who interact with people of color show increased levels of cortisol and other stress hormones. Thus, biases and stereotypes have negative effects all around-for individuals and institutions, as well as for the targets of bias and for those holding such biases.

Tips for Building Skills in Cultural Competence

Developing cultural competence is a process rather than an end point. Just like any skill, the process of development and improvement continues, and it is hard to point to a particular time when one can say "That's it! I've reached it!" There are many ways by which we can increase our capacity to be effective in our interactions with others. Below are some suggestions to move forward in your development.

Increasing cultural and global knowledge

Learning more about other cultures and being aware of current events is often key in learning about various cultural groups' points of view. When working with people from different cultural backgrounds, it can be useful to learn about their culture's practices, values, and beliefs. For example, learning about the languages spoken in their communities, child-rearing practices, or religious traditions can help us understand and interact with individuals and groups of various backgrounds.

Conflicts that emerge between groups are often rooted in issues that may have deep historical origins. It is very helpful to understand these historical backgrounds that may help explain current events. For example, why do certain words or phrases that seem neutral evoke negative reactions with specific populations (e.g., "Where are you from?" or "You really should be appreciative of what I give you")? Some of these phrases reflect long histories and current experiences of oppression and thus evoke hurt and other negative feelings. Hurt feelings among youth may impact their ability to develop trusting and strong relationships with adults, which are necessary for youths' growth and development. Similarly, some traditional events may evoke controversy as to their meaning and whether they should celebrated at all (e.g., Columbus Day). Regardless of what side of the debate you might align with, the first and most important step is to understand the issue.

Finally, beyond history, numerous events and policies continue to impact the individuals, families, and cultural groups with which you are interacting. Examples of these include wars and territorial conflicts. For those of us working with refugees or migrants in our communities, it is essential we understand events that underlie their movement from their home countries.

Fig. 1.The Art of Active Listening

Self-assessment

Reflecting critically on our own biases and prejudices helps to develop the skills necessary to effectively interact and engage with individuals whose cultural background is different than our own. Realizing that everyone has biases is an important step for building cultural competence. Our biases may stem from our backgrounds, experiences, or personal demographics, and these biases exist whether or not we are aware of them.

The problem is when we deny or fail to acknowledge our biases. Our interactions and perceptions of others may be influenced by our biases. These biases may cause us to inadvertently act in ways that are discriminatory towards others.

However, if we are aware of our biases, we can work to diminish our own prejudices and the implications they may have in our interactions with others. In fact, holding on to the belief that one is "color-blind" and unbiased is linked to unfavorable behaviors, such as miscommunication and lack of trust across racial groups, reluctance to help others from a different cultural group, and less ability to detect biased behaviors. Acknowledging that we all have biases and that we all hold stereotypes is the first step in cultural competence.

Going beyond tolerance: Building skills and putting them in action

Tolerating different cultural backgrounds is a step in the right direction. However, tolerance is not always optimal. In fact, tolerance usually means that you are simply putting up with something that is undesirable. Cultural competence goes beyond "putting up with" differences and instead involves being appreciative, affirming, and inclusive of all cultural backgrounds. For example, to increase our cultural competence, we can ask members of a cultural group open-minded, open-ended questions, or ask for more information, such as, "I would like to learn more about . . ." Additionally, making an effort to detect verbal and nonverbal actions that certain cultures may not find appropriate (e.g., hand shaking) can establish an inclusive environment.

Overall, cultural competence has three important components: active listening, demonstrating empathy, and effective engagement. Each is detailed in the next section.

Active Listening

When was the last time you engaged in an active listening conversation with someone who has vastly different experiences and beliefs than you? Actively listening to an individual allows you to learn about that person's culture and experiences. You should listen for total meaning by focusing on the content that is being given and concentrating on what is being said.

Active listening entails thinking about the feeling behind the content or the emotion involved. The emotion gives evidence of the real intent of the conversation, which will help you identify if the person is upset, inquisitive, or acting on another emotion and allow you to respond appropriately.

