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Chemical reaction is a process that occurs when one or more substances,called reactants,is changed into one or more new substances,called products.
Bonds are made when atoms give away, get or share valence electrons.
Molecules and compounds are when atoms bond they make new substances.
Valence electrons are the electrons in the outer energy level of an atom that can participate in interactions with other atoms. They are also the electrons that are farthest from the nucleus.
In the electron dot diagram an element's chemical symbol is surrounded by dots that represent the valence electrons. An element never has more than eight valence electrons, so there can’t be more than eight dots per atom.
Ionic bond: If an atom gives away electron(s) to another atom that needs them, the atoms become ionically bonded.
Covalent bond: If two atoms share a pair (or 2 pairs or 3 pairs) of electrons, then they are covalently bonded.

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This is my family.They make me happy every day.Here is the picture from our family photosession.
My mom is so modern and stylish.She is a nail artist.I like to consult with her before doing or buying something,because she always gives the right opinion.
My dad is also modern and i like to talk with him about different topics.He works as a private entrepreneur and his company sells fireplaces.His hobby is going to the gym and playing basketball.Also he likes skiing.
Mom and dad are really caring and understanding.They are ready to do anything for their children, namely for me and my sibling.
My sister is younger than me,her name is Ivanka. She's 11 and she studies at Maple Glen Elementary School in 5th grade.She is a really good artist.Sometimes it seems like she is a little copy of me.
Our whole family loves to travel,so almost every weekend we go somewhere just to walk or do anything else.

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One thing about me,I really don't like being alone.I have a lot of friends and I can't feel lonely with them.Now we are separated by 7000 km,but they continue to support me. Most of them have been my friends since birth or first grade,so I can say that our friendship is really long and nice.
We are so creative and funny,so there is never a dull moment in our company.We can talk with each other about everything and it never feels embarrassing.They are like my second family.

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I have been a folk dancer for 10 years.I was 4 when my mom sent me to the ensemble.It is called "Vykrutasyky".
since I was very young, I cannot remember my first feelings, but during this long time I always liked to dance.I practiced three times a week after school.I went on tour with the ensemble to other countries.І learned a lot in just 10 years.
I am glad that I not only enjoyed dancing, but also spread Ukrainian.Unfortunately I had to end it but I will do my best to keep dancing

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Science is a process used to learn about the natural world through experimentation or field studies to collect data or evidence to support ideas.  Any science class is a collection of what has been learned through experimentation and collection of data/evidence over time.
There are basic methods of gaining knowledge that are common to all of science. At the heart of science is the scientific investigation, which is done by following the scientific method. A scientific investigation is a plan for asking questions and testing possible answers.
Steps of a Scientific Investigation:

1. Make observation

2. Ask a question

3. Form a hypothesis

4. Test the hypothesis

5. Draw conclusion

6. Communication results

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An experiment is a special type of scientific investigation that is performed under controlled conditions, usually in a laboratory.
Variables
An experiment generally tests how one variable is affected by another. The affected variable is called the dependent variable. The variable that affects the dependent variable is called the independent variable.
Data
Experimenters need to decide how they will collect data.  Data can be qualitative, which mean descriptive data that couldn't be measured. Data can also be quantitative which means it can be measures and recorded numerically.

The sample size in an experiment directly affects the interpretation of the results.
Repetition is the repeating of an experiment, validating the results.

Errors are always possible in human endeavors. Scientists have ways to reduce the effects of errors on their data.

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Scientific argumentation is not a fight.  It is a way of learning by hearing countering claims with evidence and reasoning to help you develop a well-supported explanation.
CER stands for Claim, Evidence, Reasoning. Science relies on strong evidence to support claims and an explantion of how the evidence supports the claim. Using CER can be espcially useful when arguing different sides of a bioethical question.  Bioethical questions are topics that may lead to different claims based on an individuals beliefs or ethics, our concept of right and wrong.

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With repeated testing, some hypotheses may eventually become scientific theories. A hypothesis is a possible answer to a scientific question. A scientific theory is a broad explanation for events that is widely accepted as true. To become a theory, a hypothesis must be tested over and over again, and it must be supported by a great deal of evidence.

