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What is the brain?

The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. Together, the brain and spinal cord that extends from it make up the central nervous system, or CNS.

What is the brain made of?

Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is about 60% fat. The remaining 40% is a combination of water, protein, carbohydrates and salts. The brain itself is a not a muscle. It contains blood vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial cells.

What is the gray matter and white matter?

Gray and white matter are two different regions of the central nervous system. In the brain, gray matter refers to the darker, outer portion, while white matter describes the lighter, inner section underneath. In the spinal cord, this order is reversed: The white matter is on the outside, and the gray matter sits within.

Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round central cell bodies), and white matter is mostly made of axons (the long stems that connects neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a protective coating). The different composition of neuron parts is why the two appear as separate shades on certain scans.

Each region serves a different role. Gray matter is primarily responsible for processing and interpreting information, while white matter transmits that information to other parts of the nervous system.

How does the brain work?

The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body. Different signals control different processes, and your brain interprets each. Some make you feel tired, for example, while others make you feel pain.

Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed through the spine and across the body's vast network of nerves to distant extremities. To do this, the central nervous system relies on billions of neurons (nerve cells).

Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

At a high level, the brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum.

Cerebrum

The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and white matter at its center. The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

Cerebral Cortex

Cortex is Latin for "bark," and describes the outer gray matter covering of the cerebrum. The cortex has a large surface area due to its folds, and comprises about half of the brain's weight.

The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. It is covered with ridges (gyri) and folds (sulci). The two halves join at a large, deep sulcus (the interhemispheric fissure, AKA the medial longitudinal fissure) that runs from the front of the head to the back. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left half controls the right side of the body. The two halves communicate with one another through a large, C-shaped structure of white matter and nerve pathways called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is in the center of the cerebrum.

Brainstem

The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very complex structure with a range of different neuron clusters (nuclei and colliculi), neural pathways and other structures. These features facilitate various functions, from hearing and movement to calculating responses and environmental changes. The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra, an area affected by Parkinson's disease that is rich in dopamine neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which enables movement and coordination.

Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which enable a range of activities such as tear production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial expression. Named for the Latin word for "bridge," the pons is the connection between the midbrain and the medulla.

Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain meets the spinal cord. The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many bodily activities, including heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting, coughing and swallowing.

The spinal cord extends from the bottom of the medulla and through a large opening in the bottom of the skull. Supported by the vertebrae, the spinal cord carries messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum ("little brain") is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the back of the head, below the temporal and occipital lobes and above the brainstem. Like the cerebral cortex, it has two hemispheres. The outer portion contains neurons, and the inner area communicates with the cerebral cortex. Its function is to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and to maintain posture, balance and equilibrium. New studies are exploring the cerebellum's roles in thought, emotions and social behavior, as well as its possible involvement in addiction, autism and schizophrenia.

Brain Coverings: Meninges

Three layers of protective covering called meninges surround the brain and the spinal cord.

The outermost layer, the dura mater, is thick and tough. It includes two layers: The periosteal layer of the dura mater lines the inner dome of the skull (cranium) and the meningeal layer is below that. Spaces between the layers allow for the passage of veins and arteries that supply blood flow to the brain.

The arachnoid mater is a thin, weblike layer of connective tissue that does not contain nerves or blood vessels. Below the arachnoid mater is the cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF. This fluid cushions the entire central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and continually circulates around these structures to remove impurities.

The pia mater is a thin membrane that hugs the surface of the brain and follows its contours. The pia mater is rich with veins and arteries.

Lobes of the Brain and What They Control

Each brain hemisphere (parts of the cerebrum) has four sections, called lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Each lobe controls specific functions.

Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of the head, the frontal lobe is involved in personality characteristics, decision-making and movement. Recognition of smell usually involves parts of the frontal lobe. The frontal lobe contains Broca's area, which is associated with speech ability.

Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a person identify objects and understand spatial relationships (where one's body is compared with objects around the person). The parietal lobe is also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body. The parietal lobe houses Wernicke's area, which helps the brain understand spoken language.

Occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that is involved with vision.

Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes are involved in short-term memory, speech, musical rhythm and some degree of smell recognition.

Deeper Structures Within the Brain

Pituitary Gland

Sometimes called the "master gland," the pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure found deep in the brain behind the bridge of the nose. The pituitary gland governs the function of other glands in the body, regulating the flow of hormones from the thyroid, adrenals, ovaries and testicles. It receives chemical signals from the hypothalamus through its stalk and blood supply.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical messages that control its function. It regulates body temperature, synchronizes sleep patterns, controls hunger and thirst and also plays a role in some aspects of memory and emotion.

Amygdala

Small, almond-shaped structures, an amygdala is located under each half (hemisphere) of the brain. Included in the limbic system, the amygdalae regulate emotion and memory and are associated with the brain's reward system, stress, and the "fight or flight" response when someone perceives a threat.

Hippocampus

A curved seahorse-shaped organ on the underside of each temporal lobe, the hippocampus is part of a larger structure called the hippocampal formation. It supports memory, learning, navigation and perception of space. It receives information from the cerebral cortex and may play a role in Alzheimer's disease.

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and attached by a stalk to the top of the third ventricle. The pineal gland responds to light and dark and secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle.

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Deep in the brain are four open areas with passageways between them. They also open into the central spinal canal and the area beneath arachnoid layer of the meninges.

The ventricles manufacture cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, a watery fluid that circulates in and around the ventricles and the spinal cord, and between the meninges. CSF surrounds and cushions the spinal cord and brain, washes out waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients.

Blood Supply to the Brain

Two sets of blood vessels supply blood and oxygen to the brain: the vertebral arteries and the carotid arteries.

The external carotid arteries extend up the sides of your neck, and are where you can feel your pulse when you touch the area with your fingertips. The internal carotid arteries branch into the skull and circulate blood to the front part of the brain.

The vertebral arteries follow the spinal column into the skull, where they join together at the brainstem and form the basilar artery, which supplies blood to the rear portions of the brain.

The circle of Willis, a loop of blood vessels near the bottom of the brain that connects major arteries, circulates blood from the front of the brain to the back and helps the arterial systems communicate with one another.

Cranial Nerves

Inside the cranium (the dome of the skull), there are 12 nerves, called cranial nerves:

Cranial nerve 1: The first is the olfactory nerve, which allows for your sense of smell.

Cranial nerve 2: The optic nerve governs eyesight.

Cranial nerve 3: The oculomotor nerve controls pupil response and other motions of the eye, and branches out from the area in the brainstem where the midbrain meets the pons.

Cranial nerve 4: The trochlear nerve controls muscles in the eye. It emerges from the back of the midbrain part of the brainstem.

Cranial nerve 5: The trigeminal nerve is the largest and most complex of the cranial nerves, with both sensory and motor function. It originates from the pons and conveys sensation from the scalp, teeth, jaw, sinuses, parts of the mouth and face to the brain, allows the function of chewing muscles, and much more.

Cranial nerve 6: The abducens nerve innervates some of the muscles in the eye.

Cranial nerve 7: The facial nerve supports face movement, taste, glandular and other functions.

Cranial nerve 8: The vestibulocochlear nerve facilitates balance and hearing.

Cranial nerve 9: The glossopharyngeal nerve allows taste, ear and throat movement, and has many more functions.

Cranial nerve 10: The vagus nerve allows sensation around the ear and the digestive system and controls motor activity in the heart, throat and digestive system.

Cranial nerve 11: The accessory nerve innervates specific muscles in the head, neck and shoulder.

Cranial nerve 12: The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor activity to the tongue.

The first two nerves originate in the cerebrum, and the remaining 10 cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem, which has three parts: the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

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The brain is an important organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, respiration, and every process that regulates your body.

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Brain: How It Works, Function, Parts & Conditions

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Your brain is one of the two main parts of your central nervous system. Your brain controls thinking, behavior, movement and more.

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The brain controls all functions of the body, interprets information from the outside world, and defines who we are as individuals and how we experience the world.

The brain receives information through our senses: sight, touch, taste, smell, and hearing. This information is processed in the brain, allowing us to give meaning to the input it receives.

The brain is part of the central nervous system ( CNS) along with the spinal cord. There is also a peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprised of 31 pairs of spinal nerves that branch from the spinal cord and cranial nerves that branch from the brain.

Brain Parts

The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. The brain has three main parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest and most recognizable part of the brain. It consists of grey matter (the cerebral cortex ) and white matter at the center. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, the left and right, and contains the lobes of the brain (frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes).

The cerebrum produces higher functioning roles such as thinking, learning, memory, language, emotion, movement, and perception.

The Cerebellum

The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum and is responsible for monitoring and regulating motor behaviors, especially automatic movements.

This structure is also important for regulating posture and balance and has recently been suggested for being involved in learning and attention.

Although the cerebellum only accounts for roughly 10% of the brain's total weight, this area is thought to contain more neurons (nerve cells) than the rest of the brain combined.

Brainstem

The brainstem is located at the base of the brain. This area connects the cerebrum and the cerebellum to the spinal cord, acting as a relay station for these areas.

The brainstem regulates automatic functions such as sleep cycles, breathing, body temperature, digestion, coughing, and sneezing.

Right Brain Vs. Left Brain

The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres (Fig. 2). The left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left half.

The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the corpus callosum, consisting of about 200 million axons.

The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate and allows information being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the other.
Figure 2. The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres. The two sides are connected by the nerve fibers corpus callosum.
Hemispheric lateralization is the idea that each hemisphere is responsible for different functions. Each of these functions is localized to either the right or left side.

The left hemisphere is associated with language functions, such as formulating grammar and vocabulary and containing different language centers (Broca's and Wernicke's area).

The right hemisphere is associated with more visuospatial functions such as visualization, depth perception, and spatial navigation. These left and right functions are the case in most people, especially those who are right-handed.

Lobes of the Brain

Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each associated with different functions.

The four lobes of the brain are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The cerebrum is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.
Frontal lobes

The frontal lobes are located at the front of the brain, behind the forehead (Figure 4).