In addition to listening for total meaning, you should also avoid mental distractions when building cultural competency through active listening. This means listening with focus and not becoming involved in mental chitchat about how you are going to respond to a person or question. For example, if you believe that homosexuality is immoral and a choice and you are in a debate with a friend on the legalization of same sex marriage, instead of engaging in mental chitchat about what scientific or biblical facts you can recite to prove your perspective, the key is focusing on what is being said and how it is being said.

Lastly, once you have listened for true meaning, the other person feels understood, and you both have limited mental distractions, you will want to make sure you ask more questions of the other person than offer solutions. Do not jump directly to giving people advice or offering solutions about what you perceive to be the problem or their problem. The response that is effective, especially if you are in a situation in which you are responsible for resolving a conflict between two people, requires seeking more information and multiple perspectives first.

Empathy

The second component of cultural competency is demonstrating empathy. It is the art of seeing and feeling the situation of another, walking in another person's shoes, or seeing the world as that person sees it. Empathy involves understanding that person's perceptions and the conclusions that person draws about his or her life experiences. It does not mean you have to agree with that person's perceptions and conclusions, but at the very least, you are able to see the other person's position.

Take the previous example related to sexual orientation. A privilege of being heterosexual in our society is having multiple media, print images, and entertainment that portray heterosexual love and relationships and indicate it is not taboo to hug or give a peck to your girlfriend or husband while in public. These images are not as prevalent for same-sex couples. Therefore, empathy involves being able to understand the other person's position. To be effective, you must engage in appropriate inquiry and dialog. It also involves building relationships with an individual or particular cultural group.

Engagement

The third component of cultural competency is effective engagement. Engagement should be mutually beneficial and a reciprocal learning experience in which you learn from one another. Focus on the behaviors and the situation, not the person. Value-laden statements making the individual the target should be avoided.

If the focus of the conversation or interaction is about a tradition or belief, keep the feedback within the context of that tradition or belief. Do not say, You are being silly because you believe that Muslims should be able to step out of class to pray six times a day. Focus on understanding the tradition or practice. Approach the topic by saying: I understand this is part of your religion, but I do not understand how it effects your belief in God and why you are required to pray six times a day. This opens up dialog in which the person can explain to you the tenants of that culture and the requirement of prayers.

Displaying the cultural competence behaviors of active listening, demonstrating empathy, and effective engagement is important when moving beyond tolerance. These three components will help us to create a welcoming environment and establish the appreciation of similarities and differences among cultures.

Resources

Baumeister, R. (2011). The need- to-belong theory. Handbook of theories of social psychology, 2, 121-140.

Colby, S. L. & Ortman, J. M. (2015). Current population reports: Projections of the size and composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.

Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. E., Kawakami, K., & Hodson, G. (2002). "Why can't we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust". Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 8 (2): 88-102.

Federal Bureau of Investigation (2014). Bias breakdown (note: News release from the Annual Hate Crime Statistics Report). Accessed from https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2014/december/latest-hate-crime-statistics-report-released

Mendes, W. B., Gray, H., Mendoza-Denton, R., Major, B., & Epel, E. (2007). Why egalitarianism might be good for your health: Physiological thriving during stressful intergroup encounters. Psychological Science, 18, 991-998.

Nuwer, R. (2015). When cops lose control. Scientific American Mind, 26(6), 44-51.

U.S. Census Bureau (2008). Hispanic population in the United States: 1970 to 2050. Accessed November 28, 2011 from http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hispanic/hispanic_pop_presentation.html

U.S. Census Bureau (2010). The Hispanic population: 2010. Accessed November 28, 2011 from http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf

Vescio, T. K., Gervais, S. J., Heiphetz, L., & Bloodhart, B. (2014). The stereotypic behaviors of the powerful and their effect on the relatively powerless (pp. 247-266), in T. D. Nelson (Ed), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination. New York: Psychology Press.

Wong, G., Derthick, A. O., David, E. J. R., Saw, A., & Okazaki, S. (2014). The what, the why, and the how: A review of racial microaggressions research in psychology. Race and Social Problems, 6, 181-200.

