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#1 George Washington (April 1789 - March 1797)

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#1 George Washington (April 1789 - March 1797)

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Foreign Policy Event: Pinckney's Treaty (1795) Pinckney's Treaty provided a resolution to border debates with Spain. America had now established control over land as south as Georgia(everything but Florida), and as west as the Mississippi River and New Orleans. Thomas Pinckney was able to further the US borders and open up trading and cargo transport with less restrictions.

Domestic Policy Event: The Creation of the National Bank (1791) Alexander Hamilton, secretary of Treasury was largely responsible for this event. It was controversial, as Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican, strict constructionist), secretary of State, felt that it would be an overstep from the executive branch. The First Bank of the US represented the president handling economic problems, instead of leaving it up to state and local governments. It was supposed to serve as a solution to the national debt caused by the Revolutionary War.

Political Event: Washington's Farewell Address (1796) Washington's Farewell Address was one of the many actions of him that created precedents. George Washington was warning and advising Americans, and the future leaders of the country. His advice was: stay unified as a nation (avoid political parties) and avoid lasting foreign affairs. He predicted the regional and political divisions that would fill the country in the near future. This Farewell Address provides the foundation for future policies, and it's influence remains in the decisions of presidents throughout history.

Economic Event: The Cotton Gin (1793) The cotton gin was invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, causing an increase in slavery, despite previous push back from political figures like Hamilton and James Madison. The machine made the process of making cotton more efficient and more profitable for slaveowners. The textile industry grew across the south, and so did the plantations the cotton was grown on.

Sources:

https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/first-bank-of-the-us#:~:text=President%20Washington%20signed%20the%20bill,with%20a%20twenty%2Dyear%20charter.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1784-1800/pickney-treaty

https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/george-washington-s-farewell-address#:~:text=Philadelphia's%20American%20Daily%20Advertiser%20published,a%20third%20term%20as%20president.

https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/cotton-gin-patent#background

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Foreign Policy Event: The XYZ Affair (1798-1800) With America on the brink of war with France, tensions were very high. Adams had sent diplomatic representatives to France, and four Frenchmen were sent to the US, whose names were never revealed. W, X, Y and Z was how John Adams referred to them, in an attempt at confidentiality. These unknown agents demanded bribes in order to speak with American delegates, causing an upset. A quasi-war broke out, meaning that Federalists wanted action, so an unofficial naval war started between the two nations. Eventually, tensions were eased and a real war never occurred.

Domestic Policy Event: The Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) The Alien and Sedition Acts were four laws under the Adams Administration. This was generally frowned upon, and seen as oppressive, and unconstitutional. It was justified by the US preparing for a war with France, and trying to preserve national loyalty. It raised citizenship requirements, deported immigrants, and attempted to silence any critics of the government or its actions. Since John Adams was Federalist, this provided Democratic-Republicans with evidence against the expansion of federal power.

Political Event: Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798) To counteract the Alien and Sedition Acts, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison drafted up and passed these resolutions. Due to their strict constructionist ideas, they claimed that the federal government could only use its power when it was specifically stated/allowed in the Constitution to do so. Their overall argument was that states should be allowed to nullify federal laws, a necessary intervention against actions deemed unconstitutional. The Virginia Resolution, by Madison, directly attacked the Acts, while Jefferson criticized the concept of unjust federal laws as a whole.

Literary Event: The Library of Congress (1800) In 1800, President Adams set aside $5,000 for the creation of the Library of Congress. This library grew further during the Jefferson Administration, both presidents helping turn it into what it is today: a massive collection of writing, photography, and other records. It's a resource that Americans can go to, to research and learn.

Sources:

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/alien-and-sedition-acts

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1784-1800/xyz

https://billofrightsinstitute.org/primary-sources/virginia-and-kentucky-resolutions

https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/april-24/

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#3 Thomas Jefferson (March 1801 - March 1809)

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#3 Thomas Jefferson (March 1801 - March 1809)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Embargo Act (1807) The Embargo Act was an attempt to retaliate after continuous British impressment. British sailors were kidnapping American sailors, and forcing them to fight in the Napoleonic Wars on Great Britain's side. Impressment eventually got to the point where it was a reason for the War of 1812, but before that, Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act. This act prevented any foreign trading, but only resulted in Americans smuggling goods in and out of the US. It was an attempt at hurting the British, as they were a trading partner of America. Instead, it severely damaged the economy, until Jefferson eventually repealed it in 1809.

Domestic Policy Event: The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806) President Thomas Jefferson and Congress funded the Lewis and Clark Expedition, across the 800,000+ miles bought in the Louisiana Purchase (1803). William Clark and Meriwether Lewis led this journey, getting a scope of the new land. Additionally, relationships with the Native American tribes in the area were improved. Jefferson spending federal money on the expansion and exploration of Western America was arguably against his Democratic-Republican ideals, but proved to be highly beneficial to the nation and its people.

Political Event: Marbury v. Madison (1803) This was a major case under the John Marshall court (1801-1835), arguing over the constitutionality of Adams' midnight appointments when he was leaving office. Marshall established the concept of judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the ability to overrule Congress action, if unconstitutional. This meant that a law wouldn't be held up in the Supreme Court if it went against the Constitution, helping to keep the executive branch in check.

Economic Event: Repealing Taxes (1802) As a Democratic-Republican, Thomas Jefferson had been opposed to federal taxes since Washington's presidency, more specifically, the tax on whiskey that Hamilton had suggested. Despite the government needing the money that the taxes provided, Jefferson repealed all of the excise taxes that had been put into place by Hamilton and Washington.

Sources:

https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/lewis-and-clark-expedition-the/#:~:text=The%20Lewis%20and%20Clark%20Expedition,interior%20to%20the%20Pacific%20Ocean.

https://www.monticello.org/research-education/thomas-jefferson-encyclopedia/embargo-1807/

https://www.nps.gov/articles/impressment.htm#:~:text=Because%20voluntary%20enlistments%20could%20never,service%20during%20the%20Napoleonic%20Wars.

https://www.browardschools.com/cms/lib/FL01803656/Centricity/Domain/19576/AMSCO%20AP%20US%20History%20Textbook.pdf

https://www.ttb.gov/public-information/special-feature#2

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#4 James Madison (March 1809 - March 1817)

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#4 James Madison (March 1809 - March 1817)

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Foreign Policy Event: War of 1812 (1812-1815) After years of impressment and mistreatment from Great Britain, this war was seen as a second American Revolution, except this time it was more controversial for the American people. Key battles were The Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814) and The Battle of New Orleans (1815), and it was somewhat concluded with The Treaty of Ghent, although the British continued to disrespect the US. It ended in a stalemate. General Andrew Jackson gained popularity for his leadership during the war.

Domestic Policy Event: Henry Clay's American System (~1815-1816) Henry Clay had been developing an economic plan for the country since the War of 1812, but parts of it were finally implemented towards the end of Madison's presidency. In 1816, the Second Bank of the United States was created. His plan wasn't entirely successful, but it helped kick-start internal improvements and benefited Northerners and their industries. This would lead to controversy as it looked like sectional favoritism, an early representation of the quickly growing divide between the North and South.

Economic Event: The Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 Instead of Jefferson's Embargo Act of 1807, President Madison replaced it with a less extreme trading policy. It allowed trade with all other countries except for Great Britain and France. This helped to pull Americans out of the minor depression caused by The Embargo Act.

Political Event: The Hartford Convention (1815) Federalists in New England were upset about the War of 1812(and how it hurt the economy), and the delegates threw around the idea of seceding from the Union. Shortly after these meetings, the war ended, and it made the Federalist Party look disloyal. As a result, it crumbled, leaving only the Democratic-Republican party.

Sources:

https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/founders/intro7.htm#:~:text=The%20Non%2DIntercourse%20Act%20of,depression%20of%20the%20embargo%20period.

https://www.browardschools.com/cms/lib/FL01803656/Centricity/Domain/19576/AMSCO%20AP%20US%20History%20Textbook.pdf

https://ussconstitutionmuseum.org/major-events/war-of-1812-overview/

https://library.fiveable.me/key-terms/apush/hartford-convention

https://www.americanhistorycentral.com/entries/american-system/

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#5 James Monroe (March 1817 - March 1825)

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#5 James Monroe (March 1817 - March 1825)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Monroe Doctrine (1823) The Monroe Doctrine was a warning to European nations. President Monroe declared that the Western Hemisphere should be left alone and not interfered with by Europeans. This Doctrine didn't do much at the time, but would come into play in the mid-1860s and later.

Domestic Policy Event: The Missouri Compromise (1820) The Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri and Maine as two new states, Missouri was a slave state, and Maine became a free state. This compromise resulted in the creation of the 36° 30′ parallel, making slavery illegal in any territories that fell above that latitude line, excluding Missouri.

Political Event: The Adams-Onis Treaty (1819) Spain was threatened by America's military power, making it easier when John Quincy Adams reached out to propose a treaty. Spain agreed to give up their land in Florida, and it also attempted to resolve lingering issues from Madison's presidency.

Social Event: The Era of Good Feelings After the fall of the Federalist Party at the Hartford Convention, the absence of a second political party made people more at ease, in addition to coming off of a "victory" in the War of 1812. This era was marked by feelings of nationalism, as Americans enjoyed prosperity in their country and a (brief) lack of internal conflict.

Sources:

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/monroe-doctrine

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ushistory1os2xmaster/chapter/the-missouri-crisis/#:~:text=Under%20the%20Missouri%20Compromise%2C%20Missouri,of%20which%20slavery%20was%20forbidden.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/florida

https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/era-good-feelings-jacksonian-age#:~:text=From%20approximately%201815%20to%201825,mixed%20seriousness%20and%20part%20sarcasm.