The theory of evolution by natural selection is a scientific theory. Evolution is a change in the characteristics of living things within a species over time. Evolution occurs by a process called natural selection. The theory of evolution by natural selection explains how living things are changing today and how modern living things have descended from ancient life forms that no longer exist on Earth. No evidence has been identified that proves this theory is incorrect. More on the theory of evolution will be presented in additional concepts.

The cell theory states that all living things are made up of cells, and living cells always come from other living cells.

The germ theory proposes that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases.

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All life is made of cells that contain DNA, the instructions for life!

All life is able to make more cells.  This ability is used for growing and developing and for the production of new organisms.

All life is able to maintain a constant internal environment through homeostasis.

All life responds to the environment (internal and external)

All life evolves.

All life has away to obtain energy and matter for complex processes within the body.

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What does 'Organization of Living Things' mean?
We know it all starts with the cell. And for some species it ends with the cell. But for others, the cells come together to form tissues, tissues form organs, organs form organ systems, and organ systems combine to form an organism.

Levels of Organization
The living world can be organized into different levels. For example, many individual organisms can be organized into the following levels:

Cell: Basic unit of structure and function of all living things.

Tissue: Group of cells of the same kind that perform the same function.

Organ: Structure composed of two or more types of tissues. The tissues of an organ work together to perform a specific function. Human organs include the brain, stomach, kidney, and liver. Plant organs include roots, stems, and leaves.

Organ system: Group of organs that work together to perform a certain function. Examples of organ systems in a human include the skeletal, nervous, and reproductive systems.

Organism: Individual living thing that may be made up of one or more organ systems.

The levels of organization of a multicellular organism:
Organelle
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Organism

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Carbon is a nonmetal in group 14 of the periodic table. The atomic number of carbon is 6 with an electronic configuration of 2,4.
Valence electrons are the electrons in the outer energy level of an atom that are involved in chemical bond formation.
A covalent bond is the force of attraction that holds together two atoms that share a pair of valence electrons. Covalent bonds form between atoms of nonmetals.Covalent bonds form because the shared electrons fill the outer energy level of each atom. This is the most stable arrangement of electrons.

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Ionic bond is a bond between ions resulting from the transfer of electrons from one of the bonding atoms to the other and the resulting electrostatic attraction between the ions.
Electron transfer is when an atom with a low ionization energy encounters an atom with high electron affinity, it is possible for an electron transfer to occur.
Electrostatic attraction-the force of attraction between opposite electric charges.
The octet rule is an expression of the tendency for atoms gain or lose the appropriate number of electrons so that the resulting ion has either completely filled or completely empty outer energy levels.

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Water (H₂0)-dihydrogen oxide or dihydrogen monoxide.
Water-is a simple molecule,containing just three atoms.Almost 75% of its surface is covered with water.
MOLECULES

Structures: tasteless,odorless,transarent.

Chemical structures: each molecule consists of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen.

WATER AND LIFE
The human body is about 70% water.

Photosyntesis-in this process,cells use the energy in sunlight to change carbon doixide and water to glucose(H₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen.Water is a reactant in this process.The reaction of photosyntesis can be represented by the chemical equation.

Cellular respiration-in this process,cells break down glucose in the presense of oxygen and release carbon dioxide,water and energy.

Water is involved in many biochemical reactions.As a result,just about all life processes depend on water.

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Acidity has a higher concentration of hydronium ions than pure water, and a pH lower than 7.Acidity is measured on a scale called pH.
Base has a lower concentration of hydronium ions than pure water, and a pH higher than 7.
Acids and bases are important in living things because most enzymes can do their job only at a certain level of acidity.

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Carbon is the main element in organic compounds. Carbon can form stable bonds with many elements, including itself.

Compound is a substance that consists of two or more elements. A compound has a unique composition that is always the same.There are four major types of organic compounds:

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins

Nucleic acids

In a dehydration reaction, two monomers are joined together while in hydrolysis  polymers are broken down, separating a monomer away from the polymer chain.