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University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension educational programs abide with the nondiscrimination policies of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln and the United States Department of Agriculture.

© 2016, The Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska on behalf of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension. All rights reserved.

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An Important Skill Set for the 21st Century

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Jackie M. Guzman, Extension Educator The United States has always had an ethnically diverse population, including African Americans, Native Americans, and Japanese Americans, to name a few. In recent years, our country has undergone dramatic shifts in its population, particularly as rapid migration has changed its landscape.

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There are numerous benefits to self-assessment. Such processes can lead to the development of a strategic organizational plan with clearly defined short-term and long-term goals, measurable objectives, identified fiscal and personnel resources, and enhanced consumer and community partnerships.

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Promoting diversity and enacting policies that encourage it will inevitably result in a healthy work environment. Children get better prepared to face the world if they get taught to be culturally aware and courteous of others.

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Importance Of Understanding Cultural Differences: 4 Benefits At The Workplace

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One of the most severe flaws of organizations is their failure to recognize the relevance of cultural awareness in company operations. It is incorrect to believe that culture has minimal impact on an organization’s performance.

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Willingness to Develop Cultural Knowledge Importance

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Willingness to Develop Cultural Knowledge Importance

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The willingness to ask questions and listen to others stories demonstrates respect.

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Ability to Adapt to the Cultural Needs of Community Importance

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Ability to Adapt to the Cultural Needs of Community Importance

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Understanding the defining characteristics of culture, learning to be more aware of its influence on behavior, and exploring strategies to become more adaptable gives leaders and practitioners of any industry a significant advantage over those who do not comprehend these ideas.

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Cultural Adaptability – Using Behavioral Intelligence to Connect Across Cultures - Coeus Creative Group, LLC

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Your ability to work across cultures is now essential. Culture can create intersections of misunderstanding. Cultural Adaptability is critical.

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Cultural competence is a developmental process that evolves over an extended period. Both individuals and organizations are at various levels of awareness, knowledge and skills along the cultural competence continuum. (adapted from Cross et al., 1989)

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Conceptual Frameworks / Models, Guiding Values and Principles

The NCCC embraces a conceptual framework and model for achieving cultural and linguistic competence based on the work of Cross et al. (1989). The NCCC uses this framework and model to underpin all activities.

Cultural Competence: Definition & Conceptual Framework
Cultural competence requires that organizations:

have a defined set of values and principles, and demonstrate behaviors, attitudes, policies and structures that enable them to work effectively cross-culturally.

have the capacity to (1) value diversity, (2) conduct self-assessment, (3) manage the dynamics of difference, (4) acquire and institutionalize cultural knowledge and (5) adapt to diversity and the cultural contexts of the communities they serve.

incorporate the above in all aspects of policy making, administration, practice, service delivery and systematically involve consumers, key stakeholders and communities.

Cultural competence is a developmental process that evolves over an extended period. Both individuals and organizations are at various levels of awareness, knowledge and skills along the cultural competence continuum. (adapted from Cross et al., 1989)

Culturally Competent Guiding Values & Principles

Organizational

Systems and organizations must sanction, and in some cases mandate the incorporation of cultural knowledge into policy making, infrastructure and practice.*

Cultural competence embraces the principles of equal access and non-discriminatory practices in service delivery.*

Practice & Service Design

Cultural competence is achieved by identifying and understanding the needs and help-seeking behaviors of individuals and families.*

Culturally competent organizations design and implement services that are tailored or matched to the unique needs of individuals, children, families, organizations and communities served.*

Practice is driven in service delivery systems by client preferred choices, not by culturally blind or culturally free interventions.*

Culturally competent organizations have a service delivery model that recognizes mental health as an integral and inseparable aspect of primary health care.