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#6 John Quincy Adams (March 1825 - March 1829)

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#6 John Quincy Adams (March 1825 - March 1829)

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Foreign Policy Event: Monsters to Destroy Speech (1821) On the Fourth of July, President Adams gave a speech regarding his views on foreign affairs. His speech was interpreted differently by people, but as a whole, he advised against the US being overly involved in foreign affairs. His speech provided a less extreme take on Washington's Farewell Address, where Washington advised against any foreign affairs. Adams seems to be against simply picking fights with other countries over issues that aren't worth the conflict.

Domestic Policy Event: The Tariff of Abominations (1828) The Tariff of 1828, nicknamed the "Tariff of Abominations" by upset Southerners was a heavily restrictive tariff. It benefited non-Southern regions, as it was put in place to help American industries grow. Import prices were inflated by up to 50%, making life more difficult for farmers. The problem with this tariff was, due to it's extreme nature, it was expected to result in tariffs from Britain, which would reduce the sale of American crops to their main consumers, harming Southerner's whose jobs were agriculture-based. This would later leave to the Nullification Crisis.

Economic Event: The Erie Canal (1825) The completion of the Erie Canal made the transport of manufactured/consumer goods way more efficient. It helped New York City become more prominent, and it led to the construction of more canals across the nation. But, it did further the sectional divide, between the North and South.

Political Event: The Revolution of 1828 With the election coming up soon, trouble was stirred up. Andrew Jackson running helped solidify the creation of the Democratic Party, with the two-party system growing closer to its modern form. This political race was chaotic, with both candidates and their supporters trying to hurt the other's reputation and public image.

Sources:

https://www.hudson.org/domestic-policy/what-john-quincy-adams-meant-when-he-said-america-goes-not-abroad-in-search-of-monsters-to-destroy

https://www.history.com/articles/8-ways-the-erie-canal-changed-america

https://www.browardschools.com/cms/lib/FL01803656/Centricity/Domain/19576/AMSCO%20AP%20US%20History%20Textbook.pdf

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tariff-of-1828

https://edsitement.neh.gov/curricula/1828-campaign-andrew-jackson-and-growth-party-politics

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#7 Andrew Jackson (March 1829 - March 1837)

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#7 Andrew Jackson (March 1829 - March 1837)

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Foreign Policy Event: Indian Removal Act (1830) Native Americans in the South were forced to move to the west of the Mississippi River, on the horrible Trail of Tears. President Jackson blatantly went against Marshall's decision in Worcester v. Georgia (1832) later on, but Jackson continued to enforce it.

Domestic Policy Event: The Bank War (1832-1834) Jackson was strongly against Henry Clay's American System, so when it was time for the Second Bank to be re-chartered, he made sure to make sure it wasn't passed in 1832. Since he believed that the Second Bank was corrupt and would ruin the economy, he vetoed Congress' decision. The Senate fought with President Jackson and eventually he was censured in 1834 to stop him from actively undoing the current economic system.

Religious Movement: The Second Great Awakening (1830s-1840s ) Charles Finney was one leading figure of the Second Great Awakening, where he called for moral reformation. New Christian denominations formed as a result of this, and people started practicing personal salvation and romanticizing life. This religious revival also kick-started new reform movements advocating for abolition, women's suffrage, and banning alcohol (the temperance movement) as people were taking their faith and morals into their own hands. This shift also caused people of varying religions to dream of utopias, starting communities of Mormons, the Shakers, and transcendentalists.

Political Event: The Nullification Crisis (1832-1833) Vice President John C. Calhoun hated the Tariff of 1828 and so he pushed for the idea of nullification that had been introduced with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (YEAR). South Carolina passed the Ordinance of Nullification (1832) which made the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 ineffective in the state, as they were deemed unconstitutional. In response, Jackson issued the Nullification Proclamation (1832), declaring that the concept of nullification as a whole is harmful to the Union, and shouldn't be allowed. The Force Bill (1833) is passed, using federal troops to enforce the tariffs, putting an end to nullification. Calhoun resigned from his position during this event.

Sources:

https://www.browardschools.com/cms/lib/FL01803656/Centricity/Domain/19576/AMSCO%20AP%20US%20History%20Textbook.pdf

https://thehermitage.com/andrew-jackson-the-bank-war

https://www.senate.gov/about/parties-leadership/censure-president-jackson.htm#:~:text=In%201833%2C%20the%20Senate%20clashed,president%20on%20March%2028%2C%201834.

https://youtu.be/_GvF6wUQzL4?si=g2wOGmyafUd-aoR7

https://thehermitage.com/andrew-jackson-the-nullification-crisis

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#8 Martin Van Buren (March 1837 - March 1841)

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#8 Martin Van Buren (March 1837 - March 1841)

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Foreign Policy Event: Amistad Trial (1841) African slaves were hunted down and shipped to Cuba. One of the captives took control of the schooner, La Amistad, that they were being transported on. The captain took the slaves to the US, instead. Spain wanted their slaves return, and this became a debate over the citizenship of the African captives. Slave importation was illegal, but the lines were blurred, and the court decided that the captives shouldn't be returned. President Van Buren and the government opted to send the Africans to Spain, which was largely controversial.

Domestic Policy Event: Panic of 1837 The Panic of 1837 happened when the bubble burst after Jackson's Specie Circular (1836), requiring everyone to purchase federal land with gold or silver. Banks were collapsing and people's money lost its value. This led to economic "hard times" that ended in the mid-1840s. The economy was unstable and unemployment worsened.

Economic Event: Independence Treasury Act (1840) Van Buren separates all banks from the federal Treasury Department. This Act was repealed by the Whig Party in 1841, but then brought back in 1846 under the Polk Administration.

Social Event: The Cult of Domesticity (1820s-1860s) Women were expected to take a new role in the household, with men working away from the house due to industrialization. The cult of domesticity was formed around the idea that mothers were responsible for teaching their children morals, instead of men. This idea became more popular alongside the Second Great Awakening, which pushed for people living with Christian morals.

Sources:

https://www.nps.gov/people/martin-van-buren-and-the-amistad.htm

https://www.nps.gov/articles/amistad-how-it-began.htm

https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/the-panic-of-1837

https://millercenter.org/node/64811

https://www.browardschools.com/cms/lib/FL01803656/Centricity/Domain/19576/AMSCO%20AP%20US%20History%20Textbook.pdf

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#9 William Henry Harrison (March 1841 - April 1841)

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#9 William Henry Harrison (March 1841 - April 1841)

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Foreign Policy Event: Battle of Tippecanoe (1811) *pre-presidency* At the time, William Henry Harrison was the governor of Indiana, and he had been gaining land for Americans, by bargaining it away from Native American tribes. Tecumseh, chief of the Shawnee tribe, was very upset about this. Harrison launched an attack on the Shawnee, where they beat out the Native Americans, killing many and forcing them out. This raised tensions, gave Harrison more popularity, and was a major event that led up to the War of 1812.

Domestic Policy Event: Harrison's Inaugural Address (1841) When Harrison was elected, he gave an extensive inaugural address, which was the first time he had directly talked about how he wanted to run the country. He valued a weaker executive branch, as he aligned with the Whig Party and their values/fears.

Political Event: Whig Party Wins (1841) After the formation of the Whig Party in response to Andrew Jackson's distasteful actions. After the failed attempt to win the 1836 election by nominating 3 men, they landed on just William Henry Harrison for the 1840 ballot. This was a successful approach, making him the first Whig president. At the same time, the Whigs also won Congress, gaining them influence. Although, Vice President John Tyler vetoed many of their decisions when he took over.

War Event: The Battle of Thames (1813) *pre-presidency* William Henry Harrison continued to gain traction as a general during the War of 1812. The victory in Canada was significant as Tecumseh was killed, causing the Native Americans to retreat as he was a major leader of their resistance. It displayed that Americans had the military strength to combat the British and their allied forces.

Sources:

https://www.nps.gov/articles/tippecanoe.htm

https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/domestic-affairs

https://teachingamericanhistory.org/document/inaugural-address-1841/

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Whig-Party

https://www.battlefields.org/learn/war-1812/battles/battle-thames

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Foreign Policy Event: Texas Annexation (1844-1845) Since 1821, Mexico had control of Texas, but many Americans moved there as the land was very unpopulated. Eventually, the Americans who had settled in Texas wanted independence, causing them to form the Republic of Texas. And, despite the Senate shutting down Tyler's attempt at annexation in 1844, Congress passed a joint resolution in 1845, and Texas was admitted as a slave state. This sparked border debates between the US and Texas, leading to the Mexican-American War. Additionally, Florida was also admitted as a slave state at the end of Tyler's presidency, splitting the Democratic Party due to debates of slavery's expansion.

Domestic Policy Event: Presidential Succession (1841) Since Harrison was the first president to die in office, the exact process of how the power should shift was unclear. The Constitution didn't specify what title the successor should hold, but John Tyler gave himself the title of "President". At the time, this was an unpopular decision, as many felt that "Acting President" or "Vice President" were more appropriate titles, regardless of the power he held. But, this set the precedent of the Vice President assuming the title and role of President, instead of having another election or any other method of power shift.

Economic Event: The Telegraph (1844) Samuel Morse and his telegraph were funded by the government in 1843, and in 1844, the first message was sent from Washington D.C. to Baltimore. His invention quickly developed into a transatlantic cable in 1858, and a transcontinental telegraph line by 1861. Morse's telegraph gained popularity across the world. This was incredibly significant, as it allowed for more efficient communication, helping with political discussions, and making business trading easier.

Political Event: Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842) This was a Massachusetts case, over labor unions and strikes. The Chief Justice ruled that workers are allowed to form organizations and unions to achieve their legal goals. This case was specifically about strikes, which were permitted, as long as the methods are lawful.