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A carbohydrate is an organic compound such as sugar or starch, and is used to store energy.
A monosaccharide, the monomer of carbohydrates, is a simple sugar such as fructose or glucose.
If two monosaccharides bond together, they form a carbohydrate called a disaccharide.
A polysaccharide is a complex carbohydrate that forms when simple sugars bind together in a chain. Polysaccharides may contain just a few simple sugars or thousands of them. Complex carbohydrates have two main functions: storing energy and forming structures of living things.

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A lipid is an organic compound such as fat or oil. Organisms use lipids to store energy.Lipids consist of repeating units called fatty acids.
Fatty acids are organic compounds that have the general formula CH₃(CH₂)nCOOH, where n usually ranges from 2 to 28 and is always an even number.
There are two types of fatty acids: saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids.
In saturated fatty acids, carbon atoms are bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible.
In unsaturated fatty acids, some carbon atoms are not bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible. Instead, they are bonded to other groups of atoms.

TYPES OF LIPIDS:

triglycerides: the main form of stored energy in animals.

phospholipids: the major components of cell membranes.

steroids: serve as chemical messengers and have other roles.

Excess dietary lipids can be harmful.

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A nucleic acid is an organic compound, such as DNA or RNA, that is built of small units called nucleotides.Many nucleotides bind together to form a chain called a polynucleotide. The nucleic acid DNA consists of two polynucleotide chains. The nucleic acid RNA consists of just one polynucleotide chain.

Each nucleotide consists of three smaller molecules:

1. sugar

2. phosphate group

3. nitrogen base

DNA contains the genetic instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in proteins. RNA uses the information in DNA to assemble the correct amino acids and help make the protein.

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Proteins have many important roles, from transporting, signaling, receiving, and catalyzing to storing, defending, and allowing for movement.
A protein is an organic compound made up of small molecules called amino acids, the monomers of proteins.
When amino acids bind together, they form a long chain called a polypeptide. A protein consists of one or more polypeptide chains.
Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions in cells.
Other proteins are antibodies, which bind to foreign substances such as bacteria and target them for destruction.

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A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical substances into others. A substance that starts a chemical reaction is called a reactant, and a substance that forms as a result of a chemical reaction is called a product. During a chemical reaction, the reactants are used up to create the products.
In a chemical reaction, matter is always conserved.

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Chemical reactions always involve energy. Energy is a property of matter that is defined as the ability to do work. When methane burns, for example, it releases energy in the form of heat and light. Other chemical reactions absorb energy rather than release it.
Exothermic reaction-a chemical reaction that releases energy.
Reactants → Products + Heat
Endothermic reaction-a chemical reaction that absorbs energy.
Reactants + Heat → Products
The energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called activation energy.

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wallpaper colorful _ wallpaper ideas _ wallpapers for iphone _ Iphone wallpapers _ mobile wallpaper

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A catalyst is a chemical that speeds up chemical reactions.
Enzymes-it's catalysts in organisms.Enzymes are involved in most of the biochemical reactions that take place in organisms.
Enzymes are involved in most of the chemical reactions that take place in organisms.

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Like all catalysts, enzymes work by lowering the activation energy of chemical reactions.
Enzymes generally lower activation energy by reducing the energy needed for reactants to come together and react.
The activities of enzymes also depend on the surrounding conditions such as the temperature and the pH.

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The Cell Theory is one of the fundamental theories of biology.

all organisms are made up of one or more cells.

all the life functions of an organism occur within cells.

all cells come from preexisting cells.

Each type of cell in the figure has a shape that helps it do its job.
Although cells are diverse, all cells have certain parts in common. The parts include a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA.

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The cytoplasm consists of everything inside the plasma membrane of the cell.
The cytoplasm has several important functions, including:

1. suspending cell organelles.

2. pushing against the plasma membrane to help the cell keep its shape.

3. providing a site for many of the biochemical reactions of the cell.