Their main functions are associated with higher cognitive functions, including problem-solving, decision-making, attention, intelligence, and voluntary behaviors.

The frontal lobes contain the motor cortex responsible for planning and coordinating movements.

It also contains the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for initiating higher-lever cognitive functioning, and Broca's Area, which is essential for language production.
Figure 4. Frontal lobe structure.
Temporal lobes

The temporal lobes are located on both sides of the brain, near the temples of the head, hence the name temporal lobes (Figure 5).

The main functions of these lobes include understanding, language, memory acquisition, face recognition, object recognition, perception, and auditory information processing.

There is a temporal lobe in both the left and right hemispheres. The left temporal lobe, which is usually the most dominant in people, is associated with language, learning, memorizing, forming words, and remembering verbal information.

The left lobe also contains a vital language center known as Wernicke's area, which is essential for language development. The right temporal lobe is usually associated with learning and memorizing non-verbal information and determining facial expressions.
Figure 5. Temporal lobe structure.
Parietal lobes

The parietal lobe is located at the top of the brain, between the frontal and occipital lobes, and above the temporal lobes (Figure 6).

The parietal lobe is essential for integrating information from the body's senses to allow us to build a coherent picture of the world around us.

These lobes allow us to perceive our bodies through somatosensory information (e.g., through touch, pressure, and temperature). It can also help with visuospatial processing, reading, and number representations (mathematics).

The parietal lobes also contain the somatosensory cortex, which receives and processes sensory information, integrating this into a representational map of the body.

This means it can pinpoint the exact area of the body where sensation is felt, as well as be able to perceive the weight of objects, shape, and texture.
Figure 6. Parietal lobe structure.
Occipital lobes

The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain behind the temporal and parietal lobes and below the occipital bone of the skull (Figure 7).

The occipital lobes receive sensory information from the eyes' retinas, which is then encoded into different visual data. Some of the functions of the occipital lobes include being able to assess the size, depth, and distance, determine color information, object and facial recognition, and mapping the visual world.

The occipital lobes also contain the primary visual cortex, which receives sensory information from the retinas, transmitting this information relating to location, spatial data, motion, and the colors of objects in the field of vision.
Figure 7. Occipital lobe structure.
Cerebral Cortex

The surface of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex and has a wrinkled appearance, consisting of bulges, also known as gyri, and deep furrows, known as sulci (Figure 8).

A gyrus (plural: gyri) is the name given to the bumps and ridges on the cerebral cortex (the outermost layer of the brain). A sulcus (plural: sulci) is another name for a groove in the cerebral cortex.
Figure 8. The cortex contains neurons (grey matter) interconnected to other brain areas by axons (white matter). The cortex has a folded appearance. A fold is called a gyrus, and the valley between is a sulcus.
The cerebral cortex is primarily constructed of grey matter (neural tissue made up of neurons), with between 14 and 16 billion neurons found here.

The many folds and wrinkles of the cerebral cortex allow a wider surface area for an increased number of neurons to live there, permitting large amounts of information to be processed.

Deep Structures

The amygdala is a structure deep in the brain which is involved in the processing of emotions and fear learning. The amygdala is a part of the limbic system, a neural network that mediates emotion and memory (Figure 9).

This structure also ties emotional meaning to memories, processes rewards, and helps us make decisions. This structure has also been linked with the fight-or-flight response.
Figure 9. The amygdala in the limbic system plays a key role in how animals assess and respond to environmental threats and challenges by evaluating the emotional importance of sensory information and prompting an appropriate response.
Thalamus and Hypothalamus

The thalamus relays information between the cerebral cortex, brain stem, and other cortical structures (Figure 10).

Because of its interactive role in relaying sensory and motor information, the thalamus contributes to many processes, including attention, perception, timing, and movement. The hypothalamus modulates a range of behavioral and physiological functions.

It controls autonomic functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual activity. To do this, the hypothalamus integrates information from different brain parts and responds to various stimuli such as light, odor, and stress.
Figure 10. The thalamus is often described as the brain's relay station as a great deal of information that reaches the cerebral cortex first stops in the thalamus before being sent to its destination.
Hippocampus

The hippocampus is a curved-shaped structure in the limbic system associated with learning and memory (Figure 11).

This structure is most strongly associated with the formation of memories, is an early storage system for new long-term memories, and plays a role in the transition of these long-term memories to more permanent memories.
Figure 11. Hippocampus location in the brain
Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are a group of structures that regulate the coordination of fine motor movements, balance, and posture alongside the cerebellum.

These structures are connected to other motor areas and link the thalamus with the motor cortex. The basal ganglia are also involved in cognitive and emotional behaviors, as well as playing a role in reward and addiction.
Figure 12. The Basal Ganglia Illustration
Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Within the brain, there are fluid-filled interconnected cavities which are extensions of the spinal cord, called ventricles. These are filled with a substance called cerebrospinal fluid, which is a clear and colorless liquid.

The ventricles produce cerebrospinal fluid and transport as well as remove this fluid. The ventricles do not have a unique function, but it provides cushioning to the brain and is useful for determining the locations of other brain structures.

Cerebrospinal fluid circulates the brain and spinal cord and functions to cushion the brain within the skull. If damage occurs to the skull, the cerebrospinal fluid will act as a shock absorber to help protect the brain from injury.

As well as providing cushioning, the cerebrospinal fluid circulates nutrients and chemicals filtered from the blood and removes waste products from the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid is constantly absorbed and replenished by the ventricles.

If there were a disruption or blockage, this can cause a build-up of cerebrospinal fluid and can cause enlarged ventricles.

Neurons

Neurons are the nerve cells of the central nervous system that transmit information through electrochemical signals throughout the body. Neurons contain a soma, a cell body from which the axon extends.

Axons are nerve fibers that are the longest part of the neuron, which conduct electrical impulses away from the soma.

There are dendrites at the end of the neuron, which are branch-like structures that send and receive information from other neurons.

A myelin sheath, a fatty insulating layer, forms around the axon, allowing nerve impulses to travel down the axon quickly.

There are different types of neurons. Sensory neurons transmit sensory information, motor neurons transmit motor information, and relay neurons allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate.

The communication between neurons is called synapses. Neurons communicate with each other via synaptic clefts, which are gaps between the endings of neurons.

During synaptic transmission, chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, are released from the endings of the previous neuron (also known as the presynaptic neuron).

These chemicals enter the synaptic cleft to then be transported to receptors on the next neuron (also known as the postsynaptic neuron).

Once transported to the next neuron, the chemical messengers continue traveling down neurons to influence many functions, such as behavior and movement.

Glial Cells

Glial cells are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system which work to provide the neurons with nourishment, support, and protection.

Astrocytes

These are star-shaped cells that function to maintain the environment for neuronal signaling by controlling the levels of neurotransmitters surrounding the synapses.

They also work to clean up what is left behind after synaptic transmission, either recycling any leftover neurotransmitters or cleaning up when a neuron dies.

Oligodendrocytes

These types of glial have the appearance of balls with spikes all around them. They function by wrapping around the axons of neurons to form a protective layer called the myelin sheath.

This is a substance that is rich in fat and provides insulation to the neurons to aid neuronal signaling.

Microglial

Microglial cells have oval bodies and many branches projecting out of them. The primary function of these cells is to respond to injuries or diseases in the central nervous system.

They respond by clearing away any dead cells or removing any harmful toxins or pathogens that may be present, so they are, therefore, important to the brain's health.

Ependymal cells

These cells are column-shaped and usually line up together to form a membrane called the ependyma. The ependyma is a thin membrane lining the spinal cord and ventricles of the brain.

In the ventricles, these cells have small hairlike structures called cilia, which help encourage the flow of cerebrospinal fluid.

Cranial Nerves

There are 12 types of cranial nerves which are linked directly to the brain without having to pass through the spinal cord. These allow sensory information to pass from the organs of the face to the brain:

Mnemonic for Order of Cranial Nerves:

1. Cranial I: Sensory

2. Cranial II: Sensory

3. Cranial III: Motor

4. Cranial IV: Motor

5. Cranial V: Both (sensory & motor)

6. Cranial VI: Motor

7. Cranial VII: Both (sensory & motor)

8. Cranial VIII: Sensory

9. Cranial IX: Both (sensory & motor)

10. Cranial X: Both (sensory & motor)

11. Cranial XI: Motor

12. Cranial XII: Motor

References

Purves, D., Augustine, G., Fitzpatrick, D., Katz, L., LaMantia, A., McNamara, J., & Williams, S. (2001). Neuroscience 2nd edition. sunderland (ma) sinauer associates. Types of Eye Movements and Their Functions.

Mayfield Brain and Spine (n.d.). Anatomy of the Brain. Retrieved July 28, 2021, from: https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-anatbrain.htm

Robertson, S. (2018, August 23). What is Grey Matter? News Medical Life Sciences. https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Grey-Matter.aspx

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 13). Temporal lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/temporal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 15). Parietal lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/parietal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 19). Occipital lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/occipital-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, May 08). Frontal lobe function, location in brain, damage, more. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/frontal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, June 09). Gyri and sulci of the brain. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/gyri-and-sulci-of-the-brain.html

Saul Mcleod, PhD
Educator, Researcher

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Parts of the Brain: Anatomy, Structure & Functions

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The human brain is a complex organ, made up of several distinct parts, each responsible for different functions. The cerebrum, the largest part, is responsible for sensory interpretation, thought processing, and voluntary muscle activity. Beneath it is the cerebellum, which controls balance and coordination.

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This interactive brain model is powered by the Wellcome Trust and developed by Matt Wimsatt and Jack Simpson; reviewed by John Morrison, Patrick Hof, and Edward Lein.
Structure descriptions were written by Levi Gadye and Alexis Wnuk and Jane Roskams.
Copyright © Society for Neuroscience (2017). Users may copy images and text, but must provide attribution to the Society for Neuroscience if an image and/or text is transmitted to another party, or if an image and/or text is used or cited in User's work.