Sources:

https://millercenter.org/president/john-tyler/key-events

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/the-early-republic/age-of-jackson/a/annexing-texas

https://www.whitehousehistory.org/john-tyler-and-presidential-succession

https://www.elon.edu/u/imagining/time-capsule/150-years/back-1830-1860/

https://moglen.law.columbia.edu/twiki/bin/view/AmLegalHist/BillNahillWikiProject

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Foreign Policy Event: Mexican-American War (1846 - 1848) Polk ran his campaign on his wish for expanding the United States and Manifest Destiny, leading to the Mexican-American War. Debates happened between the two nations over where the Texas border fell, and so General Zachary Taylor led an army into the Rio Grande. After much resistance from the Mexican government, they agreed to negotiate with the US. The war officially ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), and Mexico giving up New Mexico and California, and making the Rio Grande the border of Texas.

Domestic Policy Event: Wilmot Proviso (1846) David Wilmot created the Wilmot Proviso, suggesting that all territories ceded by Mexico should become free states. Congress was split on this: the House approved, the Senate didn't. This represented further cracks in society, and the strength of sectionalism that would soon lead to the Civil War (1861-1865).

Social Event: Seneca Falls Convention (1848) Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a strong advocate of civil rights for African Americans and women. She was one of the main organizers of the Seneca Falls Convention, and she wrote the Declaration of Sentiments (1848). Women were fighting back against the ideals of the cult of domesticity and demanded the same rights that men had.

Economic Event: The California Gold Rush (1848 - 1855)

In January 1848, gold was discovered at John Sutter's Mill by James Marshall. Soon after, California land was given to the US from Mexico. After hearing of the discovery of gold, and President Polk acknowledging it, the term "forty-niners" came about as men ran to try and find gold and get rich in California. Many gold towns were set up as the population rose, leading to California's quick admittance as a state in 1850.

Sources:

https://www.browardschools.com/cms/lib/FL01803656/Centricity/Domain/19576/AMSCO%20AP%20US%20History%20Textbook.pdf

https://www.visitthecapitol.gov/artifact/wilmot-proviso-amendment-hr-534-29th-congress-august-8-1846#:~:text=Known%20as%20the%20Wilmot%20Proviso,that%20precipitated%20the%20Civil%20War.

https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/july-19/

https://www.history.com/articles/gold-rush-of-1849

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#12 Zachary Taylor (March 1849 - July 1850)

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#12 Zachary Taylor (March 1849 - July 1850)

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Foreign Policy Event: Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) The Secretary of State, John M. Clayton and British Sir Henry Bulwer, demonstrated a peaceful agreement between the two nations with the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850). They resolved to have a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific in Nicaragua without either country fortifying it or trying to conquer the area around it. This was partially controversial due to the policy of the Monroe Doctrine being technically betrayed.

Domestic Policy Event: The Compromise of 1850 To resolve issues over the expansion of slavery, the Compromise of 1850 was drafted up, with Henry Clay as it's main advocate. The Compromise resulted in California becoming a free state(against the Missouri Compromise of 1820), popular sovereignty being established in the other territories ceded by Mexico(New Mexico and Utah). Additionally, it ended slave trade in Washington D.C., and put the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 in place. These laws were a major topic of debate, and so everything wasn't finalized and passed until after Taylor died.

Political Event: The Election of 1848 This election marked the beginning of the Free-Soil Party(Northern Democrats and anti-slavery Whigs, who were against the expansion of slavery), who nominated Former President Martin Van Buren to run. Against him, the Democrats ran under Senator Lewis Cass, and his concept of popular sovereignty, which would stick, despite his defeat in the race. Zachary Taylor ran as a Whig, but with no definitive stance on slavery, and won.

Social Event: Harriet Tubman Escapes Slavery (1849) After her enslaver died, to avoid being sold into more slavery, Harriet Tubman ran away from Maryland to Pennsylvania. This happened before the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, so Tubman was able to live freely. She then went on to help hundreds of slaves escape through the Underground Railroad, and inspired many others to take action against slavery.

Sources:

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/presidents-taylor/

https://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h344.html

https://www.browardschools.com/cms/lib/FL01803656/Centricity/Domain/19576/AMSCO%20AP%20US%20History%20Textbook.pdf

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Free-Soil-Party

https://www.nps.gov/hatu/learn/historyculture/htubman.htm

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#13 Millard Fillmore (July 1850 - March 1853)

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#13 Millard Fillmore (July 1850 - March 1853)

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Foreign Policy Event: Commodore Matthew Perry and Japan (1853) Fillmore funded and supported Commodore Matthew Perry sailing to Japan, in an attempt to create a trade relationship between Japan and the US. This mission was successful, as it resulted in the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) where Japan agreed to trade with one another, despite Japan's strict policies on engaging in no foreign commerce affairs.

Domestic Policy Event: Fugitive Slave Act (1850) This was one law of the Compromise of 1850, which was supported by President Fillmore. It required both the federal government, and American civilians, to return slaves to their owners, even if they had successfully escape into a free state. This policy upset a lot of people, but appealed to Southerners who didn't want to feel as if they were at a loss because of the Compromise.

Literary Event: Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) Uncle Tom's Cabin was a pivotal point in literature, as the novel was written in such a way that it persuaded people's beliefs and made them convicted against slavery. Harriet Beecher Stowe was widely influential with her writing, some even credited the Civil War to her book. Driven by her faith, she was able to depict slavery in a way that helped readers understand the humanness of slaves, and the suffering and mistreatment they faced due to the Southern practice of slavery.

Religious Movement: Brigham Young and Mormonism (1850-1857) After meeting up with Joseph Smith, Brigham Young became a passionate Mormon, then he moved to the Utah region where he was made it's first governor. He was appointed by President Fillmore, and he took office in 1851. Alongside being governor, he also lead the Mormon Church, which was controversial as Americans argued that there wasn't a big enough separation between the church and the government, leading to the Utah War (1857-1858).

Sources:

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/opening-to-japan#:~:text=On%20July%208%2C%201853%2C%20American,Japan%20and%20the%20western%20world.

https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/treaty-of-kanagawa

https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/fugitive-slave-act#:~:text=Passed%20on%20September%2018%2C%201850,returning%2C%20and%20trying%20escaped%20slaves.

https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/06/13/the-persuader-annette-gordon-reed

https://historytogo.utah.gov/brigham-young/

https://archives.utah.gov/research/guides/governor-young/#:~:text=About%20the%20Young%20Administration,Deseret%20held%20their%20first%20election.

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#14 Franklin Pierce (March 1853 - March 1857)

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#14 Franklin Pierce (March 1853 - March 1857)

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Foreign Policy Event: Gadsden Purchase (1853-1854) This was the last major purchase of territory in the continental US, and it was a partial resolution to the tensions after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The US gained roughly thirty-thousand square miles in the Arizona and New Mexico region. This helped expand the Southern transcontinental railroad, but there were still problems between America and Mexico regardless of this agreement.

Domestic Policy Event: Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) With the Missouri Compromise (1820) now relatively ineffective, Senator Stephen Douglas suggested the bill originally. It made Kansas and Nebraska into two new states, establishing popular sovereignty to help decide if the territories would allow slavery or not. This resulted in extremists moving to the regions, and Bleeding Kansas through the rest of the decade.

Internal Conflict: Bleeding Kansas (1854-1859) When it came time for the new states to vote on the legality of slavery, chaos filled Kansas. Pro-slavery "border ruffians" illegal voted for the candidates they wanted, but President Pierce accepted the pro-slavery government as the rightful one anyways. Tensions caused violent attacks, such as the Sack of Lawrence(and John Brown's retaliation), the Caning of Charles Sumner, and more.

Political Event: The Republican Party (1854) As the Whig Party started to die out, the Republican Party formed in its place by anti-slavery Americans. It became popular in the North, as it was established in Wisconsin and was built on similar ideas to the Whig Party.

Sources:

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/gadsden-purchase

https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Kansas_Nebraska_Act.htm#:~:text=It%20became%20law%20on%20May,territories%20to%20sway%20the%20vote.

https://www.history.com/articles/bleeding-kansas

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/march-20/republican-party-founded

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#15 James Buchanan (March 1857 - March 1861)

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#15 James Buchanan (March 1857 - March 1861)

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Foreign Policy Event: Attempting to Annex Cuba (1854-1860) In 1854, Buchanan, along with two others, wrote the Ostend Manifesto, in attempt to highlight America's need to acquire the territory of Cuba. During his presidency, he continued to advocate for this as a strategy to expand slavery. This idea wasn't successful, but it was a defining quality of James Buchanan's foreign policy.

Domestic Policy Event: Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857) In this case, an African American, Dred Scott, was ruled to be not an American citizen, but property due to the fact that he was enslaved at one point. Roger Taney was behind this decision, shutting down Scott's attempt at suing for his freedom.

Political Event: South Carolina Secedes (1860) After Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election, South Carolina seceded, and issued a Declaration of Immediate Causes. They were the first state to secede from the Union, starting a chain reaction of other Southern states leaving.

Internal Conflict: Harper's Ferry Raid (1859) John Brown, a passionate abolitionist, went to Harpers Ferry, West Virginia(then-Virginia) with a group of people. The goal was to give slaves federal weapons(which Brown had stolen) and have them join in on the raid. John Brown was charged for multiple crimes and hanged by the end of the year.

Sources:

https://www2.tulane.edu/~sumter/Buchanan.html

https://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/resources/africanamerican/scott/scott.asp#:~:text=Missouri's%20Dred%20Scott%20Case%2C%201846,Missouri%20Compromise%20to%20be%20unconstitutional.

https://www.browardschools.com/cms/lib/FL01803656/Centricity/Domain/19576/AMSCO%20AP%20US%20History%20Textbook.pdf

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/south-carolina-secession.htm

https://www.battlefields.org/learn/topics/john-browns-harpers-ferry-raid

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#16 Abraham Lincoln (March 1861 - April 1865)

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#16 Abraham Lincoln (March 1861 - April 1865)

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Foreign Policy Event: Confederate Ports Blockade (1861-1865) Since the North had all of the industries to produce weapons, the Confederates needed British support to have a chance at winning the war. To combat this, the Union created a blockade on the Southern coast, restricting imports/exports. This hurt the European nations that the South would trade with, as they lost goods they relied on.