The cytoskeleton is a cellular "skeleton" that crisscrosses the cytoplasm. Three main cytoskeleton fibers are microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments.

Microtubles are the thickest of the cytoskeleton structures and are most commonly made of filaments which are polymers of alpha and beta tubulin.

Microfilament are the thinnest of the cytoskeleton structures and are made of two thin actin chains that are twisted around one another.

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The nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle, found in most eukaryotic cells, which stores the genetic material (DNA).

The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression. Gene expression is the process by which the information in a gene is "decoded" by various cell molecules to produce a functional gene product, such as a protein molecule.
The nucleus is surrounded by a double lipid bilayer, the nuclear envelope, which is embedded with nuclear pores.
The nucleolus is inside the nucleus, and is where ribosomes are made.

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Ribosomes are small organelles and are the site of protein synthesis. Ribosomes are found in all cells.
Ribozymes are RNA molecules that catalyze chemical reactions, such as translation. Translation is the process of ordering the amino acids in the assembly of a protein, and translation will be discussed more in another concept.
A mitochondria, is a membrane-enclosed organelle that is found in most eukaryotic cells.Mitochondria are where energy from organic compounds is used to make ATP.

ATP is the cell's energy source that is used for such things such as movement and cell division. Some ATP is made in the cytosol of the cell, but most of it is made inside mitochondria.

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In addition to the nucleus, eukaryotic cells have many other organelles, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, vacuoles, and centrioles.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is involved in the synthesis of lipids and synthesis and transport of proteins.

The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages different substances for secretion out of the cell, or for use within the cell.

Vesicles are also used as chemical reaction chambers. Transport vesicles, lysosomes, and peroxisomes are types of vesicles.

Vacuoles have secretory, excretory, and storage functions.

Centrioles are made of short microtubules and are very important in cell division.

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Most organelles are common to both cells,but plant cells have features that animal cells do not have: a cell wall, a large central vacuole, and plastids such as chloroplasts.

The cell wall is a rigid layer that is found outside the cell membrane and surrounds the cell, providing structural support and protection.

The central vacuole maintains turgor pressure against the cell wall.

Chloroplasts capture light energy from the sun and use it with water and carbon dioxide to produce sugars for food.

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The cell membrane forms a barrier between the cytoplasm and the environment outside the cell. The cell membrane has selective permeability.

permeability-ability to allow only certain molecules in or out of the cell.

The cell membrane is primarily composed of phospholipids arranged in a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails on the interior of the membrane, and the hydrophilic heads pointing outwards.

phospholipid bilayer -phospholipids in the cell membrane that are arranged in two layers.

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The cell membrane has many proteins that assist other substances in crossing the membrane.

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Passive transport-the movement of substances across a cell membrane down their concentration gradients, which does not require energy.
passive transport utilizes kinetic and natural energy to drive the movement.

Types Of Passive Transport:

Simple Diffusion.

Facilitated Diffusion.

Filtration.

Osmosis.

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Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration of the molecules to an area with a lower concentration.
The difference in the concentrations of the molecules in the two areas is called the concentration gradient.

Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of solutes through transport proteins in the cell membrane. Channel proteins, gated channel proteins, and carrier proteins are three types of transport proteins that are involved in facilitated diffusion.

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Osmosis is the diffusion of water.

In comparing two solutions of unequal solute concentration, the solution with the higher solute concentration is hypertonic, and the solution with the lower concentration is hypotonic. Solutions of equal solute concentration are isotonic.

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Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and with their environment.
The environment includes two types of factors:

Abiotic factors are the nonliving aspects of the environment. (sunlight, soil, temperature, and water)

Biotic factors are the living aspects of the environment. They consist of other organisms, including members of the same and different species.

An ecosystem is a unit of nature and the focus of study in ecology.
The habitat is the physical environment in which a species lives and to which it is adapted.