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This interactive brain model is powered by the Wellcome Trust and developed by Matt Wimsatt and Jack Simpson; reviewed by John Morrison, Patrick Hof, and Edward Lein. Structure descriptions were written by Levi Gadye and Alexis Wnuk and Jane Roskams. Copyright © Society for Neuroscience (2017).

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Kathleen B. McDermott and Henry L. Roediger III
Washington University in St. Louis

"Memory" is a single term that reflects a number of different abilities: holding information briefly while working with it (working memory), remembering episodes of one's life (episodic memory), and our general knowledge of facts of the world (semantic memory), among other types. Remembering episodes involves three processes: encoding information (learning it, by perceiving it and relating it to past knowledge), storing it (maintaining it over time), and then retrieving it (accessing the information when needed). Failures can occur at any stage, leading to forgetting or to having false memories. The key to improving one's memory is to improve processes of encoding and to use techniques that guarantee effective retrieval. Good encoding techniques include relating new information to what one already knows, forming mental images, and creating associations among information that needs to be remembered. The key to good retrieval is developing effective cues that will lead the rememberer back to the encoded information. Classic mnemonic systems, known since the time of the ancient Greeks and still used by some today, can greatly improve one's memory abilities.

Learning Objectives

Define and note differences between the following forms of memory: working memory, episodic memory, semantic memory, collective memory.

Describe the three stages in the process of learning and remembering.

Describe strategies that can be used to enhance the original learning or encoding of information.

Describe strategies that can improve the process of retrieval.

Describe why the classic mnemonic device, the method of loci, works so well.

In 2013, Simon Reinhard sat in front of 60 people in a room at Washington University, where he memorized an increasingly long series of digits. On the first round, a computer generated 10 random digits-6 1 9 4 8 5 6 3 7 1-on a screen for 10 seconds. After the series disappeared, Simon typed them into his computer. His recollection was perfect. In the next phase, 20 digits appeared on the screen for 20 seconds. Again, Simon got them all correct. No one in the audience (mostly professors, graduate students, and undergraduate students) could recall the 20 digits perfectly. Then came 30 digits, studied for 30 seconds; once again, Simon didn't misplace even a single digit. For a final trial, 50 digits appeared on the screen for 50 seconds, and again, Simon got them all right. In fact, Simon would have been happy to keep going. His record in this task-called "forward digit span"-is 240 digits!

In some ways memory is like file drawers where you store mental information. Memory is also a series of processes: how does that information get filed to begin with and how does it get retrieved when needed? [Image: M Cruz, https://goo.gl/DhOMgp, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://goo.gl/SWjq94]

When most of us witness a performance like that of Simon Reinhard, we think one of two things: First, maybe he's cheating somehow. (No, he is not.) Second, Simon must have abilities more advanced than the rest of humankind. After all, psychologists established many years ago that the normal memory span for adults is about 7 digits, with some of us able to recall a few more and others a few less ( Miller, 1956). That is why the first phone numbers were limited to 7 digits-psychologists determined that many errors occurred (costing the phone company money) when the number was increased to even 8 digits. But in normal testing, no one gets 50 digits correct in a row, much less 240. So, does Simon Reinhard simply have a photographic memory? He does not. Instead, Simon has taught himself simple strategies for remembering that have greatly increased his capacity for remembering virtually any type of material-digits, words, faces and names, poetry, historical dates, and so on. Twelve years earlier, before he started training his memory abilities, he had a digit span of 7, just like most of us. Simon has been training his abilities for about 10 years as of this writing, and has risen to be in the top two of "memory athletes." In 2012, he came in second place in the World Memory Championships (composed of 11 tasks), held in London. He currently ranks second in the world, behind another German competitor, Johannes Mallow. In this module, we reveal what psychologists and others have learned about memory, and we also explain the general principles by which you can improve your own memory for factual material.

To be a good chess player you have to learn to increase working memory so you can plan ahead for several offensive moves while simultaneously anticipating - through use of memory - how the other player could counter each of your planned moves. [Image: karpidis, https://goo.gl/EhzMKM, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://goo.gl/jSSrcO]

For most of us, remembering digits relies on short-term memory, or working memory-the ability to hold information in our minds for a brief time and work with it (e.g., multiplying 24 x 17 without using paper would rely on working memory). Another type of memory is episodic memory-the ability to remember the episodes of our lives. If you were given the task of recalling everything you did 2 days ago, that would be a test of episodic memory; you would be required to mentally travel through the day in your mind and note the main events. Semantic memory is our storehouse of more-or-less permanent knowledge, such as the meanings of words in a language (e.g., the meaning of "parasol") and the huge collection of facts about the world (e.g., there are 196 countries in the world, and 206 bones in your body). Collective memory refers to the kind of memory that people in a group share (whether family, community, schoolmates, or citizens of a state or a country). For example, residents of small towns often strongly identify with those towns, remembering the local customs and historical events in a unique way. That is, the community's collective memory passes stories and recollections between neighbors and to future generations, forming a memory system unto itself.

Psychologists continue to debate the classification of types of memory, as well as which types rely on others ( Tulving, 2007), but for this module we will focus on episodic memory. Episodic memory is usually what people think of when they hear the word "memory." For example, when people say that an older relative is "losing her memory" due to Alzheimer's disease, the type of memory-loss they are referring to is the inability to recall events, or episodic memory. (Semantic memory is actually preserved in early-stage Alzheimer's disease.) Although remembering specific events that have happened over the course of one's entire life (e.g., your experiences in sixth grade) can be referred to as autobiographical memory, we will focus primarily on the episodic memories of more recent events.

Psychologists distinguish between three necessary stages in the learning and memory process: encoding, storage, and retrieval ( Melton, 1963). Encoding is defined as the initial learning of information; storage refers to maintaining information over time; retrieval is the ability to access information when you need it. If you meet someone for the first time at a party, you need to encode her name (Lyn Goff) while you associate her name with her face. Then you need to maintain the information over time. If you see her a week later, you need to recognize her face and have it serve as a cue to retrieve her name. Any successful act of remembering requires that all three stages be intact. However, two types of errors can also occur. Forgetting is one type: you see the person you met at the party and you cannot recall her name. The other error is misremembering (false recall or false recognition): you see someone who looks like Lyn Goff and call the person by that name (false recognition of the face). Or, you might see the real Lyn Goff, recognize her face, but then call her by the name of another woman you met at the party (misrecall of her name).

Whenever forgetting or misremembering occurs, we can ask, at which stage in the learning/memory process was there a failure?-though it is often difficult to answer this question with precision. One reason for this inaccuracy is that the three stages are not as discrete as our description implies. Rather, all three stages depend on one another. How we encode information determines how it will be stored and what cues will be effective when we try to retrieve it. And too, the act of retrieval itself also changes the way information is subsequently remembered, usually aiding later recall of the retrieved information. The central point for now is that the three stages-encoding, storage, and retrieval-affect one another, and are inextricably bound together.

Encoding refers to the initial experience of perceiving and learning information. Psychologists often study recall by having participants study a list of pictures or words. Encoding in these situations is fairly straightforward. However, "real life" encoding is much more challenging. When you walk across campus, for example, you encounter countless sights and sounds-friends passing by, people playing Frisbee, music in the air. The physical and mental environments are much too rich for you to encode all the happenings around you or the internal thoughts you have in response to them. So, an important first principle of encoding is that it is selective: we attend to some events in our environment and we ignore others. A second point about encoding is that it is prolific; we are always encoding the events of our lives-attending to the world, trying to understand it. Normally this presents no problem, as our days are filled with routine occurrences, so we don't need to pay attention to everything. But if something does happen that seems strange-during your daily walk across campus, you see a giraffe-then we pay close attention and try to understand why we are seeing what we are seeing.

A giraffe in the context of a zoo or its natural habitat may register as nothing more than ordinary, but put it in another setting - in the middle of a campus or a busy city - and its level of distinctiveness increases dramatically. Distinctiveness is a key attribute to remembering events. [Image: Colin J Babb, https://goo.gl/Cci2yl, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://goo.gl/jSSrcO]

Right after your typical walk across campus (one without the appearance of a giraffe), you would be able to remember the events reasonably well if you were asked. You could say whom you bumped into, what song was playing from a radio, and so on. However, suppose someone asked you to recall the same walk a month later. You wouldn't stand a chance. You would likely be able to recount the basics of a typical walk across campus, but not the precise details of that particular walk. Yet, if you had seen a giraffe during that walk, the event would have been fixed in your mind for a long time, probably for the rest of your life. You would tell your friends about it, and, on later occasions when you saw a giraffe, you might be reminded of the day you saw one on campus. Psychologists have long pinpointed distinctiveness-having an event stand out as quite different from a background of similar events-as a key to remembering events ( Hunt, 2003).

In addition, when vivid memories are tinged with strong emotional content, they often seem to leave a permanent mark on us. Public tragedies, such as terrorist attacks, often create vivid memories in those who witnessed them. But even those of us not directly involved in such events may have vivid memories of them, including memories of first hearing about them. For example, many people are able to recall their exact physical location when they first learned about the assassination or accidental death of a national figure. The term flashbulb memory was originally coined by Brown and Kulik ( 1977) to describe this sort of vivid memory of finding out an important piece of news. The name refers to how some memories seem to be captured in the mind like a flash photograph; because of the distinctiveness and emotionality of the news, they seem to become permanently etched in the mind with exceptional clarity compared to other memories.

Take a moment and think back on your own life. Is there a particular memory that seems sharper than others? A memory where you can recall unusual details, like the colors of mundane things around you, or the exact positions of surrounding objects? Although people have great confidence in flashbulb memories like these, the truth is, our objective accuracy with them is far from perfect ( Talarico & Rubin, 2003). That is, even though people may have great confidence in what they recall, their memories are not as accurate (e.g., what the actual colors were; where objects were truly placed) as they tend to imagine. Nonetheless, all other things being equal, distinctive and emotional events are well-remembered.