Domestic Policy Event: Emancipation Proclamation (1862-1863) In 1862, Lincoln declared that in 1863, all slaves in the Confederacy(this didn't include the border states) would be free. Britain and France, who were anti-slavery, decided against supporting the South due to this. It was a declaration of freedom for African Americans, and it laid the groundwork for the Thirteenth Amendment (1865).

War: The Civil War (1861-1865) After sectional tensions over slavery had been building up for decades, the Battle of Fort Sumter (1861) marked the start of the Civil War. More Southern states joined the Confederacy, led by General Robert E. Lee against President Lincoln and the Union. Major events of this war were: The Battle of Shiloh/Pittsburg Landing (1862), The Battle of Gettysburg (1863), and The Gettysburg Address (1863).

Economic Event: The Freedmen's Bureau (1865) Established at the end of Lincoln's presidency and life, the Freedmen's Bureau supported newly free African Americans in their new lifestyles. It used government funding to make new schools for children, and provided families with food, clothes, and other relief to help them try and live a normal life.

Sources:

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1861-1865/blockade

https://www.history.com/articles/emancipation-proclamation

https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/brief-overview-american-civil-war

https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/freedmens-bureau

https://millercenter.org/president/abraham-lincoln/key-events

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#17 Andrew Johnson (April 1865 - March 1869)

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#17 Andrew Johnson (April 1865 - March 1869)

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Foreign Policy Event: Alaska Purchase (1867) Secretary of State, William Seward, helped buy Alaska from Russia, after their offer in 1859 had been put off by the government. Before gold was found there in 1896, it was nicknamed "Seward's Folly" and "Seward's Icebox" as people saw no value in it for a while. It wasn't admitted as a state until 1959.

Domestic Policy Event: 13th and 14th Amendments (1865, 1868) The 13th Amendment, "free" abolished slavery. The 14th Amendment, "citizens" redefined citizenship laws. Anyone born in the United States would be an American citizen, and would gain the rights and legal protection as one.

Political Event: Impeachment Trial (1868) Due to Congress being dominated by Republicans, Democratic Johnson disagree with many of the laws Congress was trying to pass, that would advance the rights of African Americans. He was put on trial, led by Thaddeus Stevens, he faced eleven charges. The most feasible one was for him violating the Tenure of Office Act when he removed Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton from his position. The trial was unsuccessful though, despite all of this.

Internal Conflicts: The Reconstruction Acts (1867-1868) Congress was trying to help with the Reconstruction of the Union, with the Southern states back. President Johnson wasn't as determined to do so, leading Congress to override multiple of his vetoes against their laws. The South was trying to find workarounds, by establishing Black Codes, forcing Congress to into being more aggressive with their civil rights efforts.

Sources:

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/alaska-purchase

https://millercenter.org/president/andrew-johnson/key-events

https://www.pbs.org/tpt/slavery-by-another-name/themes/reconstruction-amendments/#:~:text=The%20Thirteenth%20Amendment%2C%20adopted%20in,equal%20protection%20to%20all%20people.

https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/impeachment/impeachment-johnson.htm

https://constitutioncenter.org/the-constitution/historic-document-library/detail/reconstruction-acts-1867-1868

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#18 Ulysses S. Grant (March 1869 - March 1877)

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#18 Ulysses S. Grant (March 1869 - March 1877)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) Lieutenant Colonel Custer led American troops against the Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne tribes, led by Sitting Bull, in modern-day Montana. This battle is also known as "Custer's Last Stand", as the Native Americans severely outnumbered the Americans, and quickly killed them all. This was a huge victory for the tribes, but a disappointing loss for the US. As a result, the government worked harder to oppress Native Americans, and forced them onto reservations in the following years.

Domestic Policy Event: 15th Amendment (1870) The 15th Amendment, "vote" ruled that all men could vote, as long as they were citizens. While it didn't discriminate against race, it still prevented women from voting, which wouldn't be allowed until the 19th Amendment.

Economic Event: Crédit Mobilier Scandal (1872) This scandal represented the growing corruption in corporations, with this one specifically involving the Union Pacific Railroad. Crédit Mobilier was part of an agreement between a couple men and trustees of the railroad. Their approach to the construction of the railroad made it so that they would make a huge amount of money, but nobody else would. They got away with this was through bribing government officials and lying.

Internal Conflict: KKK Development (1865-Present) In opposition to the Reconstruction, white supremacists in Tennessee formed the Ku Klux Klan. This terrorist group plagued the South, to where President Grant took notice and attempted to stop it. The Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, specifically the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 aimed to protect the (newly acknowledged) rights of African Americans, and to prevent the violent threats and attacks on them. This caused the hate group to temporarily die down, until after the Reconstruction ended in 1877. Then, being prevented from voting, and lynching became a serious issue that Black Americans faced in the South.

Sources:

https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/ku-klux-klan-founded/

https://constitutioncenter.org/the-constitution/historic-document-library/detail/ku-klux-klan-act-of-1871-april-20-1871-an-act-to-enforce-the-provisions-of-the-fourteenth-amendment-to-the-constitution-of-the-united-states-and-for-other-purposes

https://www.history.com/articles/battle-of-the-little-bighorn

https://www.pbs.org/tpt/slavery-by-another-name/themes/reconstruction-amendments/#:~:text=The%20Thirteenth%20Amendment%2C%20adopted%20in,equal%20protection%20to%20all%20people.

https://www.britannica.com/money/Credit-Mobilier-Scandal

https://www.history.com/articles/credit-mobilier

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#19 Rutherford B. Hayes (March 1877 - March 1881)

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#19 Rutherford B. Hayes (March 1877 - March 1881)

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Foreign Policy Event: Angell Treaty (1880) This Treaty slightly adjusted the Burlingame-Seward Treaty (1868), and allowed restrictions on Chinese immigration. America had a lot of anti-Chinese policies, leading to the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) and further restrictions that offended China and limited travel and/or immigration.

Domestic Policy Event: Compromise of 1877 While Samuel Tilden won the popular vote of the Election of 1876, the electoral votes were unclear, leading to confusion over who should become the next president. Southern Democrats were willing to go along with Congress' proposal of Rutherford B. Hayes(giving him the nickname "Rutherfraud") winning, under certain terms. Hayes would have to remove federal soldiers from Southern states, which in turn, caused the end of the Reconstruction Era.

Economic Event: The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 Across multiple states, railroad workers stopped doing their jobs, making it so major railroad lines couldn't function. This strike represented the power that people had to make a difference, while also drawing attention to the issues with their low pay and bad working conditions. This series of strikes started out spontaneously, but quickly spread until it had a lasting effect.

Social Event: Knights of Labor (1869-1886) Due to the poor environments workers faced during industrialization, this union formed, welcome to all workers. It didn't last for too long, but it united members together against the oppressiveness of monopolies and big corporations.

Sources:

https://millercenter.org/president/rutherford-b-hayes/key-events

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/chinese-immigration

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/civil-war-era/reconstruction/a/compromise-of-1877

https://www.history.com/articles/1877-railroad-strike-trains

https://depts.washington.edu/moves/knights_labor_map.shtml

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#20 James A. Garfield (March 1881 - September 1881)

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#20 James A. Garfield (March 1881 - September 1881)

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Foreign Policy Event: Nothing Much (1881) President Garfield had no notable foreign policies or foreign affairs he was responsible for. He appointed a couple of people to diplomatic positions. He passed up on appointing Charles Guiteau, who would then go on to assassinate him because of this(and speculated mental health issues). Garfield gave Lew Wallace a post in Turkey, so that he could write a book about his time there. All real issues were handled by later presidents.

Domestic Policy Event: Garfield's Inaugural Address (1881) During this Address, Garfield expressed his support for money backed by gold and his intentions to support the economy further. Other than that, his statements are more generic, about the Constitution and the freedoms that Americans have. He makes sure to show his support for civil rights and equal rights of the people.

Literary Event: Tuskegee University Opens (1880-1881) Lewis Adams led the Alabama government to promise a "Normal School for colored teachers at Tuskegee" in a bill. This school became what's now referred to as Tuskegee University. Booker T. Washington, a prominent abolitionist who valued the education of African Americans, was the president of this college. He brought on well-qualified staff members such as George Washington Carver and Robert Taylor. This school helped provide a good education for Black men in the South, so that they could have more opportunities at a better life.

Social Event: American Association of the Red Cross (1881) Clara Barton created the American Association of the Red Cross, which provides relief and help for the US military to this day. The foundation helps in times of war (such as the Spanish-American War in 1898) and times of peace. Barton also helped get the Geneva Convention ratified by 1882.

Sources:

https://millercenter.org/president/garfield/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/garfield/death-of-the-president

https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/james-garfield-event-timeline

https://academic.oup.com/book/58888/chapter-abstract/492880845?redirectedFrom=fulltext

https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/inaugural-address-39

https://www.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/tuskegee/btwtusk.htm

https://www.redcross.org/content/dam/redcross/National/history-full-history.pdf

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#21 Chester A. Arthur (September 1881 - March 1885)

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#21 Chester A. Arthur (September 1881 - March 1885)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) Building off of the Angell Treaty (1880), this banned all Chinese people from immigrating into the US for the next ten years. This would then be renewed in 1892 and in 1902, all Chinese immigrants who had been in the US were threatened with deportation unless they had a certificate of residence. Additionally, the immigration of anyone Chinese to the US was prohibited permanently(until later policies undid it).