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Biome is a group of similar ecosystems with the same general abiotic factors and primary producers.
There are three types of biomes:

Terrestrial Biomes

(all land areas on Earth where organisms live)

Aquatic Biomes

(water-based biome; freshwater or marine biomes which is salt water)

Freshwater and Wetland Biomes

(aquatic biome such as a pond, lake, stream, or river in which the water contains little or no salt)

Climate is the average weather in an area over a long period of time.Climate is generally described in terms of temperature and moisture.It influences plant growth, biodiversity, and adaptations of land organisms.

Weather refers to the conditions of the atmosphere from day to day.

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Energy flow is the amount of energy that moves along the food chain.
Producers are organisms that produce food for themselves and other organisms.Producers are also called autotrophs. There are two basic types of autotrophs:

Photoautotrophs use energy from sunlight to make food by photosynthesis. (plants, algae, and certain bacteria)

Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemical compounds to make food by chemosynthesis.(some bacteria and archaea)

Consumers(heterotrophs) are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.

Herbivores producers such as plants or algae.(deer, rabbits, and mice)

Carnivores consume animals.(lions, polar bears, hawks, frogs, salmon, and spiders).Carnivores that are unable to digest plants and must eat only animals are called obligate carnivores. Other carnivores can digest plants but do not commonly eat them.

Omnivores consume both plants and animals.(humans, pigs, brown bears, gulls, crows, and some species of fish)

Also there are decomposers:

Decomposers break down dead organisms and other organic wastes and release inorganic molecules back to the environment.

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Food chain represents a single pathway by which energy and matter flow through an ecosystem.
Ex:grain-mouse-snake-eagle
Food web is a diagram that represents multiple intersecting food chains through which energy and matter flow through an ecosystem.
Trophic level is a different feeding position in a food chain or web.There are no more than four trophic levels because energy and biomass decrease from lower to higher levels.

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INDEPENDENCE OF LIVING THINGS:
interdependence-living things that interact with other organisms in their environment and need other organisms in order to survive.
Competition is a relationship between two species, or individuals of the same species, that strive for the same resources in the same place.
Niche-role that a particular species plays in its ecosystem, including all the ways that the species interacts with the biotic and abiotic factors in the ecosystem.
Character displacement-two species within the same area coexist and adapt by developing different specializations.

PREDATION:
Predation is a relationship in which members of one species (the predator) consume members of another species (the prey).
Keystone species-predator species that plays a special role in its community because changes in its population affect the populations of many other species in the community.
Adaptations-characteristic that an organism inherits that helps it survive and reproduce in a given environment.(camouflage)

SYMBIOSIS:
Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species in which at least one species benefits. For the other species, the relationship may be positive, negative, or neutral. There are three basic types of symbiosis:

Mutualism-both species benefit(flower-bee)

Commensalism-one species benefits while the other one is not affected(whale-barnacles)

Parasitism-one species benefits while the other one is harmed(dog-roundworm)

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The water cycle shows the continuous movement of water within the Earth and atmosphere.
Exchange pool-part of a biogeochemical cycle that holds an element or water for a short period of time.
Reservoir-part of a biogeochemical cycle that holds an element or water for a long period of time(atmosphere is a reservoir for carbon dioxide)
Water changes to a gas by three different processes:

1. Evaporation(випаровування)

2. Sublimation(лід-пара)

3. Transpiration(рослини випускають пару)

Condensation-the change of state from a gas to a liquid.
Precipitation-process in which water falls from the atmosphere as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.

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Carbon cycle-the process in which carbon atoms continually travel from the atmosphere to the Earth and then back into the atmosphere.

Living organisms release carbon dioxide as a byproduct of cellular respiration.

Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and uses it to make organic compounds.

Carbon dioxide is given off when dead organisms and other organic materials decompose.

Burning organic material, such as fossil fuels, releases carbon dioxide.

Carbon cycles far more slowly through geological processes such as sedimentation.

When volcanoes eruptions give off carbon dioxide that is stored in the mantle.

Carbon dioxide is released when limestone is heated during the production of cement.

Ocean water releases dissolved carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when water temperature rises.

Carbon dioxide is also removed when ocean water cools and dissolves more carbon dioxide from the air.