Details do not leap perfectly from the world into a person's mind. We might say that we went to a party and remember it, but what we remember is (at best) what we encoded. As noted above, the process of encoding is selective, and in complex situations, relatively few of many possible details are noticed and encoded. The process of encoding always involves recoding-that is, taking the information from the form it is delivered to us and then converting it in a way that we can make sense of it. For example, you might try to remember the colors of a rainbow by using the acronym ROY G BIV (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet). The process of recoding the colors into a name can help us to remember. However, recoding can also introduce errors-when we accidentally add information during encoding, then remember that new material as if it had been part of the actual experience (as discussed below).

Although it requires more effort, using images and associations can improve the process of recoding. [Image: psd, https://goo.gl/9xjcDe, CC BY 2.0, https://goo.gl/9uSnqN]

Psychologists have studied many recoding strategies that can be used during study to improve retention. First, research advises that, as we study, we should think of the meaning of the events ( Craik & Lockhart, 1972), and we should try to relate new events to information we already know. This helps us form associations that we can use to retrieve information later. Second, imagining events also makes them more memorable; creating vivid images out of information (even verbal information) can greatly improve later recall ( Bower & Reitman, 1972). Creating imagery is part of the technique Simon Reinhard uses to remember huge numbers of digits, but we can all use images to encode information more effectively. The basic concept behind good encoding strategies is to form distinctive memories (ones that stand out), and to form links or associations among memories to help later retrieval ( Hunt & McDaniel, 1993). Using study strategies such as the ones described here is challenging, but the effort is well worth the benefits of enhanced learning and retention.

We emphasized earlier that encoding is selective: people cannot encode all information they are exposed to. However, recoding can add information that was not even seen or heard during the initial encoding phase. Several of the recoding processes, like forming associations between memories, can happen without our awareness. This is one reason people can sometimes remember events that did not actually happen-because during the process of recoding, details got added. One common way of inducing false memories in the laboratory employs a word-list technique ( Deese, 1959; Roediger & McDermott, 1995). Participants hear lists of 15 words, like door, glass, pane, shade, ledge, sill, house, open, curtain, frame, view, breeze, sash, screen, and shutter. Later, participants are given a test in which they are shown a list of words and asked to pick out the ones they'd heard earlier. This second list contains some words from the first list (e.g., door, pane, frame) and some words not from the list (e.g., arm, phone, bottle). In this example, one of the words on the second list is window, which-importantly-does not appear in the first list, but which is related to other words in that list. When subjects were tested with the second list, they were reasonably accurate with the studied words ( door, etc.), recognizing them 72% of the time. However, when window was on the test, they falsely recognized it as having been on the list 84% of the time ( Stadler, Roediger, & McDermott, 1999). The same thing happened with many other lists the authors used. This phenomenon is referred to as the DRM (for Deese-Roediger-McDermott) effect. One explanation for such results is that, while students listened to items in the list, the words triggered the students to think about window, even though window was never presented. In this way, people seem to encode events that are not actually part of their experience.

Because humans are creative, we are always going beyond the information we are given: we automatically make associations and infer from them what is happening. But, as with the word association mix-up above, sometimes we make false memories from our inferences-remembering the inferences themselves as if they were actual experiences. To illustrate this, Brewer ( 1977) gave people sentences to remember that were designed to elicit pragmatic inferences. Inferences, in general, refer to instances when something is not explicitly stated, but we are still able to guess the undisclosed intention. For example, if your friend told you that she didn't want to go out to eat, you may infer that she doesn't have the money to go out, or that she's too tired. With pragmatic inferences, there is usually one particular inference you're likely to make. Consider the statement Brewer ( 1977) gave her participants: "The karate champion hit the cinder block." After hearing or seeing this sentence, participants who were given a memory test tended to remember the statement as having been, "The karate champion broke the cinder block." This remembered statement is not necessarily a logical inference (i.e., it is perfectly reasonable that a karate champion could hit a cinder block without breaking it). Nevertheless, the pragmatic conclusion from hearing such a sentence is that the block was likely broken. The participants remembered this inference they made while hearing the sentence in place of the actual words that were in the sentence (see also McDermott & Chan, 2006).

Encoding-the initial registration of information-is essential in the learning and memory process. Unless an event is encoded in some fashion, it will not be successfully remembered later. However, just because an event is encoded (even if it is encoded well), there's no guarantee that it will be remembered later.

Memory traces, or engrams, are NOT perfectly preserved recordings of past experiences. The traces are combined with current knowledge to reconstruct what we think happened in the past. [Simon Bierdwald, https://goo.gl/JDhdCE, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0, https://goo.gl/jSSrcO]

Every experience we have changes our brains. That may seem like a bold, even strange, claim at first, but it's true. We encode each of our experiences within the structures of the nervous system, making new impressions in the process-and each of those impressions involves changes in the brain. Psychologists (and neurobiologists) say that experiences leave memory traces, or engrams (the two terms are synonyms). Memories have to be stored somewhere in the brain, so in order to do so, the brain biochemically alters itself and its neural tissue. Just like you might write yourself a note to remind you of something, the brain "writes" a memory trace, changing its own physical composition to do so. The basic idea is that events (occurrences in our environment) create engrams through a process of consolidation: the neural changes that occur after learning to create the memory trace of an experience. Although neurobiologists are concerned with exactly what neural processes change when memories are created, for psychologists, the term memory trace simply refers to the physical change in the nervous system (whatever that may be, exactly) that represents our experience.

Although the concept of engram or memory trace is extremely useful, we shouldn't take the term too literally. It is important to understand that memory traces are not perfect little packets of information that lie dormant in the brain, waiting to be called forward to give an accurate report of past experience. Memory traces are not like video or audio recordings, capturing experience with great accuracy; as discussed earlier, we often have errors in our memory, which would not exist if memory traces were perfect packets of information. Thus, it is wrong to think that remembering involves simply "reading out" a faithful record of past experience. Rather, when we remember past events, we reconstruct them with the aid of our memory traces-but also with our current belief of what happened. For example, if you were trying to recall for the police who started a fight at a bar, you may not have a memory trace of who pushed whom first. However, let's say you remember that one of the guys held the door open for you. When thinking back to the start of the fight, this knowledge (of how one guy was friendly to you) may unconsciously influence your memory of what happened in favor of the nice guy. Thus, memory is a construction of what you actually recall and what you believe happened. In a phrase, remembering is reconstructive (we reconstruct our past with the aid of memory traces) not reproductive (a perfect reproduction or recreation of the past).

Psychologists refer to the time between learning and testing as the retention interval. Memories can consolidate during that time, aiding retention. However, experiences can also occur that undermine the memory. For example, think of what you had for lunch yesterday-a pretty easy task. However, if you had to recall what you had for lunch 17 days ago, you may well fail (assuming you don't eat the same thing every day). The 16 lunches you've had since that one have created retroactive interference. Retroactive interference refers to new activities (i.e., the subsequent lunches) during the retention interval (i.e., the time between the lunch 17 days ago and now) that interfere with retrieving the specific, older memory (i.e., the lunch details from 17 days ago). But just as newer things can interfere with remembering older things, so can the opposite happen. Proactive interference is when past memories interfere with the encoding of new ones. For example, if you have ever studied a second language, often times the grammar and vocabulary of your native language will pop into your head, impairing your fluency in the foreign language.

Retroactive interference is one of the main causes of forgetting ( McGeoch, 1932). In the module Eyewitness Testimony and Memory Biases http://noba.to/uy49tm37 Elizabeth Loftus describes her fascinating work on eyewitness memory, in which she shows how memory for an event can be changed via misinformation supplied during the retention interval. For example, if you witnessed a car crash but subsequently heard people describing it from their own perspective, this new information may interfere with or disrupt your own personal recollection of the crash. In fact, you may even come to remember the event happening exactly as the others described it! This misinformation effect in eyewitness memory represents a type of retroactive interference that can occur during the retention interval (see Loftus [ 2005] for a review). Of course, if correct information is given during the retention interval, the witness's memory will usually be improved.

Although interference may arise between the occurrence of an event and the attempt to recall it, the effect itself is always expressed when we retrieve memories, the topic to which we turn next.

Endel Tulving argued that "the key process in memory is retrieval" ( 1991, p. 91). Why should retrieval be given more prominence than encoding or storage? For one thing, if information were encoded and stored but could not be retrieved, it would be useless. As discussed previously in this module, we encode and store thousands of events-conversations, sights and sounds-every day, creating memory traces. However, we later access only a tiny portion of what we've taken in. Most of our memories will never be used-in the sense of being brought back to mind, consciously. This fact seems so obvious that we rarely reflect on it. All those events that happened to you in the fourth grade that seemed so important then? Now, many years later, you would struggle to remember even a few. You may wonder if the traces of those memories still exist in some latent form. Unfortunately, with currently available methods, it is impossible to know.

Psychologists distinguish information that is available in memory from that which is accessible ( Tulving & Pearlstone, 1966). Available information is the information that is stored in memory-but precisely how much and what types are stored cannot be known. That is, all we can know is what information we can retrieve- accessible information. The assumption is that accessible information represents only a tiny slice of the information available in our brains. Most of us have had the experience of trying to remember some fact or event, giving up, and then-all of a sudden!-it comes to us at a later time, even after we've stopped trying to remember it. Similarly, we all know the experience of failing to recall a fact, but then, if we are given several choices (as in a multiple-choice test), we are easily able to recognize it.

We can't know the entirety of what is in our memory, but only that portion we can actually retrieve. Something that cannot be retrieved now and which is seemingly gone from memory may, with different cues applied, reemerge. [Image: Ores2k, https://goo.gl/1du8Qe, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0, https://goo.gl/jSSrcO]

What factors determine what information can be retrieved from memory? One critical factor is the type of hints, or cues, in the environment. You may hear a song on the radio that suddenly evokes memories of an earlier time in your life, even if you were not trying to remember it when the song came on. Nevertheless, the song is closely associated with that time, so it brings the experience to mind.