Domestic Policy Event: The Bureau of Labor (1884) Under the Arthur Administration, Congress created the Bureau of Labor (Statistics) to gather statistics on workplace environments and their practices. They later started publishing reports about their findings, and the Bureau provides credible data to this day

Economic Event: Brooklyn Bridge (1883) The Brooklyn Bridge was open to the public, and it was a significant advancement in construction and architecture. It was designed by John Roebling and Washington Roebling, showing America's engineering capabilities, as they had created an impressively long suspension bridge.

Political Event: Foran Act of 1885/Alien Contract Labor Law A common tactic to combat unions striking was using immigrants as strikebreakers. Companies that employed unskilled workers found that their employees could be easily replaced with immigrants who were eager to work for less pay. This law helped protect workers from using their jobs to immigrants who came to the US as unskilled contract laborers. It wasn't fully enforced, but it was government action towards protecting the working class.

Sources:

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/chinese-exclusion-act#:~:text=It%20was%20the%20first%20significant,immigrating%20to%20the%20United%20States.

https://guides.loc.gov/this-month-in-business-history/june/founding-bureau-labor-statistics

https://millercenter.org/president/chester-arthur/key-events

https://immigrationhistory.org/item/foran-act-of-1885-aka-alien-contract-labor-law/

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#22 Grover Cleveland (March 1885 - March 1889)

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#22 Grover Cleveland (March 1885 - March 1889)

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Foreign Policy Event: Dawes Act (1877) The federal government gave itself the power over Native Americans and their land. Under President Cleveland, tribes were encouraged to assimilate into American culture. They were intended to break up Native American tribe alliances, so they would be easier to control whenever the US government wanted to.

Domestic Policy Event: Interstate Commerce Commission This was a regulatory commission to help ensure the railroad industry would continue to support the economy, but without corruption. It wasn't too influential at first, but later, after the government gave it more power, it was able to fulfill its duty.

Economic Event: American Federation of Labor (1886) Samuel Gompers and former Knights of Labor members formed the American Federation of Labor, after the Haymarket Riot (1886) labor protests. This was a huge labor union, but it was exclusive and was made up of an all-white, male majority.

Political Event: Repealing the Tenure of Office Act (1887) The Tenure of Office Act (1867) was a defensive mechanism from Congress to try and prevent Johnson from removing Stanton from office. It later gave them a valid reason to impeach him. But, President Cleveland argued that this Act was unconstitutional, getting it fully repealed in 1887, after it was partially repealed by 1869.

Sources:

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/dawes-act.htm#:~:text=What%20is%20assimilation%3F-,What%20was%20the%20Dawes%20Act%3F,to%20break%20up%20tribal%20lands.

https://railroads.dot.gov/elibrary/report-functions-interstate-commerce-commission

https://www.browardschools.com/cms/lib/FL01803656/Centricity/Domain/19576/AMSCO%20AP%20US%20History%20Textbook.pdf

https://guides.loc.gov/this-month-in-business-history/december/american-federation-of-labor

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tenure-of-Office-Act

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#23 Benjamin Harrison (March 1889 - March 1893)

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#23 Benjamin Harrison (March 1889 - March 1893)

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Foreign Policy Event: Berlin Conference on Samoan Affairs (1889) The United States, United Kingdom, and Germany all decided to remain neutral with Samoa. They resolved to help protect it, supporting its government and its people.

Domestic Policy Event: Sherman-Antitrust Act (1890) This was the first of the antitrust laws, aimed to combat the growing corruption that happened during the Gilded Age. It helped preserve competition between businesses, and aimed to prevent monopolies from taking over all industries.

Economic Event: McKinley Tariff/Tariff of 1890 Protective tariffs went up by around 50%, orchestrated by William McKinley. These tariffs mostly went on manufactured goods.

Political Event: First Pan-American Conference (1889) Most nations across the Americas sent representatives to D.C for an attempt at achieving common goals and uniting the countries. This conference led to the creation of the International Union of American Republics which would then be the Pan American Union. This was the first of many conferences that helped Western Hemisphere nations align with each other for economic benefits, peace, and the betterment of their people's lives.

Sources:

https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1894app1/d462#:~:text=The%20general%20act%20of%20Berlin%2C%20after%20declaring%20the%20independence%20and,the%20establishment%20of%20a%20government.

https://millercenter.org/president/benjamin-harrison/key-events

https://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1851-1900/The-McKinley-Tariff-of-1890/

https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/sherman_antitrust_act#:~:text=Sherman%20Antitrust%20Act%20of%201890,is%20codified%20in%2015%20U.S.C.

https://www.nigp.org/dictionary-of-terms?search=Sherman+Antitrust+Act+%28U.S.+Law%29

https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/first-pan-american-conference-convenes

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#24 Grover Cleveland (March 1893 - March 1897)

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#24 Grover Cleveland (March 1893 - March 1897)

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Foreign Policy Event: Cuban Independence Movement (1895) Cubans were revolting against their Spanish rulers. Cleveland opted for neutrality, refusing to get involved with these foreign affairs. Despite that, writers such as Joseph Pulitzer wrote sensationalist news articles about everything going on, causing Americans to be invested in what was going on.

Domestic Policy Event: Pullman Strike (1894) These strikes had nationwide effects, and happened when George Pullman cut his employee's wages severely. Eugene V. Debs(who would go on to start the American Socialist Party), the leader of the American Railroad Union, put together this strike. This caused a pause in railroad transportation, until other railroad owners came to Pullman's aid. President Cleveland became involved, but in favor of the Pullman Palace Car Company. Federal troops were used to shut down everything, when Cleveland deemed it necessary.

Economic Event: Panic of 1893 This was a severe economic crisis, with banks failing across the country, and the stock market declining. This lasted for around half of the year, worsening the conditions, and leading to strikes. This was a major cause of the Pullman Strike (1894).

Social Event: Cross of Gold Speech (1896) William Jennings Bryan gave the Cross of Gold Speech at a Democratic National Convention, discussing the election of 1896. He used his Populist ideals--valuing the working class and their needs--to justify the need for silver coinage, as that would benefit the common American. This gave Bryan enough popularity that he had support from the Democratic Party in the upcoming election, but it wasn't enough to beat William McKinley.

Sources:

https://www.pbs.org/crucible/tl3.html

https://www.browardschools.com/cms/lib/FL01803656/Centricity/Domain/19576/AMSCO%20AP%20US%20History%20Textbook.pdf

https://florencekelley.northwestern.edu/historical/panic/

https://www.britannica.com/event/Cross-of-Gold-speech

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#25 William McKinley (March 1897 - September 1901)

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#25 William McKinley (March 1897 - September 1901)

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Foreign Policy Event: Spanish-American War (April 1898-December 1898) After pressure from American citizens, and the USS Maine explosion (1898) being blamed on Spain, the US declared war. One goal of President McKinley was to support the Cuban people in their fight against Spanish power. One major battle was the Battle at Manila Bay in May 1898. Spain surrendered that July, signed the Treaty of Paris in December, which was ratified by the US until February 1899.

Domestic Policy Event: War Revenue Act of 1898 To raise money for the Spanish-American War, President McKinley taxed goods such as alcohol to support war efforts. This was very on-brand of him, as he was responsible for taxes/tariffs even before his presidency(see Tariff of 1890).

Political Event: Treaty of Paris (1898-1899) This Treaty defined the end of the Spanish-American War. Spain gave up a lot of their territories, leaving McKinley and other political leaders conflicted over what to do with them. The US gained Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines. This power shift led to the Philippine-American War (1899-1902), a revolution led by Emilio Aguinaldo, fighting for Filipino independence.

Economic Event: U.S. Steel Corporation (1901) The United States Steel Corporation was founded by J.P Morgan, the most prominent banker and financier of the Gilded Age. He combined multiple steel companies, including Carnegie Steel, created by Andrew Carnegie, who had a huge monopoly on steel at the time. Carnegie wrote the Gospel of Wealth (1889), about his desire for philanthropy. In contrast, U.S Steel was huge and efficient, taking over the American steel industry.

Sources:

https://millercenter.org/president/william-mckinley/key-events

https://guides.loc.gov/chronicling-america-spanish-american-

https://library.biblioboard.com/content/b77eb443-06f1-4a2d-9d08-322fdbf8fac5 war#:~:text=A%20guide%20for%20researching%20the,digital%20collection%20of%20historic%20newspapers.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/war

https://www.library.hbs.edu/us-steel/exhibition/the-founding-of-u.s.-steel-and-the-power-of-public-opinion

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#26 Theodore Roosevelt (September 1901 - March 1909)

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#26 Theodore Roosevelt (September 1901 - March 1909)

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Foreign Policy Event: Big Stick Policy (1901-1909) When stepping in after McKinley's assassination, Roosevelt established his "big stick policy". This meant that he would go about foreign affairs with a peaceful approach, but be prepared with a strong military in case things were to go south. The Roosevelt Corollary (1904) backed the Monroe Doctrine (1823) in warning other nations from being involved with the Western Hemisphere. But, Roosevelt added on the threat of intervention, if needed, to preserve stability. President Roosevelt paraded around the "Great White Fleet" (1907-1909) to demonstrate the naval power the US had, in an attempt to intimidate other countries.

Domestic Policy Event: Progressive Acts (1901-1909) Some of Teddy's most notable Acts were the Meat Inspection Act (1906), Food and Drug Administration Act (1906). Additionally, he established the National Forest Service (1905) in attempts to work on environmental problems in America. Overall, he worked to fix problems caused by industrialization during the Gilded Age. He also made a child labor law in Washington D.C.

Economic Event: The Model T (1908) The invention of the Model T by Henry Ford changed transportation and the American lifestyle forever. Cars grew in popularity, as these were developed quickly through assembly lines, and they were easy to use. Living in urban areas became more common because of this.