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Nitrogen cycle is a repeating cycle of processes during which nitrogen moves through both living and non-living things: the atmosphere, soil, water, plants, animals and bacteria.
Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of Earth’s atmosphere. It’s also an important part of living things.
Nitrogen is found in proteins, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll.

Ammonification-when decomposers breakdown the remains of organisms releasing nitrogen in the form of ammonium ions.

Nitrification-nitrifying bacteria change ammonium ions into nitrites and nitrates.

Denitrification-denitrifying bacteria convert some of the nitrates in soil back into nitrogen gas, returning it back into the atmosphere.

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Griffith's experiment(1920's):
Injected "R" strain and "S" strain into mice.
"S" killed the mice, "R"-didn't
His main conclusion was that something in the killed "S" strain was transfered to the previously harmless "R" strain deadly.He called it TRANSFORMATION

Avery's experiment(1940's):
They inactivated various substances in the S-strain bacteria
The main conclusion was that a DNA is the substance that controls the characteristics of organisms.DNA is the genetic material

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Chargaff’s rules:

observations by Erwin Chargaff that concentrations of the four nucleotide bases differ among species; and that, within a species, the concentrations of adenine and thymine are always about the same and the concentrations of cytosine and guanine are always about the same.
ALL ABOUT THE DNA
Nitrogen bases:Adenine,Guanine,Cytosine,Thymine
Double helix is the double spiral shape of the DNA molecule.
DNA replication is semi-conservative: half of the parent DNA molecule is conserved in each of the two daughter DNA molecules.
Helicase opens the DNA
Primase allows DNA polymerase to be bound and begin building
A team of enzymes proofreads for errors and corrects any mistakes
Ligase seals the final sugar phosphate backbone where needed.
The lagging strand is synthesized continuously, whereas the leading strand is synthesized in short fragments that are ultimately stitched together.

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RNA, like DNA, is a nucleic acid. In addition to being smaller than DNA, RNA also

consists of one nucleotide chain instead of two (i.e. RNA is single-stranded),

contains the nitrogen base uracil (U) instead of thymine,

contains the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose.

Types of RNA

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies the genetic instructions from DNA in the nucleus, and carries the instructions to the cytoplasm.

2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) helps form ribosomes, the organelle where proteins are assembled.

3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to ribosomes, where they are joined together to form proteins.

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Transcription is the DNA → RNA part of the central dogma of molecular biology.It reads the genetic code in mRNA and makes a protein.Transcription takes place in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
There are three steps of transcription:
1.Initiation
2.Elongation
3.Termination

Translation is the second part of the central dogma of molecular biology: RNA → Protein. It is the process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read, one codon at a time, to make a protein.

Translation occurs at a ribosome

During translation, a protein is synthesized using the codons in mRNA as a guide.

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Characteristics of the Genetic Code

The genetic code is universal. All known living organisms use the same genetic code. This shows that all organisms share a common evolutionary history.

The genetic code is unambiguous. Each codon codes for just one amino acid.

The genetic code is redundant. Most amino acids are encoded by more than one codon.

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Mutation is a change in the sequence of bases in DNA.
Types of Mutations

Germline mutations occur in gametes.

Somatic mutations occur in other cells of the body.

Possible types of mutations in chromosomes:

1. Deletion: When a segment of DNA is lost, there is a missing segment in the chromosome.

2. Duplication: When a segment of DNA is repeated, creating a longer chromosome.

3. Inversion: When a segment of DNA is flipped and then reattached to the same chromosome.

4. Insertion: When a segment of DNA from one chromosome is added to another, unrelated chromosome.

5. Translocation: When two segments from different chromosomes change positions.

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Reproduction is the process by which organisms give rise to offspring. It is one of the defining characteristics of living things. There are two basic types of reproduction:
Asexual reproduction (involves a single parent)
Sexual reproduction (involves two parents)

Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical to each other and to the parent.

Sexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically unique.

During sexual reproduction, two haploid gametes join in the process of fertilization to produce a diploid zygote.

Meiosis is the type of cell division that produces gametes.