The general principle that underlies the effectiveness of retrieval cues is the encoding specificity principle ( Tulving & Thomson, 1973): when people encode information, they do so in specific ways. For example, take the song on the radio: perhaps you heard it while you were at a terrific party, having a great, philosophical conversation with a friend. Thus, the song became part of that whole complex experience. Years later, even though you haven't thought about that party in ages, when you hear the song on the radio, the whole experience rushes back to you. In general, the encoding specificity principle states that, to the extent a retrieval cue (the song) matches or overlaps the memory trace of an experience (the party, the conversation), it will be effective in evoking the memory. A classic experiment on the encoding specificity principle had participants memorize a set of words in a unique setting. Later, the participants were tested on the word sets, either in the same location they learned the words or a different one. As a result of encoding specificity, the students who took the test in the same place they learned the words were actually able to recall more words ( Godden & Baddeley, 1975) than the students who took the test in a new setting.

One caution with this principle, though, is that, for the cue to work, it can't match too many other experiences ( Nairne, 2002; Watkins, 1975). Consider a lab experiment. Suppose you study 100 items; 99 are words, and one is a picture-of a penguin, item 50 in the list. Afterwards, the cue "recall the picture" would evoke "penguin" perfectly. No one would miss it. However, if the word "penguin" were placed in the same spot among the other 99 words, its memorability would be exceptionally worse. This outcome shows the power of distinctiveness that we discussed in the section on encoding: one picture is perfectly recalled from among 99 words because it stands out. Now consider what would happen if the experiment were repeated, but there were 25 pictures distributed within the 100-item list. Although the picture of the penguin would still be there, the probability that the cue "recall the picture" (at item 50) would be useful for the penguin would drop correspondingly. Watkins ( 1975) referred to this outcome as demonstrating the cue overload principle. That is, to be effective, a retrieval cue cannot be overloaded with too many memories. For the cue "recall the picture" to be effective, it should only match one item in the target set (as in the one-picture, 99-word case).

To sum up how memory cues function: for a retrieval cue to be effective, a match must exist between the cue and the desired target memory; furthermore, to produce the best retrieval, the cue-target relationship should be distinctive. Next, we will see how the encoding specificity principle can work in practice.

Psychologists measure memory performance by using production tests (involving recall) or recognition tests (involving the selection of correct from incorrect information, e.g., a multiple-choice test). For example, with our list of 100 words, one group of people might be asked to recall the list in any order (a free recall test), while a different group might be asked to circle the 100 studied words out of a mix with another 100, unstudied words (a recognition test). In this situation, the recognition test would likely produce better performance from participants than the recall test.

We usually think of recognition tests as being quite easy, because the cue for retrieval is a copy of the actual event that was presented for study. After all, what could be a better cue than the exact target (memory) the person is trying to access? In most cases, this line of reasoning is true; nevertheless, recognition tests do not provide perfect indexes of what is stored in memory. That is, you can fail to recognize a target staring you right in the face, yet be able to recall it later with a different set of cues ( Watkins & Tulving, 1975). For example, suppose you had the task of recognizing the surnames of famous authors. At first, you might think that being given the actual last name would always be the best cue. However, research has shown this not necessarily to be true ( Muter, 1984). When given names such as Tolstoy, Shaw, Shakespeare, and Lee, subjects might well say that Tolstoy and Shakespeare are famous authors, whereas Shaw and Lee are not. But, when given a cued recall test using first names, people often recall items (produce them) that they had failed to recognize before. For example, in this instance, a cue like George Bernard ________ often leads to a recall of "Shaw," even though people initially failed to recognize Shaw as a famous author's name. Yet, when given the cue "William," people may not come up with Shakespeare, because William is a common name that matches many people (the cue overload principle at work). This strange fact-that recall can sometimes lead to better performance than recognition-can be explained by the encoding specificity principle. As a cue, George Bernard _________ matches the way the famous writer is stored in memory better than does his surname, Shaw, does (even though it is the target). Further, the match is quite distinctive with George Bernard ___________, but the cue William _________________ is much more overloaded (Prince William, William Yeats, William Faulkner, will.i.am).

The phenomenon we have been describing is called the recognition failure of recallable words, which highlights the point that a cue will be most effective depending on how the information has been encoded ( Tulving & Thomson, 1973). The point is, the cues that work best to evoke retrieval are those that recreate the event or name to be remembered, whereas sometimes even the target itself, such as Shaw in the above example, is not the best cue. Which cue will be most effective depends on how the information has been encoded.

Whenever we think about our past, we engage in the act of retrieval. We usually think that retrieval is an objective act because we tend to imagine that retrieving a memory is like pulling a book from a shelf, and after we are done with it, we return the book to the shelf just as it was. However, research shows this assumption to be false; far from being a static repository of data, the memory is constantly changing. In fact, every time we retrieve a memory, it is altered. For example, the act of retrieval itself (of a fact, concept, or event) makes the retrieved memory much more likely to be retrieved again, a phenomenon called the testing effect or the retrieval practice effect ( Pyc & Rawson, 2009; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). However, retrieving some information can actually cause us to forget other information related to it, a phenomenon called retrieval-induced forgetting ( Anderson, Bjork, & Bjork, 1994). Thus the act of retrieval can be a double-edged sword-strengthening the memory just retrieved (usually by a large amount) but harming related information (though this effect is often relatively small).

As discussed earlier, retrieval of distant memories is reconstructive. We weave the concrete bits and pieces of events in with assumptions and preferences to form a coherent story ( Bartlett, 1932). For example, if during your 10th birthday, your dog got to your cake before you did, you would likely tell that story for years afterward. Say, then, in later years you misremember where the dog actually found the cake, but repeat that error over and over during subsequent retellings of the story. Over time, that inaccuracy would become a basic fact of the event in your mind. Just as retrieval practice (repetition) enhances accurate memories, so will it strengthen errors or false memories ( McDermott, 2006). Sometimes memories can even be manufactured just from hearing a vivid story. Consider the following episode, recounted by Jean Piaget, the famous developmental psychologist, from his childhood:

One of my first memories would date, if it were true, from my second year. I can still see, most clearly, the following scene, in which I believed until I was about 15. I was sitting in my pram . . . when a man tried to kidnap me. I was held in by the strap fastened round me while my nurse bravely tried to stand between me and the thief. She received various scratches, and I can still vaguely see those on her face. . . . When I was about 15, my parents received a letter from my former nurse saying that she had been converted to the Salvation Army. She wanted to confess her past faults, and in particular to return the watch she had been given as a reward on this occasion. She had made up the whole story, faking the scratches. I therefore must have heard, as a child, this story, which my parents believed, and projected it into the past in the form of a visual memory. . . . Many real memories are doubtless of the same order. (Norman & Schacter, 1997, pp. 187-188)

Piaget's vivid account represents a case of a pure reconstructive memory. He heard the tale told repeatedly, and doubtless told it (and thought about it) himself. The repeated telling cemented the events as though they had really happened, just as we are all open to the possibility of having "many real memories ... of the same order." The fact that one can remember precise details (the location, the scratches) does not necessarily indicate that the memory is true, a point that has been confirmed in laboratory studies, too (e.g., Norman & Schacter, 1997).

A central theme of this module has been the importance of the encoding and retrieval processes, and their interaction. To recap: to improve learning and memory, we need to encode information in conjunction with excellent cues that will bring back the remembered events when we need them. But how do we do this? Keep in mind the two critical principles we have discussed: to maximize retrieval, we should construct meaningful cues that remind us of the original experience, and those cues should be distinctive and not associated with other memories. These two conditions are critical in maximizing cue effectiveness ( Nairne, 2002).

So, how can these principles be adapted for use in many situations? Let's go back to how we started the module, with Simon Reinhard's ability to memorize huge numbers of digits. Although it was not obvious, he applied these same general memory principles, but in a more deliberate way. In fact, all mnemonic devices, or memory aids/tricks, rely on these fundamental principles. In a typical case, the person learns a set of cues and then applies these cues to learn and remember information. Consider the set of 20 items below that are easy to learn and remember ( Bower & Reitman, 1972).

1. is a gun. 11 is penny-one, hot dog bun.

2. is a shoe. 12 is penny-two, airplane glue.

3. is a tree. 13 is penny-three, bumble bee.

4. is a door. 14 is penny-four, grocery store.

5. is knives. 15 is penny-five, big beehive.

6. is sticks. 16 is penny-six, magic tricks.

7. is oven. 17 is penny-seven, go to heaven.

8. is plate. 18 is penny-eight, golden gate.

9. is wine. 19 is penny-nine, ball of twine.

10. is hen. 20 is penny-ten, ballpoint pen.

It would probably take you less than 10 minutes to learn this list and practice recalling it several times (remember to use retrieval practice!). If you were to do so, you would have a set of peg words on which you could "hang" memories. In fact, this mnemonic device is called the peg word technique. If you then needed to remember some discrete items-say a grocery list, or points you wanted to make in a speech-this method would let you do so in a very precise yet flexible way. Suppose you had to remember bread, peanut butter, bananas, lettuce, and so on. The way to use the method is to form a vivid image of what you want to remember and imagine it interacting with your peg words (as many as you need). For example, for these items, you might imagine a large gun (the first peg word) shooting a loaf of bread, then a jar of peanut butter inside a shoe, then large bunches of bananas hanging from a tree, then a door slamming on a head of lettuce with leaves flying everywhere. The idea is to provide good, distinctive cues (the weirder the better!) for the information you need to remember while you are learning it. If you do this, then retrieving it later is relatively easy. You know your cues perfectly (one is gun, etc.), so you simply go through your cue word list and "look" in your mind's eye at the image stored there (bread, in this case).

Example of a mneumonic system created by a student to study cranial nerves. [Image: Kelidimari, https://goo.gl/kiA1kP, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://goo.gl/SCkRfm]

This peg word method may sound strange at first, but it works quite well, even with little training ( Roediger, 1980). One word of warning, though, is that the items to be remembered need to be presented relatively slowly at first, until you have practice associating each with its cue word. People get faster with time. Another interesting aspect of this technique is that it's just as easy to recall the items in backwards order as forwards. This is because the peg words provide direct access to the memorized items, regardless of order.