Literary Event: The Jungle (1905) Upton Sinclair wrote The Jungle (1905), detailing everything wrong with the meatpacking industry, from it's unsanitary practices to the corruption of the businesses. This helped inspire Teddy Roosevelt to create the Meat Inspection Act and the FDA in 1906. Sinclair was one of the many muckrakers, who during the Progressive Era, wrote about the problems with corruption among others things in the government and businesses. Among them were Ida B. Wells, Ida Tarbell, and Jacob Riis.

Sources:

https://millercenter.org/president/theodore-roosevelt/key-events

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/roosevelt-and-monroe-doctrine#:~:text=President%20Theodore%20Roosevelt's%20assertive%20approach,Corollary%20to%20the%20Monroe%20Doctrine.

https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/the-great-white-fleet.html

https://corporate.ford.com/articles/history/the-model-t.html#:~:text=The%20Model%20T's%20agile%20transmission,more%20urban%20way%20of%20life.

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/rise-to-world-power/age-of-empire/a/muckrakers

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#27 William Taft (March 1909 - March 1913)

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#27 William Taft (March 1909 - March 1913)

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Foreign Policy Event: Taft's Inaugural Address (1909) One thing that Taft emphasized in his Inaugural Address was the importance of keeping peace between nations. He acknowledged the weight and horrors of wars. His whole presidency was (mostly) peaceful, although the US became involved in World War I a couple of years after he left office.

Domestic Policy Event: 16th Amendment (1913) The 16th Amendment gave the federal government the ability to collect income taxes regardless of the population. This helped to provide a lot of money for the federal government, without the use of tariffs.

Economic Event: Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire (1911) The significance of this fire was what it said about industries: they failed to protect their workers. This factory was really a sweatshop, filled with immigrant women and teenagers who worked long shifts. The deaths that resulted from this fire showed the lack of precautions in place, as all of the women couldn't escape the building in time. It exposed the dangers of some working conditions, and led to more safety regulations being put in place.

Social Event: Children's Bureau (1912) Taft created this federal agency to help improve people's lives. It deals with child abuse, the foster care system, health issues, money problems, and more. It led to many child welfare programs.

Sources:

https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/march-4-1909-inaugural-address

https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/amendment-16/#:~:text=Sixteenth%20Amendment%20Income%20Tax,to%20any%20census%20or%20enumeration.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/sixteenth-amendment.asp#:~:text=What%20Did%20the%2016th%20Amendment,Federal%20revenue%20came%20from%20tariffs.

https://www.history.com/articles/triangle-shirtwaist-fire

https://acf.gov/cb/about/history

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#28 Woodrow Wilson (March 1913 - March 1921)

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#28 Woodrow Wilson (March 1913 - March 1921)

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Foreign Policy Event: World War I Involvement (1917-1918)Originally, President Wilson opted for neutrality when World War I broke out in 1914. But, after being provoked by other nations multiple times, America joined the Allies in the War. The first incident was the Sinking of Lusitania (1915), when Germans took down the British Lusitania liner, killing over a hundred Americans were riding on the ship. The final straw was the Zimmerman Telegram (1917), where Germany sent a telegram to Mexico, suggesting they form an alliance against the United States. Shortly after, America declared war on Germany.

Domestic Policy Event: Espionage Act (1917) Stopped people from speaking negatively about the government and its military/defense system. Although it seems unconstitutional, Schenck v. United States (1919) upheld this Act, as it specified that the criticisms could lead to putting the US at a disadvantage in some way, making it dangerous speech.

Economic Event: Federal Reserve Act (1913) President Wilson made the Federal Reserve System, which became the national bank. It provided a stable and flexible system that benefited the people.

Political Event: The (First) Red Scare (1917-1920) Across the Atlantic Ocean, nations in Europe and Asia were starting to experience Communist takeovers. This caused paranoia among Americans that the same thing would happen, and democracy wouldn't exist in the country anymore. A. Mitchell Palmer, the Attorney General, took it upon himself to lead Palmer Raids (1919-1920), where he would lead harsh interrogations of people he suspected to be Communist or share their ideals. This died out relatively quickly, but showed a sense of division and hostility between Americans.

Sources:

https://millercenter.org/president/woodrow-wilson/key-events

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/wwi

https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/espionage-act-of-1917/

https://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/fract.htm

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Red-Scare-politics#ref1311817

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#29 Warren G. Harding (March 1921 - August 1923)

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#29 Warren G. Harding (March 1921 - August 1923)

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Foreign Policy: Washington Naval Armament Conference (1921-1922) This conference was between nine of the most powerful nations at the time, and was made to help create a more peaceful international environment. Multiple treaties and agreements were made, trying to prevent another war. The Open-Door Policy in China was readdressed as well.

Domestic Policy: Emergency Quota Act (1921) President Harding put limits on immigration, based on where the person was born. This was a result of fears after WWI, and was 'logically' backed by faulty science involving eugenics.

Economic Event: Teapot Dome Scandal (1921-1924) This scandal surrounded federal oil reserves in Wyoming. It showed corruption within the American government, as Albert Fall, a member of the cabinet, was making secret, shady deals over government property. Harding seemed to be guilty/liable for some of the misconduct, but he didn't go to jail, unlike Fall.

Social Event: Pardoning Eugene V. Debs (1921) After Eugene V. Debs vaguely but publicly expressed his disapproval of World War I, he faced a 10-year jail sentence. This punishment was because of the Espionage Act (1917). Debs was a loved and valued member of the Socialist Party, to the point where he received about a million votes in the Election of 1920, while he was imprisoned. Others who were in jail for similar reasons, also got pardoned by President Harding around the same time.

Sources:

https://millercenter.org/president/warren-g-harding/key-events

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/naval-conference

https://immigrationhistory.org/item/%E2%80%8B1921-emergency-quota-law/

https://www.history.com/articles/teapot-dome-scandal

https://todayinclh.com/?event=president-harding-pardons-eugene-v-debs

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#30 Calvin Coolidge (August 1923 - March 1929)

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#30 Calvin Coolidge (August 1923 - March 1929)

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Foreign Policy Event: Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) President Coolidge signed this Pact with 14 other nations, as an attempt to prevent another world war. This demonstrated the federal government's efforts to keep the peace. Regardless of this Pact, World War II still happened.

Domestic Policy Event: State of the Union Address (1923) He laid out his values for the internal affairs of America in this address. His priorities were: prohibition, laissez-faire (a more hands-off government when it came to businesses), and lowering taxes. This was broadcast, helping to inform the people of his goals, and defining how he would manage the economy and the nation.

Social Event: Scopes Trial (1925) John Thomas Scopes, a teacher, was on trial because he (allegedly) taught about evolution in his class. The main argument against him was that Charles Darwin's ideas went against Biblical teachings, making it not credible. This case quickly became chaotic, and in the end, Scopes was ruled as guilty and received a fine.

Artistic Event: The Jazz Singer (1927) Starring Al Jolson, Warner Oland, and Robert Gordon this production was the first "talkie". Instead of only watching silent films, movies with dialogue were now being introduced to the American people. It also included music, revolutionizing the film and production industry.

first "talkie"

Sources:

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/kellogg

https://millercenter.org/president/calvin-coolidge/key-events

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/july-10/monkey-trial-begins

https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Jazz-Singer-film-1927

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#31 Herbert Hoover (March 1929 - March 1933)

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#31 Herbert Hoover (March 1929 - March 1933)

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Foreign Policy Event: Stimson Doctrine (1932) After Japan and China ignored the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) agreements, which they had signed. So Secretary of State, Henry Stimson made the Stimson Doctrine. This Doctrine declared that any agreement between Japan and China wouldn't be acknowledged by the US if it went against a previous agreement America had made.

Domestic Policy Event: Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930) President Hoover increased hundreds of tariffs by an average of 20%. It was intended to protect American farmers and other businesses, in an attempt to help with some of the effects of the Great Depression.

Economic Event: Great Depression (1929-1939) After the stock market crashed on Black Thursday, the whole world faced an economic downturn. American families migrated to "Hoovervilles", shantytowns, with cheap materials.

Artistic Event: Star Spangled Banner (1931) The Star Spangled Banner was created in 1814 about the War of 1812, after American feelings of nationalism were on the rise. It was composed by John Stafford Smith and written by Francis Scott Key.

Sources:

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/mukden-incident#:~:text=however%2C%20proved%20ineffective.-,The%20Stimson%20Doctrine,which%20the%20United%20States%20subscribed.

https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/smoot-hawley-tariff-act/

https://www.fdrlibrary.org/great-depression-facts

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/september-14/key-pens-star-spangled-banner

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#32 Franklin D. Roosevelt (March 1933 - April 1945)

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#32 Franklin D. Roosevelt (March 1933 - April 1945)

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Foreign Policy Event: World War II Involvement (1941-1945) Japan, one part of the axis powers, bombed Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in December 1941. The next day, FDR declared war on Japan, and on the other axis powers a couple days later. Towards the end of the War, President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin all met up at the Yalta Conference (1945). They discussed the future of the world and started setting guidelines for the post-war world.

Domestic Policy Event: New Deal (1932-1939) Roosevelt's policy for improving society was the New Deal Program. He prioritized "relief, recovery, and reform" and formed organizations and put legislation into place to help the economy, job unemployment, and farming. Some examples are: Public Works Administration, Emergency Banking Relief Act, Glass-Steagall Act, Agricultural Adjustment Administration, Social Security Act.

Social Event: Fireside Chats (1933-1944) President Roosevelt started giving Fireside Chats over the radio, informing Americans about his actions during the New Deal. It was casual communication with the people, helping to keep them in the know and in support of the federal government decisions.

Political Event: Served Four Terms (1933-1945) Roosevelt was the first and only president to serve more than two terms, and he did it back-to-back. This undid the precedent set by Washington. The 22nd Amendment (1951) making it so presidents can only serve two terms.