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Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins.are the form of the genetic material of a cell during cell division.They are the form of the genetic material of a cell during cell division.Each chromosome actually consists of two identical copies. The two copies are called sister chromatids. They are attached to one another at a region called the centromere.
Centromere is a region of sister chromatids where they are joined together.
Human cells normally have 46 chromosomes, made up of two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent.

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Cell division is the process in which one cell, called the parent cell, divides to form two new cells, referred to as daughter cells. How this happens depends on whether the cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

Prokaryotic cells have a single circular chromosome, no nucleus, and few other cell structures.
Eukaryotic cells, in contrast, have multiple linear chromosomes contained within a nucleus, and many other organelles.

Most prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission(asexual fission)
Steps in binary fission:

Step 1: DNA Replication

Step 2: Chromosome Segregation

Step 3: Separation

Cell division in Eukaryotes
2 main steps:

Mitosis(process in which nucleus in the cell divides)

Cytokinesis(the division of the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells, resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells)

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Cell cycle is a repeating series of events that includes growth, DNA synthesis, and cell division. The eukaryotic cell spends most of its "life" in interphase of the cell cycle, which can be subdivided into the three phases, G1, S and G2.

The cell cycle in prokaryotes is quite simple: the cell grows, its DNA replicates, and the cell divides.

In eukaryotes, the cell cycle is more complicated.The mitotic phase (M) actually includes both mitosis and cytokinesis. This is when the nucleus and then the cytoplasm divide. The other three phases (G1, S, and G2) - interphase in which cell grows and prepares for dividing

The G1 checkpoint makes the key decision of whether the cell should divide.

The S checkpoint determines if the DNA has been replicated properly.

The mitotic spindle checkpoint occurs at the point in metaphase where all the chromosomes should have aligned at the mitotic plate.

If something goes wrong cancer cells might be created in the humans body.Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated. Cancer cells grow rapidly and may form a mass of abnormal cells called a tumor.

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Mitosis=cell division
During mitosis, the division of the nucleus in a eukaryotic cell, occurs in four phases:

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Prophase-chromosomes are visible,nuclear membrane breaks down,spindle fibers become to form
Metaphase-Sister chromatids line up at the center of the cell
Anaphase-sister chromatids are pulled apart and move to opposite poles of the cell
Telophase-Spindle fibers break down,nuclear membrane forms,and chromosomes begin to uncoil and form chromatin
Cytokinesis-cytoplasm splits in two and the cell divides

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Carcinogen is anything that can cause cancer.
Cancer is a disease in which cells divide out of control. Most carcinogens cause cancer by producing mutations in DNA.

Types of carcinogens:

Viruses cause about 15 percent of all human cancers.

UV radiation is the leading cause of skin cancer. The radioactive gas known as radon causes lung cancer.

Tobacco smoke contains dozens of carcinogens, including nicotine and formaldehyde. Exposure to tobacco smoke is the leading cause of lung cancer.

Mutations that lead to cancer usually occur in genes that control the cell cycle. These include tumor-suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes.

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Gregor Mendel is a scientist who experimented with pea plants to learn how characteristics are passed from parents to offspring.

Single trait crosses - refers to inheritance of a single contrasting trait by two parents at a time. Example- T- dominant and t-recessive. Every parent can have different traits, but you can compare the through punnet square and predict what traits their child will have.

2-trait crosses - A dihybrid cross describes a mating experiment between two organisms that are identically hybrid for two traits. A hybrid organism is one that is heterozygous, which means that it carries two different alleles at a particular genetic position, or locus.

Complete dominance - a form of dominance wherein the dominant allele completely masks the effect of the recessive allele in heterozygous conditions.

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Charles Darwin - 19th century scientist who is best known for his theory of evolution by natural selection.

Darwin's theory has two main ideas:
1.Organisms change over time
2.Evolution occurs by natural selection

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A Punnett square is a chart that allows to easily determine the expected percentage of different genotypes in the offspring of two parents.

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Codominance- relationship between two alleles for the same gene in which both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote.