How did Simon Reinhard remember those digits? Essentially he has a much more complex system based on these same principles. In his case, he uses "memory palaces" (elaborate scenes with discrete places) combined with huge sets of images for digits. For example, imagine mentally walking through the home where you grew up and identifying as many distinct areas and objects as possible. Simon has hundreds of such memory palaces that he uses. Next, for remembering digits, he has memorized a set of 10,000 images. Every four-digit number for him immediately brings forth a mental image. So, for example, 6187 might recall Michael Jackson. When Simon hears all the numbers coming at him, he places an image for every four digits into locations in his memory palace. He can do this at an incredibly rapid rate, faster than 4 digits per 4 seconds when they are flashed visually, as in the demonstration at the beginning of the module. As noted, his record is 240 digits, recalled in exact order. Simon also holds the world record in an event called "speed cards," which involves memorizing the precise order of a shuffled deck of cards. Simon was able to do this in 21.19 seconds! Again, he uses his memory palaces, and he encodes groups of cards as single images.

Many books exist on how to improve memory using mnemonic devices, but all involve forming distinctive encoding operations and then having an infallible set of memory cues. We should add that to develop and use these memory systems beyond the basic peg system outlined above takes a great amount of time and concentration. The World Memory Championships are held every year and the records keep improving. However, for most common purposes, just keep in mind that to remember well you need to encode information in a distinctive way and to have good cues for retrieval. You can adapt a system that will meet most any purpose.

Outside Resources

Book: Brown, P.C., Roediger, H. L. & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

https://www.amazon.com/Make-Stick-Science-Successful-Learning/dp/0674729013

Student Video 1: Eureka Foong's - The Misinformation Effect. This is a student-made video illustrating this phenomenon of altered memory. It was one of the winning entries in the 2014 Noba Student Video Award.

Student Video 2: Ang Rui Xia & Ong Jun Hao's - The Misinformation Effect. Another student-made video exploring the misinformation effect. Also an award winner from 2014.

Video: Flashbulb Memories

Video: Simon Reinhard breaking the world record in speedcards.

Web: Retrieval Practice, a website with research, resources, and tips for both educators and learners around the memory-strengthening skill of retrieval practice.

http://www.retrievalpractice.org/

Discussion Questions

1. Mnemonists like Simon Reinhard develop mental "journeys," which enable them to use the method of loci. Develop your own journey, which contains 20 places, in order, that you know well. One example might be: the front walkway to your parents' apartment; their doorbell; the couch in their living room; etc. Be sure to use a set of places that you know well and that have a natural order to them (e.g., the walkway comes before the doorbell). Now you are more than halfway toward being able to memorize a set of 20 nouns, in order, rather quickly. As an optional second step, have a friend make a list of 20 such nouns and read them to you, slowly (e.g., one every 5 seconds). Use the method to attempt to remember the 20 items.

2. Recall a recent argument or misunderstanding you have had about memory (e.g., a debate over whether your girlfriend/boyfriend had agreed to something). In light of what you have just learned about memory, how do you think about it? Is it possible that the disagreement can be understood by one of you making a pragmatic inference?

3. Think about what you've learned in this module and about how you study for tests. On the basis of what you have learned, is there something you want to try that might help your study habits?

Vocabulary

Autobiographical memory

Memory for the events of one's life.

Consolidation

The process occurring after encoding that is believed to stabilize memory traces.

Cue overload principle

The principle stating that the more memories that are associated to a particular retrieval cue, the less effective the cue will be in prompting retrieval of any one memory.

Distinctiveness

The principle that unusual events (in a context of similar events) will be recalled and recognized better than uniform (nondistinctive) events.

Encoding

The initial experience of perceiving and learning events.

Encoding specificity principle

The hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram or memory trace.

Engrams

A term indicating the change in the nervous system representing an event; also, memory trace.

Episodic memory

Memory for events in a particular time and place.

Flashbulb memory

Vivid personal memories of receiving the news of some momentous (and usually emotional) event.

Memory traces

A term indicating the change in the nervous system representing an event.

Misinformation effect

When erroneous information occurring after an event is remembered as having been part of the original event.

Mnemonic devices

A strategy for remembering large amounts of information, usually involving imaging events occurring on a journey or with some other set of memorized cues.

Recoding

The ubiquitous process during learning of taking information in one form and converting it to another form, usually one more easily remembered.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information.

Retroactive interference

The phenomenon whereby events that occur after some particular event of interest will usually cause forgetting of the original event.

Semantic memory

The more or less permanent store of knowledge that people have.

Storage

The stage in the learning/memory process that bridges encoding and retrieval; the persistence of memory over time.

References

Anderson, M. C., Bjork, R., & Bjork, E. L. (1994). Remembering can cause forgetting: Retrieval dynamics in long-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory and Cognition, 20, 1063-1087.

Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bower, G. H., & Reitman, J. S. (1972). Mnemonic elaboration in multilist learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 478-485.

Brewer, W. F. (1977). Memory for the pragmatic implications of sentences. Memory & Cognition, 5(6), 673-678.

Brown, R., & Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5, 73-99.

Chan, J.C.K. & McDermott, K.B. (2006). Remembering pragmatic inferences. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 633-639.

Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.

Deese, J. (1959). On the prediction of occurrence of particular verbal intrusions in immediate recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 17.

Godden, D. R., & Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context‐dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater. British Journal of Psychology,66 (3), 325-331

Hunt, R. (2003). Two contributions of distinctive processing to accurate memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 48, 811-825.

Hunt, R., & McDaniel, M. A. (1993). The enigma of organization and distinctiveness. Journal of Memory and Language, 32, 421-445.

Loftus, E. F. (2005). Planting misinformation in the human mind: A 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory. Learning & Memory, 12, 361-366.

McDermott, K. B. (2006). Paradoxical effects of testing: Repeated retrieval attempts enhance the likelihood of later accurate and false recall. Memory & Cognition, 34, 261-267.

McGeoch, J. A. (1932). Forgetting and the law of disuse. Psychological Review, 39(4), 352.

Melton, A. W. (1963). Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2, 1-21.

Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.

Muter, P. (1984). Recognition and recall of words with a single meaning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10, 198-202.

Nairne, J. S. (2002). The myth of the encoding-retrieval match. Memory, 10, 389-395.

Norman, K. A., & Schacter, D. L. (1997). False recognition in younger and older adults: Exploring the characteristics of illusory memories. Memory & Cognition, 25, 838-848.

Pyc, M. A., & Rawson, K. A. (2009). Testing the retrieval effort hypothesis: Does greater difficulty correctly recalling information lead to higher levels of memory? Journal of Memory and Language, 60, 437-447.

Roediger, H. L. (1980). The effectiveness of four mnemonics in ordering recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 558.

Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science, 17, 249-255.

Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory and Cognition, 21, 803-814.

Stadler, M. A., Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1999). Norms for word lists that create false memories. Memory & Cognition, 27, 494-500.

Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14, 455-461.

Tulving, E. (2007). Are there 256 different kinds of memory? In J.S. Nairne (Ed.), The foundations of remembering: Essays in honor of Henry L. Roediger, III (pp. 39-52). New York: Psychology Press.

Tulving, E. (1991). Interview. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 3, 89-94

Tulving, E., & Bower, G. H. (1975). The logic of memory representations. The psychology of learning and motivation, 8, 265-301.

Tulving, E., & Pearlstone, Z. (1966). Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 381-391.

Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352-373.

Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352-373.

Watkins, M. J. (1975). Inhibition in recall with extralist "cues." Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 14, 294-303.

Watkins, M. J., & Tulving, E. (1975). Episodic memory: When recognition fails. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 5-29.

Authors

Creative Commons License
Memory (Encoding, Storage, Retrieval) by Kathleen B. McDermott and Henry L. Roediger III is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Permissions beyond the scope of this license may be available in our Licensing Agreement.

How to cite this Noba module using APA Style
McDermott, K. B. & Roediger, H. L. (2023). Memory (encoding, storage, retrieval). In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. Retrieved from http://noba.to/bdc4uger

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"Memory" is a single term that reflects a number of different abilities: holding information briefly while working with it (working memory), remembering episodes of one's life (episodic memory), and our general knowledge of facts of the world (semantic memory), among other types.

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Memory is the process of encoding, storing and retrieving information from your brain to help you remember. Learn more here.

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Memories aren’t stored in just one part of the brain - different types of memories are stored in different and interconnected brain regions

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Brain Structure Changes in Autism, Explained

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The Transmitter: Neuroscience News and Perspectives

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Brain structure changes in autism, explained

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Autistic people have distinct patterns of brain development, which sometimes result in differences in brain structure. Here’s what we know about those differences.

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New Autism Research Finds That Autistic Brains Are Differently Wired

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Neurodiversity advocates say that autistic brains are differently wired. New autism research finds that neuron density is different in two key areas of autistic brains.

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Use the principles of Universal Design for Learning to anchor a strategy for collaboration in special and general education.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework developed by CAST to switch the focus from "fixing" students so they can be successful in the curriculum to fixing the curriculum so that it's accessible to more students at the outset. The UDL framework helps students become learners who are purposeful and motivated, resourceful and knowledgeable, and strategic and goal-oriented through three primary principles:

Multiple means of engagement (how students are motivated to learn);

Multiple means of representation (how information is provided with the content); and

Multiple means of action and expression (how students show what they know).

Principals can use UDL as an anchor philosophy for teaching and learning to support diverse student success in an ever-changing educational environment. When thinking about a schoolwide approach for UDL, principals will want to consider professional development (PD), collaboration, and inclusion. How can principals encourage the use of UDL schoolwide?

Provide extensive professional development in UDL for teachers and administrators. When reviewing research on the implementation of UDL, Virginia Commonwealth University researcher Monica Grillo found that a positive attitude toward UDL, driven by appropriate district-or buildingwide training in an inclusive school culture, is one of the most significant factors in sustaining implementation. Inclusive school culture features training for special education and general education teachers, with the outcome of collaboration and shared responsibility.