Sources:

https://www.fdrlibrary.org/wwii-facts

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/yalta-conf

https://www.browardschools.com/cms/lib/FL01803656/Centricity/Domain/19576/AMSCO%20AP%20US%20History%20Textbook.pdf

https://www.britannica.com/event/fireside-chats

https://www.history.com/articles/fdr-four-term-president-22-amendment

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#33 Harry Truman (April 1945 - January 1953)

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#33 Harry Truman (April 1945 - January 1953)

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Foreign Policy Event: Truman Doctrine (1947) After World War II, Europe was destroyed from all of the fighting and economic/political problems. President Truman declared that the US would help support these countries through their recovery. He offered economic, military, and political support. This was a big shift in foreign policy, offering help instead of taking a more hands-off approach.

Domestic Policy Event: The Fair Deal (1945) Extending upon the ideas of the New Deal, his wanted social reform and welfare. These proposals weren't fully successful, since Congress wasn't liberal enough to pass all of Truman's Acts. Legislation passed included the Fair Employment Practices Act (1946), Social Security Act (1950), and Defense Production Act (1950).

Political Event: Bombings of Japan (1945) Since Japan wouldn't surrender from the War, Truman authorized the dropping of two atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This had long-term effects on Japan and its people.

Economic Event: Marshall Plan (1948) One action that resulted from the Truman Doctrine was the Marshall Plan. Truman's goal was to help Europe, while also preventing Communism from taking over. Although only western Europe received US funding, George C. Marshall's plan was beneficial to both Europeans and Americans, as it restored both economies.

Sources:

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/truman-doctrine

https://courses.dcs.wisc.edu/showcase/hist102/lec22/22_04.html

https://www.britannica.com/event/New-Deal

https://www.icanw.org/hiroshima_and_nagasaki_bombings

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/marshall-plan

https://millercenter.org/president/truman/domestic-affairs

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#34 Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 - January 1961)

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#34 Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 - January 1961)

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Foreign Policy Event: Eisenhower Doctrine (1957) The Eisenhower Doctrine defined the Soviet Union as the top enemy of the United States. Eisenhower offered to help any countries being attacked by outside forces. This was to try and prevent communism from taking over weakened post-war nations.

Domestic Policy Event: Social Security Acts of 1956 and 1960 These were amendments to the original 1935 Social Security Act. Originally, Eisenhower offered benefits to only older disabled workers, but then he extended it to all disabled workers regardless of age.

Political Event: Brown v. Board of Education (1954) This was a significant Supreme Court decision in the Civil Rights Movement as segregating public schools was declared unconstitutional. This went against the Plessy v. Ferguson decision, and claimed the 14th Amendment to be in favor of desegregation.

Social Event: Early Civil Rights Movement (1954-1960) After World War II, the argument for the civil rights of African Americans picked back up. Besides Brown v. Board, some other major events are the Little Rock Nine, where Eisenhower eventually sent federal troops to support African American students trying to attend a newly desegregated Arkansas school. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 protected African American voters. Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott(1955-1956), and the Greensboro sit-ins (1960) were peaceful protests, inspiring the creation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, as civil disobedience became a popular method to combat racism. Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent figure during this movement.

Sources:

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1953-1960/eisenhower-doctrine

https://www.ssa.gov/history/briefhistory3.html

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/brown-v-board-of-education

https://www.history.com/articles/civil-rights-movement#Little-Rock-Nine

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#35 John F. Kennedy (January 1961 - November 1963)

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#35 John F. Kennedy (January 1961 - November 1963)

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Foreign Policy Event: Ich bin ein Berliner Speech (1963) After the division between East Berlin and West Berlin, after the Soviets built the Berlin Wall, Kennedy addressed the people of Germany. He reassured them, and made clear that West Berlin and Germany would be free, under democracy.

Domestic Policy: March on Washington (1963) Martin Luther King Jr. and A. Philip Randolph helped to lead this huge event during the later civil rights movement. This is where MLK gave his influential "I have a dream" speech. President Kennedy was moved by this, so he met with civil rights leaders such as King, and discussed how he could help fight alongside them, with federal legislation. This showed the president standing with African Americans to better society and their lives.

Political Event: Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) After the US found out about Soviet missiles being constructed in Cuba, this became a major issue and so Kennedy put a quarantine on Cuba (not technically a blockade, but it did essentially the same job). Tensions were at an all-time high during the Cold War, until Attorney General Robert Kennedy, Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin, President Kennedy, and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev were eventually able to come to a relatively peaceful resolution. This was a turning point in how world leaders viewed nuclear weapons.

Economic Event: Space Race (1961-1969) Although his assassination took place before JFK got to see the results of his dream, he was the main advocate for the US fighting in the Space Race. He dedicated billions of dollars towards it, sending an American(John Glenn Jr.) into orbit, and multiple onto the moon(Armstrong, Collins, Aldrin). Through Kennedy, America beat the Soviet Union in the Space Race.

Sources:

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/june-26/kennedy-claims-solidarity-with-the-people-of-berlin

https://www.history.com/articles/civil-rights-movement#Little-Rock-Nine

https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/kennedy-john-fitzgerald#:~:text=A%20few%20days%20later%20Kennedy,in%20the%20civil%20rights%20struggle.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/cuban-missile-crisis

https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/about-jfk/jfk-in-history/space-program

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#36 Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 - January 1969)

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#36 Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 - January 1969)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Vietnam War (1955-1975) Although President Kennedy had military advisors in South Vietnam, President Johnson escalated it to full-scale US involvement. The Gulf of Tonkin Incident (1964) occurred when the government intentionally deceived Americans on how the War actually began for US troops. People lost trust in the government, and felt bitter towards LBJ, blaming him for this War. One main motivation of involvement was the domino theory developed by Eisenhower, suggesting that if South Vietnam fell to communism, other Asian countries would be next, until it spiraled out of control.

Domestic Policy Event: The Great Society (1963-1969) This was Johnson's plan, to better America, and create a Second Reconstruction of the South, which he achieved with the Civil Rights Act (1964). This Act made it illegal to racially discriminate against anyone in public areas. This caused desegregation everywhere, and was one of the biggest successes of the Civil Rights Movement. In addition to that legislation, President Johnson created Medicare and Medicaid in his Social Security Amendments of 1965. This helped provide health insurance for many Americans who might need it. Overall, his Great Society was effective.

Social Event: Black Panther Party (1966) Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale created the Black Panther Party, built on the idea of black power. Similarly to Malcom X, they believed that change was in their hands, not legislation. They created survival programs, giving back to African American communities, supporting others where the government failed to.

Political Event: 24th Amendment (1964) This Amendment took away poll taxes, making voting more accessible and equal to the American people. This was another representation of LBJ's focus equality and justice for Americans.

Sources:

https://prde.upress.virginia.edu/content/Vietnam

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/civil-rights-act

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/medicare-and-medicaid-act#:~:text=On%20July%2030%2C%201965%2C%20President,for%20people%20with%20limited%20income.

https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/black-panther-party-challenging-police-and-promoting-social-change

https://mankato.mnsu.edu/constitution-day/the-constitution/constitutional-amendments-summary/

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#37 Richard Nixon (January 1969 - August 1974)

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#37 Richard Nixon (January 1969 - August 1974)

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Foreign Policy Event: Nixon Doctrine (1969) President Nixon discussed his plan for the Vietnam War, "vietnamization", which was gradually taking more American troops out of Vietnam, and replacing them with a South Vietnamese military. This resulted in a peace treaty, the Paris Peace Accords (1973), and an official ending to the War two years after that.

Domestic Policy Event: Environmental Protection Agency (1970) Silent Spring (1962) written by Rachel Carson drew attention to environmental issues, which Nixon would act to try and prevent. He created the Environmental Protection Agency, giving it the authority to address pollution issues using research, standards, and help to individual state programs.

Social Event: The Moon Landing (1969) Apollo 11 influenced American culture significantly. It inspired Americans, united the country, with the concept of a nationwide victory, and represented an improvement in technology.

Political Event: Watergate Scandal (1972-1974) The Watergate building was broken into during Nixon's campaign for the upcoming presidential election. Out of paranoia, he had organized the wiretapping of the Democrat's National Committee office. President Nixon abused his power, and lied about his involvement with the situation, and he eventually resigned in 1974.

Sources:

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/july-25/the-nixon-doctrine-is-announced

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/january-27/paris-peace-accords-signed

https://www.epa.gov/history/origins-epa#:~:text=Five%20months%20earlier%2C%20in%20July,up%20in%20EPA%20Order%201110.2.

https://www.cleveland.com/life-and-culture/g66l-2019/07/c5098bf2bf8756/moon-landing-at-50-how-apollo-11-and-man-on-the-moon-shaped-popular-culture-photos.html

https://www.history.com/articles/watergate

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#38 Gerald Ford (August 1974 - January 1977)

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#38 Gerald Ford (August 1974 - January 1977)

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Foreign Policy Event: Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty (1976) The Soviet Union and the US agreed on the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty and in 1976, although it wasn't approved to be put into action until 1990. Regardless, it provided helpful regulations for nuclear weapons.

Domestic Policy Event: Pardoning of Nixon (1974) Soon after Nixon's resignation, as president, Ford pardoned his predecessor of all of his (alleged) crimes during his presidency. Since Nixon never actually admitted to participating in illegal activities, this was the best/only closure America got to the Watergate Scandal.

Political Event: Sunday Morning Massacre (1975) In one day, three of Ford's cabinets left/lost their positions. William Colby and James Schlesinger were fired, and Henry Kissinger gave up his National Security Adviser title, but was still the Secretary of State.

Economic Event: WIN Program (1974-1975) Ford attempted economic recovery with his "Whip Inflation Now" program, where he encouraged Americans to wear pins in support of it. With his focus on inflation, unemployment had increased by over 1% in a couple months, and was predicted to keep rising. All of his efforts towards repairing the economy weren't really effective, and was a poor use of the federal budget.