Incomplete dominance- relationship between the alleles for a gene in which one allele is only partly dominant to the other allele so an intermediate phenotype results.

Polygenic traits- traits, controlled by more than one gene, each of which may have two or more alleles.

Multiple allele- the alternative forms of the same gene so they influence the same trait.

X-linked trait- a way genetic trait or condition can be passed down from parent to child through mutations in a gene on the X chromosome.

Blood typing- a method to tell what type of blood you have

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Darwin proposed a mechanism for evolution: natural selection.
Darwin's concept of natural selection was based on several key observations:

Traits are often inheritable

More offspring are produced than can survive

Offspring vary in their heritable traits

Gene flow - the transfer of genetic material from one population to another.
Mutations - changes in the structure of the molecules that make up genes, called DNA.
Mating - the pairing of either opposite-sex or hermaphroditic organisms for the purposes of sexual reproduction.
Genetic Drift - the change in frequency of an existing gene variant in the population due to random chance.

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Speciation is this process of multiplication, occurring when one population splits into two reproductively isolated populations.

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External anatomy - the outer or exterior structure of the body.What you see on the outside.

Internal anatomy - inside or closer to the center of an organ or cavity.What is inside.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN AMPHIBIANS AND HUMANS:
Research and scientists say there are a lot more similarities between us and amphibians that we could ever think about. The digestive system is the most comparable to humans. Also we both use 2 lungs for breathing. Our heart is similar too, but humans have 4 chambers and amphibians only 3. If we talk about other organs we all have: mouth, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, gall bladder, small intestine, and large intestine.
So humans and amphibians have really similar anatomy to each other even if we look so much different outside.

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Vomerine Teeth: holding prey, located at the roof of the mouth.

Maxillary Teeth: holding prey, located around the edge of the mouth.

Glottis: Tube leading to the lungs.

Tongue: Front attached on lower jaw, aids in grabbing prey.

Tympanic Membrane: eardrum, located behind eyes- for hearing.

Nictitating Membrane: clear eyelid, protects the eye.

Eustachian tube: Tube that connects the middle ear to the mouth.

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External Fertilization - process where the female releases her eggs from her body into water. Then, the man releases his sperm to fertilize them.

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Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Amphibia
Subclass: Lissamphibia
Order: Anura
Suborder: Neobatrachia
Family: Ranidae
Genus: Rana

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I learned over 10 units this year.
My favorite ones are Genetics, Evolution, and Ecology. It is really interesting to learn about how species change over time and where they live, what they eat, etc..
I didn't really like the Biochemistry unit though. It was a little tough for me as I don't like chemistry. But I still learned a lot.

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Organize and Study - studyrelief_  17th april 2016 _ [57_100 days of_

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There were a lot of labs, I worked with alive and dead animals, researching how they react to different conditions or what they have inside, for example, mealworms and frogs.
Also Pasta Predator Lab was one of my favorites activities this year. I enjoyed going outside and experiencing this.
I reminded myself how to work with a microscope because I used to do it in Ukraine before.

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1. Predator Pasta Lab
2. Frog Dissection
3. Zonk Games
4. Biome Big Adventure
5. Lactase enzyme lab

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I actually liked the final exam, because it was pretty easy, with open notes and all about body systems. How they relate to each other and what they do to keep our body working as it's supposed to.

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I just wanted to say that I like the way we were learning things. Amoeba sisters videos are the best! Also little games such as edpuzzle or bioman are really helpful. I would also like more quizizz that we used to do at the beginning of the class. Those helped me to study at home really well.

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We did a Genetic Disorder Elevator Pitch where everyone told something about the disorder that he researched.
I had a Patau Syndrome. It is a disease of trisomy 13, when it is copied or half copied. the symptoms are big head,small eyes,losing a scalp mostly over lips. Newborns usually do not survive with this syndrome for more than a couple months. This disease is not inherited and doesn't have current treatment yet.
Also there are a lot of disorders such as Down Syndrome, Cystic Fibrosis, Huntington's Disease, etc. They are all mostly caused by a mutation of some trisomys.