Administrators also need to be well-trained in UDL. Such training is not always part of administrative programs, so principals might need to participate fully in training provided to teachers. When administrators become knowledgeable about UDL, according to 2015's " Job Design: An Administrator's Guide to Supporting and Retaining Special Educators," it shows respect for the information and the implementation.

Use UDL principles in professional development. It is imperative for administrators and instructional leaders to "walk the talk" in implementing UDL. Providing professional development on UDL in a standardized, one-size-fits-all format is incongruous with what is expected from teachers, for example. If teachers are expected to provide multiple means of engagement, representation, and expression in the planning and delivery of instruction, then the PD provided to them should do the same.

Modeling within PD is an excellent way to show the principles of UDL in action. Start by offering multiple options for teachers to interact with the content. Books, podcasts, videos, and discussion groups offer choices that align with personal preferences and offer variety in learning. Allow for feedback through multiple methods such as online surveys, exit questionnaires, team and one-on-one meetings, and journaling.

Think about how you can stimulate engagement with the content. Allow teachers to work in groups or on their own. Hold up and spotlight the differences in how teachers implement UDL practices. Provide regular check-ins and encouragement.

Encourage UDL as a collaborative model. Special educators are often spread thin, and models for successful collaboration, such as co-teaching, are resource-​intensive and often unrealistic to expect in traditional schools. UDL offers a framework for successful collaboration between general and special education teachers that benefits all students. General education teachers and special education teachers can work through a process in which they look at the instruction and materials used together to identify barriers and solutions that can be deployed even when the special education teacher is out of the classroom.

UDL can also elevate a co-teaching situation. In " Universal Design for Learning: A Collaborative Framework for Designing Inclusive Curriculum," Xiuwen Wu describes general and special education teachers as principals' "copilots" in using UDL guidelines to collaboratively design the curriculum by anticipating and removing barriers.

Many times, co-teaching forces the special educator into the role of assistant, but this can change with the implementation of UDL and a variety of teaching and learning formats. Principals can lead a schoolwide effort to implement UDL as a means for designing and delivering instruction that meets the needs of all learners while increasing the effectiveness of inclusion for students with disabilities, but they must support the arrangement of the time required for planning.

Support UDL as a means for inclusion. One of the benefits of UDL is that it allows teachers to design and deliver instruction to meet the needs of all learners. UDL is best described as a "framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn," CAST says. Teachers can use UDL to design instruction that provides special education students with what they need and at the same time benefits all learners. UDL capitalizes on the concept that what is good for some is good for all.

As UDL becomes more widespread, the lines between what's required as support for special education students and instructional technology for all have blurred. Some of the tools we once used only to provide accommodations and modifications are the same tools we can use with all students under the umbrella of UDL. Think of it as an overlapping continuum: A student receiving special education services might have access to required assistive technology included in their individualized education plan (IEP), but the same tools can be used within UDL for all students.

For example, a student with an IEP might require the use of voice-to-text technologies to complete assignments, but within UDL's principle of multiple means of representation, the same option can be provided to all students. Or, a student might have the option to dictate responses through an IEP accommodation, and the teacher might allow all students to use the same format by creating a video answer, perhaps providing some students with added motivation.

In this way, the UDL framework increases opportunities to introduce inclusive practices. Teachers can plan for multiple means before the lesson instead of after, and students will see their peers accessing the curriculum and demonstrating knowledge in a variety of ways.

Differentiation is also included in that overlapping continuum, but it is important to know how UDL differs from differentiation. Both focus on changing the learning environment instead of changing the student, but UDL is preplanning on a macro level, without specific students in mind. UDL also leads students to make choices and become experts in their own learning. Differentiation is planning on a micro level: Teachers design instruction with specific students in mind, and the emphasis is not on student choice. Both are necessary and complementary, but using UDL first will often lessen the time needed to create differentiation.

When principals embed UDL into a schoolwide approach, its benefits are evident for teachers and students alike. UDL allows principals to design and deliver professional learning that follows the principles of UDL and allows for multiple means of engagement, representation, and action. It also ensures increased productivity through collaboration and increased inclusive practices that benefit all students.

Kiersten Hensley is an associate professor in the Department of Special Education at Minnesota State University, Mankato.

Sally Huddle is assistant principal of Mount Garfield Middle School in Clifton, Colorado.

Copyright © 2023. National Association of Elementary School Principals. No part of the articles in NAESP magazines, newsletters, or website may be reproduced in any medium without the permission of the National Association of Elementary School Principals. For more information, view NAESP's reprint policy.

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Use the principles of Universal Design for Learning to anchor a strategy for collaboration in special and general education. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework developed by CAST to switch the focus from "fixing" students so they can be successful in the curriculum to fixing the curriculum so that it's accessible to more students at the outset.

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Author: Denicia Padgett
September 2, 2020

What are the four major learning theories, what is the role they play in education today, and how does it all connect with Leader in Me ? Let's dig in!

Behaviorist Learning Theory (or Behaviorism) utilizes key ideas from the work of B.F. Skinner, who theorized that learning occurs through a series of rewards or punishments. While Skinner believed that all learning could occur this way, Behaviorist Theory is most commonly utilized in classrooms today as a tool for behavior management. However, educators still utilize rote practice and repetition: two practices that are linked to Behaviorist Theory. According to Skinner, rewards increase the likelihood that behaviors will be repeated, while punishments decrease the likelihood of repetition. He also theorized that rewards and punishments could be either positive or negative in nature. This can confuse a lot of people! What he meant was that when we give or add something to the environment, the interaction is positive; when we take something away, the interaction is negative. So, for example, removing an undesirable activity from the agenda might be a negative reward, and adding an undesirable activity to it might be a positive punishment.

Scenes from a Classroom -

In Ms. X's first grade classroom, she is working with one of her students, Sam, to help him with some challenging attention-span issues. She gives him a sticker whenever she sees him on task. (Positive reward)

In Mr. X's third grade classroom, Mr. X quietly reminds a student to keep all four legs of his chair on the floor. (Positive punishment - yes, verbal praise & reminders qualify as adding something to the environment!)

To increase the number of students who turn in their homework each day, Mr. X announces that if the class has 100% completion on today's assignment, they won't have homework on Friday. (Negative reward)

Students in Mrs. X's art class are having trouble sharing the supplies. Mrs. X writes the word ART on the board, and each time students have a disagreement over supplies, she erases a letter. If the word is erased completely, students will have to use pencil to complete their project for the day. (Negative punishment)

What is the link to Leader in Me Teachers in Leader in Me schools know how important it is to engage students when crafting solutions to various behavior issues. They maintain the belief that every child has worth and potential, and see a behavior challenge as an opportunity to teach a skill and educate the whole child. When appropriate, they create Win-Win Agreements, which are solutions that are mutually created in such a way that everyone is happy with the result. Teachers and students might work together to answer the following questions:

What behavior are we noticing? Why is it happening? When is it happening?

Are we looking to increase or decrease the behavior?

Would we like to earn something, or have something taken away? What might that "something" be?

When students and teachers work together to answer these questions, they craft a solution that everyone is excited about. This level of involvement will lead to greater commitment and engagement in the solution.

Cognitive Learning Theory is largely based on the work of Jean Piaget, who rejected the idea that learners are passive and simply react to stimuli in the environment. Instead of focusing solely on observable behavior, Cognitive Theory seeks to explain how the mind works during the learning process. Like a computer, the mind takes in information, processes that information, then uses that informatio n to produce learning outcomes. Piaget's 4 Stages of Development indicate the learner's ability to understand abstract, complex concepts.

Scenes from a Classroom -

Ms. X, a kindergarten teacher, works with students to verbally communicate their feelings. She knows that at this age, they are naturally egocentric and struggle to see things from others' perspectives.

As Mr. X begins his unit on fractions, he incorporates manipulatives in order to provide a concrete learning experience.

To help students memorize the Periodic Table, Mrs. X co-creates various mnemonic devices with her class.

Ms. X uses a graphic organizer in order to help students write paragraphs with appropriate structure.

At the start of every lesson, Mr. X asks questions to activate the prior knowledge of his students. He knows this will help to link the new learning concepts to previously retained ideas, increasing the likelihood that the new learning will be remembered.

What is the link to Leader in Me Teachers in Leader in Me schools teach empathy and encourage students to develop their speaking and listening skills with Habit 5: Seek First To Understand, Then To Be Understood . They also provide structure and organize learning by using Quality Tools, and students may be taught to make their thinking visible by using hand signals during class discussions. Teachers empower students to learn through the Empowered Learning model, which ignites curiosity and background knowledge, then encourages hands-on investigations with specific learning targets, and ends the lesson by inviting connections.

Constructivist Theory

Constructivists see the learner as a constructor of knowledge. New learning is shaped by schemas, which the learner brings to the learning process. Lev Vygotsky is an important founder of Constructivist Learning Theory. Vygotsky believed that learning is a collaborative process, and that social interaction is fundamental for cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, students learn best when working collaboratively with those whose proficiency level is higher than their own, allowing them to complete tasks they are not yet able to do independently. Vygotsky identified these concepts as the More Knowledgeable Other and the Zone of Proximal Development. Constructivist classrooms are student-centered, with the teacher acting as the facilitator.
Scenes from a Classroom -

Mr. X intentionally pairs students performing on or above grade level with students performing below grade level, inviting them to turn and talk about their learning throughout a lesson.

Mrs. X uses collaborative learning to facilitate engagement with specific learning targets, ensuring heterogeneous student groupings.

Ms. X uses Problem-Based Learning to engage her students in solving real world problems, meeting several learning targets while giving students autonomy to make decisions. She encourages students to work with peers who have different strengths than their own.

What is the link to Leader in Me Teachers in leadership schools begin the year by building high-trust relationships and dedicate time throughout the year to maintaining the social-emotional environment of their classrooms. They aim to incorporate student voice throughout their day, allowing students to take great ownership over their environment and learning. Teachers believe that everyone has genius, and teach their students to acknowledge and utilize the strengths of their classmates, creating synergy. Leadership classrooms buzz with excitement, signaling purposeful student interaction. As teachers aim to empower students, they use teaching strategies that require collaboration and higher order thinking, acting as a guide on the side rather than a sage on the stage.