Community Engagement

Cultural competence extends the concept of self-determination to the community.*

Cultural competence involves working in conjunction with natural, informal support and helping networks within culturally diverse communities (e.g. neighborhood, civic and advocacy associations; local/neighborhood merchants and alliance groups; ethnic, social, and religious organizations; and spiritual leaders and healers).*

Communities determine their own needs.**

Community members are full partners in decision making.**

Communities should economically benefit from collaboration.**

Community engagement should result in the reciprocal transfer of knowledge and skills among all collaborators and partners.**

Individuals & Families

Family is defined differently by different cultures.***

Family as defined by each culture is usually the primary system of support and preferred intervention.***

Individuals/families are the ultimate decision makers for supports and services for themselves and/or their children.***

Linguistic Competence: Definition

The capacity of an organization and its personnel to communicate effectively, and convey information in a manner that is easily understood by diverse groups including persons of limited English proficiency, those who have low literacy skills or are not literate, individuals with disabilities, and those who are deaf or hard of hearing. Linguistic competence requires organizational and provider capacity to respond effectively to the health and mental health literacy needs of populations served. The organization must have policy, structures, practices, procedures, and dedicated resources to support this capacity.

Goode & Jones (modified 2009). National Center for Cultural Competence, Georgetown University Center for Child & Human Development.

Guiding Values and Principles for Language Access

Services and supports are delivered in the preferred language and/or mode of delivery of the population served.

Written materials are translated, adapted, and/or provided in alternative formats based on the needs and preferences of the populations served.

Interpretation and translation services comply with all relevant Federal, state, and local mandates governing language access.

Consumers are engaged in evaluation of language access and other communication services to ensure for quality and satisfaction.

Footnotes

* Adapted from Cross, T. et al, 1989
** "Other Guiding Values and Principles for Community Engagement" and "Family & Consumers" are excerpts from the work of Taylor, T., & Brown, M., 1997, Georgetown University Child Development Center, (GUCDC) University Affiliated Program, and
*** "Promoting Cultural Diversity and Cultural Competency- Self Assessment Checklist for Personnel Providing Services and Supports to Children with Disabilities & Special Health Care Needs Goode, T., 2002, NCCC, GUCDC.
Find Resources and Tools under checklists that reflect these values and principles in policy and practice.

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The NCCC embraces a conceptual framework and model for achieving cultural and linguistic competence based on the work of Cross et al. (1989). The NCCC uses this framework and model to underpin all activities. Cultural competence requires that organizations: have a defined set of values and principles, and demonstrate behaviors, attitudes, policies and structures that enable them to work effectively cross-culturally.

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Implicit bias affects various aspects of education, including discipline, disabilities, and access to gifted programs, leading to disproportionate negative impacts on Black schoolchildren.

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Implicit Bias in Teacher Decision-Making

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Implicit Bias in Teacher Decision-Making

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Implicit bias comes in many forms and can often contribute to how even the most well-intentioned educators respond in their learning environment. It can show up as language choice, teaching methods, grading practices, and accessibility practices.

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When the "Education for All Handicapped Children Act" passed, in 1975, students with disabilities who were found eligible for special education services would be provided, by law, a free and appropriate public education using an individualized education program (IEP)- based on the special education evaluation and the unique strengths and needs of the student. After the 1990, reauthorization, the law became Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

Since then, IEPs have benefited many students. But along the way, something surfaced: Implicit bias.

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Disproportionality in Special Education Fueled by Implicit Bias | NEA

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Educators chip away at racial and ethnic inequities in special education to support students, no matter their race, gender, the language they speak, or ability.

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Implicit Bias Impact on a Teacher's Perception of Children and Families

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Implicit Bias Impact on a Teacher's Perception of Children and Families

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Students might receive these stereotypical messages from multiple sources, such as their parents, peers, or teachers. Yet teachers’ unconscious biases that have been shaped by cultural stereotypes have important negative consequences for students’ academic outcomes.

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Bias was displayed through various nonverbal and academic interactions, and some teachers portrayed their bias by treating some students differently when the situation for all students was the same.

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A professor at a local university assumed that a person would not be able to afford to pay for a certain course as the student was African American. The student failed the class the first term on a grant, and every time the student needed help, the teacher would not be available. The professor said to the student, "I bet you can't afford to take the course again!" Unbeknownst to the professor, the student had multiple businesses and savings and could afford to take the course again.