Sources:

https://www.armscontrol.org/treaties/peaceful-nuclear-explosions-treaty

https://www.history.com/articles/watergate

https://millercenter.org/president/gerald-ford/key-events

https://millercenter.org/president/ford/domestic-affairs

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#39 Jimmy Carter (January 1977 - January 1981)

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#39 Jimmy Carter (January 1977 - January 1981)

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Foreign Policy Event: Camp David Accords (1978) President Carter helped facilitate agreements between Egypt and Israel, helping to bring peace to the strained relationship those nations have had since Israel became a country in 1948. As a result, these countries became more peaceful towards each other, even though the Middle East as a whole still remains chaotic. This also led to the Oslo Accords (1993) with Palestine and Israel.

Domestic Policy Event: Crisis in Confidence Speech (1979) After many scandals within the government, people gradually lost more and more trust as the "credibility gap" formed. So, Carter listened to Americans, and brought attention to this issue, arguing that democracy itself was threatened by this skepticism. He suggested a collective growth in trust and faith in America as a whole. This helped outline his view towards Americans and how they should be treated, and what issues he would aim to help during his presidency.

Social Event: The Department of Education (1980) Although controversial, the Department of Education has assisted in managing the federal funding of education, and helping monitor the state of the educational system. But, it's still debated if this program is truly effective or, if it could be removed without damaging anything.

Political Event: Desert One Operation (1980) After the Iranian Hostage Crisis (1979), Americans at the Iran embassy were held hostage for over a year. President Carter planned to bring them home with the Desert One Operation. This Operation was a failure, reflecting extremely poorly on his presidency, and furthering the lack of faith in the government. It was an embarrassment to the American military.

Sources:

https://www.history.com/articles/camp-david-accords

https://www.closeup.org/revisiting-jimmy-carters-crisis-of-confidence-speech/

https://www.gse.harvard.edu/ideas/edcast/25/02/unpacking-us-department-education-what-does-it-actually-do

https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/short-history/iraniancrises

https://www.airandspaceforces.com/article/0199desertone/

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#40 Ronald Reagan (January 1981 - January 1989)

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#40 Ronald Reagan (January 1981 - January 1989)

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Foreign Policy Event: "Tear Down this Wall" Speech (1987) This was another famous presidential speech given in Berlin, in addition to JFK's Ich bin ein Berliner Speech (1963). The Berlin Wall was a physical representation of the tensions and division caused by the Cold War. The Berlin Wall fell in 1989, so this provided an early representation of the wish for peace between the two nations.

Domestic Policy Event: Peace Through Strength (1981-1989) Reagan believed in a concept of "peace through strength" which applied to foreign affairs, and government spending. This was the foundation for the modern military, as President Reagan built it up. His Star Wars Initiative was an extension of this, although it wasn't successful.

Economic Event: Reaganomics (1981-1989) One defining characteristic of the Reagan Administration was his economic strategy. He developed Reaganomics, which meant cutting taxes, more federal spending on the military, deregulating markets, and spending less money on social causes. He believed in less taxes on big business, as a part of the trickle-down theory. This was a great method to combat stagflation that had persisted since Ford's presidency.

Social Event: DARE (1983) The D.A.R.E. program was introduced to schools in an attempt to lower drug abuse in the youth, and overall (in the long-term). Daryl Gates led this program, which was popular with parents, but wasn't necessarily effective.

Sources:

https://www.historyplace.com/speeches/reagan-tear-down.htm

https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/permanent-exhibits/peace-through-strength

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/reaganomics.asp

https://crimesolutions.ojp.gov/ratedprograms/drug-abuse-resistance-education-dare-1983-2009

https://www.britannica.com/event/Drug-Abuse-Resistance-Education

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#41 George H. W. Bush (January 1989 - January 1993)

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#41 George H. W. Bush (January 1989 - January 1993)

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Foreign Policy Event: Operation Desert Storm (1991) The goal of this Operation was to push the Iraqi military out of Kuwait during the 1990 Persian Gulf Crisis, which would turn into the Gulf War (1990-1991). Through President Bush, the military was able to weaken Iraq with air strikes.

Domestic Policy Event: Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) This law helped stop discrimination against people with disabilities in public and private areas. This was civil rights legislation, helping disabled people gain equal opportunities.

Social Event: Read My Lips Promise (1988-1989) During his presidential campaign, Bush famously stated "Read my lips: no new taxes" which he later went against. He increased the taxes on luxury items, satisfying Congress somewhat. Although it made President Bush look bad, it was a necessary step against the huge federal budget deficit at the time.

Political Event: Nuclear Arms Reduction Agreements (1991-1993) Similar to the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty under Ford, the START I and START II treaties helped create clear limitations and reductions to the buildup of nuclear weapons in both the US and the Soviet Union.

Sources:

https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/short-history/firstgulf

https://www.britannica.com/event/Persian-Gulf-War

https://adata.org/learn-about-ada

https://time.com/3649511/george-hw-bush-quote-read-my-lips/

https://www.reuters.com/article/world/uk/george-hw-bush-honored-for-courage-with-1990-tax-hikes-idUSBREA4308H/

https://www.nps.gov/articles/start-treaty-1991.htm#:~:text=The%20treaty%20restricted%20the%20United,START%20Treaty%20in%20October%201992.

https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/start-ii-and-its-extension-protocol-glance

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#42 Bill Clinton (January 1993 - January 2001)

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#42 Bill Clinton (January 1993 - January 2001)

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Foreign Policy Event: NAFTA (1993) The North American Free Trade Agreement was between Canada, Mexico, and the US, creating a free-trade zone. This almost entirely eliminated tariffs and trade restrictions between the three nations.

Domestic Policy Event: Balanced Budget Act (1997) In an attempt to regulate federal spending, Clinton reduced the funding of Medicaid. While this did save money, it was controversial as it seemingly worsened the Medicaid program, the reduction of spending didn't have a significant effect on what benefits Americans received from it.

Internal Conflict: Mass Murders (1995-1999) In 1995, Timothy McVeigh released a bomb blew up the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. This was significant as instead of fighting terrorists from other nations, the violence was coming from fellow Americans. Then, in Colorado, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold killed 13 people at Columbine High School in 1999. This caused an unease between children and parents about the safety of schools.

Political Event: Clinton's Impeachment (1998-1999) President Clinton was on trial in 1999, after claims of him having a sexual relationship outside of his marriage, with Monica Lewinsky, and then committing perjury and obstruction of justice over the matter. The Supreme Court concluded that he was not guilty, despite the abundance of evidence against him.

Sources:

https://www.politico.com/story/2018/12/08/clinton-signs-nafta-into-law-dec-8-1993-1040789

https://www.cbpp.org/sites/default/files/archive/908mcaid.htm

https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/oklahoma-city-bombing

https://www.edweek.org/leadership/how-columbine-shaped-25-years-of-school-safety/2024/04

https://vault.fbi.gov/Columbine%20High%20School%20

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/december-19/president-clinton-impeached

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#43 George W. Bush (January 2001 - January 2009)

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#43 George W. Bush (January 2001 - January 2009)

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Foreign Policy Event: War on Terror (2001-2009) After the 9/11 attack, President Bush declared terrorism, especially the al-Qaeda group (led by Osama bin Laden), as the biggest enemy of the US. He fought against the Taliban in Afghanistan, and Iraq. In 2003, the US military was able to successfully overthrow Saddam Hussein, in an attempt to bring democratic ideals to Iraq, instead of terrorism ruling the nation.

Domestic Policy Event: Patriot Act and Department of Homeland Security (2001-2003) The USA Patriot Act (2001) promoted the use of new technologies to monitor and investigate crime and potential terrorism within the country. The Department of Homeland Security (2003) was also made to combat terrorism, specifically, to organize national security in a more efficient was. The Department would be used to determine a response to any terrorist attack that might arise in America.

Political Event: Bush v. Gore (2000) Clinton's Vice President, Al Gore, ran up against Bush in the election of 2000, where he lost. But, Gore demanded a recount of the Florida ballots, which the Supreme Court ruled against. This forced Gore to concede, making Bush the president.

Internal Conflict: Virginia Tech Shooting (2007) Another mass murder incident in a school setting was at Virginia Tech University. Seung-Hui Cho killed 32 people, and in 2011, the college was fined for being at fault for part of the incident, as there was no warning sent out in between his first and second shootings.

Sources:

https://www.georgewbushlibrary.gov/research/topic-guides/global-war-terror

https://www.fincen.gov/resources/statutes-regulations/usa-patriot-act

https://www.dhs.gov/creation-department-homeland-security

https://www.britannica.com/event/Bush-v-Gore

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/april-16/massacre-at-virginia-tech-leaves-32-dead

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#44 Barack Obama (January 2009 - January 2017)

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#44 Barack Obama (January 2009 - January 2017)

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Foreign Policy Event: Haiti Earthquake (2010) Obama was quick to step in to support Haiti after a huge earthquake had damaged the country, including its capital. This strengthened the partnership between the US and Haiti, as active efforts were being made to support the nation and help it recover.

Domestic Policy Event: Affordable Care Act (2010) This was a reform law, helping to provide more affordable health insurance to Americans. It's nicknamed "Obamacare" and it prioritizes people with lower household incomes.

Social Event: Violence Against Women Act (2013) This Act had first been passed in 1994 by Clinton, but was reauthorized multiple times, once by President Obama. He supported educating people on domestic violence, and made it the responsibility of law enforcement to look into rape cases.

Political Event: Government Shutdown (2013) Due to a disagreement in Congress over funding, there was a partial shutdown of the federal government for 16 days. It was caused by debates over budgeting for government programs, and resulted in delays of tax refunds and other consequences.

Sources:

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/haitiearthquake

https://www.hhs.gov/healthcare/about-the-aca/index.html

https://www.thehotline.org/resources/violence-against-women-act-vawa/

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/omb/reports/impacts-and-costs-of-october-2013-federal-government-shutdown-report.pdf