Humanist Learning Theory approaches learning as a way to fulfill an individual's potential rather than meeting specific learning targets. Maslow's research on the Hierarchy of Needs is a major concept within this theory, as it focuses on the whole person, specifically the cognitive and affective needs of the learner. The theory holds that self-actualization is the ultimate goal of each individual. Learners are trusted to determine their own goals, set standards, and evaluate their own work. Thus, students are at the center of the Humanist classroom. Teachers are facilitators and coaches, recognizing the unique needs of each student and supporting their academic and social development.
Scenes from a Classroom -

Ms. X begins each day with a morning meeting to check in on her students' emotional well-being and proactively teach them specific coping skills & strategies.

Mr. X, an 8th grade science teacher, provides his students a menu of assessment options to illustrate their mastery of learning targets for the unit.

Mrs. X, a 2nd grade teacher, invites each student to set their reading goal for the quarter.

Mr. X, the school's counselor, partners with local organizations to fill backpacks with food that students can take home to ensure they have food to eat over the weekend.

Mrs. X, a 5th grade teacher, sets aside an hour of time each week for students to learn about and create anything they want, utilizing the framework she provides.

What is the link to Leader in Me Teachers at Leader in Me schools utilize The 7 Habits to address the social and emotional needs of their students, and actively partner with families to develop the whole child. They recognize that each student has needs within their heart, mind, body, and spirit, and teach students how to take care of themselves in all four dimensions. They empower students to set their own goals and determine their own action steps. At the highest levels, teachers in leadership schools may co-create rubrics with their students and encourage students to evaluate their own work throughout each unit.

As you can see, today's classrooms do not solely utilize one learning theory over another, but instead incorporate multiple theories throughout the learning experience. Each theory has strengths and limitations, especially considering the realities of education in the 21st century. Educators must walk the narrow line between creating a student-centered classroom and meeting rigorous learning standards. Through our world-class workshops and coaching, teachers at Leader in Me schools are well equipped to succeed and utilize the best of each learning theory. Want to learn more?

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Learning Theories: Understanding the 4 Major Ones for the Classroom

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Learning theories and Learning-theory research provide important insights into what makes students effective and efficient learners. While expanding our knowledge of broad theories as a central focus continues to diminish, present-day researchers typically embrace one or more of four foundational learning-theory domains.

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What teacher would not relish having a pocketful of superpowers ready to optimize ways for students' brains to take in, process, and store information? One such valuable resource in this quest is educational neuroscience, which Bruer (2016) defines as "... a relatively new and highly interdisciplinary field of study. Its objective is to improve educational practice by applying findings from brain research" (p.1).

By becoming aware of the connections between neuroscience and education, teachers can gain new insights into their teaching practices, resulting in more effective instruction and improved student learning.

Let's explore how teachers can employ these brain-fueled superpowers to enhance instructional practices.

Understanding How Learning Happens

Neuroscience can offer invaluable insights for both teachers and students into how each brain is built to learn. Let's start this discussion where everything happens-inside the brain itself. Each brain contains over 100 billion brain cells. Each of these neurons, in turn, can interact with over 1000 other brain cells, which amounts to an unfathomable number of connections and, hence, learning potential. When more of the learners' senses are actively involved in a personally meaningful task, the connections are more robust, resulting in long-term memory formation. Teachers can superpower their instruction through active, personally meaningful, and multisensory instruction, as all of these create stronger connections between and among neurons.
Brains Grow and Change
Each brain experiences profound changes throughout childhood and adolescence. This knowledge enables teachers to adapt their teaching methods accordingly. For instance, understanding the prefrontal cortex's role in developing critical executive functions like decision-making and problem-solving can inspire teachers to support students' learning of these foundational skills. Many students become anxious because they lack organizational know-how, not because they can't learn. By incorporating reflective practices, such as journaling, self-assessment, and goal setting, teachers can superpower students' learning by fostering a culture of reflection and metacognition.

Optimizing Attention and Engagement

Teachers must first gain students' attention so that they can learn. However, maintaining students' engagement throughout the learning sequence is a continual challenge. Neuroscience offers teachers superpowered insights into attention, guiding them in designing instruction that captivates students' interests and sustains their focus. Incorporating novelty, accentuating relevance, and adding a positive emotional tone can heighten engagement and promote more profound learning experiences.

Personalizing Instruction

No two brains are alike. Our life experiences create distinctive brain circuitry, allowing our dendrites to grow in patterns unique to each of us. The brain's inherent variability necessitates a personalized approach to instruction. Neuroscience underscores the importance of recognizing these individual learning preferences. By allowing students to choose how they take in, process, and demonstrate understanding, teachers have a superpowered way to cater to diverse learners' needs. We must provide:

Instruction that varies the auditory, visual, and kinesthetic components.

Flexible opportunities for practice and application include independent work, pairs, groups, technology, games, and centers.

Divergent ways for students to demonstrate mastery through writing, speaking, drawing, technology, and drama.

Promoting a Growth Mindset

One of the most powerful gifts a teacher can bestow on learners is the understanding that the brain continues to grow throughout our lifetime. This trait is called plasticity, highlighting the capacity for growth and adaptation. By instilling a growth mindset-a belief in the malleability of intelligence and abilities-teachers can empower students to embrace challenges, persist through setbacks, and cultivate resilience. Providing constructive feedback, teaching metacognitive strategies, and fostering a supportive classroom culture can nurture students' confidence and perseverance, ultimately fostering a lifelong love for learning.

Building an Emotionally Safe Classroom

Finally, neuroscience informs educators to be mindful of learners' social and emotional needs that optimize cognitive functioning and well-being. Factors such as feelings of trust and emotional safety can influence students' attention, mood, and learning outcomes. By creating environments that support peer acceptance, peer discussions, and "brain breaks" during the day when students can relax and recharge their brains, educators can enhance the overall learning experience and foster a conducive atmosphere for growth and discovery.

In conclusion, teachers can, indeed, supercharge their instruction by leveraging insights from neuroscience. By crafting lessons that align with the brain's natural thinking processes, adapt to students' unique ways of processing information, optimize attention and engagement, personalize learning experiences, cultivate a growth mindset, and create safe, supportive learning environments, educators can acquire the proverbial pocketful of superpowers enabling them to unlock students' full potential and thrive in an ever-changing world.

Learn more and unleash your inner teaching superhero with C. Bobbi Hansen's latest book, Teaching with Superpowers.
References
Bruer, J.T., (2016) Where is educational neuroscience? Educational Neuroscience 1, 1-12.

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author: Meghan Hargrave, Nancy Frey, and Douglas Fisher

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author: John Hattie, Kateri Thunder, Michelle Shin, Douglas Fisher, and Nancy Frey

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author: Nicole Law and Sonja Hollins-Alexander

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Teaching with Superpowers: Leveraging Neuroscience in Instruction - Corwin Connect

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Let's explore how teachers can employ brain-fueled superpowers to enhance instructional practices.

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Explore various autism teaching strategies for effective learning. Foster an inclusive and supportive learning environment and enhance student outcomes.

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Neuroscience-Based Approaches to Teaching Students on the Autism Spectrum

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Empowering Autistic Learners: Neurodivergent Strategies for Autism Teaching

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Special Education Strategies That Actually Work

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Challenge Innovate Grow: Teacher &  Learner Centre

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Special Education Strategies That ACTUALLY Work

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Together, we help those with autism connect to necessary resources and achieve their full potential.

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General Power of Attorney

A general power of attorney allows a person to act on behalf of the principal in any and all matters, as allowed by the state. The agent under a General Power of Attorney agreement may be authorized to take care of issues such as handling bank accounts, signing checks, selling property and assets like stocks, filing taxes, etc. This type of POA goes into effect immediately and ends upon the incapacitation of or death of the principal. It is only valid while the principal is competent or, in other words, while the principal is able to make decisions for him or herself and understand the consequences of those decisions. This is because the principal needs to be aware enough to agree to have control released on their behalf.

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Together, We Stand for a World of Difference

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Empowering Lives Through Collaborative Research and Community Connections

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Sustainable Deliverables of the New NJACE

Principal Investigator & Scientific Director Goals

Multilayered Centralized Data Science Repository

Build synergies with industry, biopharma and research

Bring innovative technologies to ASD

Stimulate innovative research

Lower barriers for reporting

Stimulate communication between researchers, clinicians and consumers

Build online curricula for parents and clinical professionals

Build undergrad, grad and professional curricula to improve care for people with ASD

Statewide training for healthcare professionals and pre-professionals to improve care

Dear NJACE Website Users, we try to make our website as accessible as possible for everyone, including anyone with special needs. If you have any difficulties accessing our website, please reach out to hnorris@childrens-specialized.org for further assistance. This will help us improve the website for future users. Thank you and we apologize for any inconvenience.

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Sustainable Deliverables of the New NJACE Principal Investigator & Scientific Director Goals Multilayered Centralized Data Science Repository Build synergies with industry, biopharma and research Bring innovative technologies to ASD Stimulate innovative research Lower barriers for reporting Stimulate communication between researchers, clinicians and consumers Build online curricula for parents and clinical professionals Build undergrad, grad and professional curricula to improve care for people with ASD Statewide training for healthcare professionals and pre-professionals to improve care Dear NJACE Website Users, we try to make our website as accessible as possible for everyone, including anyone with special needs.

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Creating Connections for the Autism Community to Live Fully

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Autism Society Creating connections for the Autism community to live fully.

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We create connections, empowering everyone in the Autism community with the resources needed to live fully.

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Autism: A view from neuroscience - A CCN public lecture

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The Autistic Brain: Thinking Across the Spectrum 

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The Autistic Brain: Thinking Across the Spectrum | Dr. Temple Grandin | Talks at Google

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Why is Studying the Brain Important for Understanding Autism?

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How Brain-based Education Can Change the World 

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How Brain-based Education Can Change the World | Tammy-Anne Caldwell | TEDxKinjarling