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1. What are the outcomes of institutionally racist policy choices that exclude the needs of low-income minorities in the health care system?

The outcomes are poor health for the African American community which can then lead to an early death. If we are not able to afford proper health care, it is difficult to stay healthy and live a long life.

2. How does the intersectionality of the unconscious bias, distrust in the healthcare system, lack of health insurance and lack of health education affect the African American community?

All of these issues that the African American community face affect their overall well-being contributing to the reason we have a shorter life expectancy. If we are not aware of these issues, we are not able to advocate for ourselves. It is vital to your health that you make sure you have a heath care provider that meets your needs and take your concerns seriously.

3. State THREE strategies that you feel can address the issues raised in questions one and two.

1. Education.

Knowledge is power. Educating ourselves on these health issues, making conscious efforts to improve this system by advocating for yourself, and educating others in the community so that as a whole we can be better.

2. Unity.

There is power in numbers. Uniting all of the African American community will offer support to those who may need resources and guidance through life and these health issues.

3. Voting.

Your voice matters. Once an individual becomes knowledgeable about these issues, they will then be more open to helping the community because they will understand the magnitude and the necessity of unity. Lastly as we unite, we can put our best foot forward to making much needed policy changes on health care, law improvements, and creating bills that protect or rights which can then lead to a longer life expectancy for generations after us.

4. Search online for a resource that helps you understand this topic more and post it to your Padlet. State why the resource shines some light on a perspective of this issue.

This resource helps me understand this topic more because it explains the experience that a great deal of African Americans has. This particular line that Tupac says, "We ain't meant to survive cause' it's a set up, and even though your fed up, you gotta keep your head up" speaks to the systemic oppression of the Black community and how it ultimately causes us to have an untimely death one way or another. Whether it is illness, disabilities, or health, these are all major factors that are contributing to these issues.

https://youtu.be/8V0cfqqRYSs?si=dfhyN8bjGoclKETV

5. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

The thing that stood out to me the most this unit is the systematic oppression of the African American community. The heath care system, education system, the incarceration system, the financial institution system, and the government as a whole has failed the African American community severely and the higher ups are doing little to nothing to improve this. I think to myself, if I am able to realize this before I obtain a college degree, the politicians government officials do as well and do not want to make any changes at the cost of taking away their advantage. I know that people may feel as if this is obvious however my point it that these topics each week offer an in depth incite to the way the world works and offers me a broader world view and perspective.

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Padlet Prompt: Option 1 Choose Your Own Theme; "The Loss of Life Expectancy for African Americans"

1. From this unit's material, choose one major theme that stood out the most to you. State the theme and why it stood out to you on your Padlet.

The theme that stood out the most to me was the loss of life expectancy for African Americans. This stood out to me the most because there are a number of factors that contribute to the statistics that African Americans have a shorter life span.

2. How does the theme that you chose affect the African American community? Give an example.

The loss of life expectancy affects the African American community in many ways due to factors we they cannot control. From birth there is already a disadvantage due to health factors and the lack of proper medical care. Obesity is another issue that contribute to the loss of life expectancy due to the foods we consume. Heart problems are the leading cause of death in the African American community and are related to anxiety and stress.

3. State one strategy that could be used to improve upon the theme that you have selected.

A strategy that could be useful to improve the loss of life expectancy in the African American community is gaining financial freedom. A great deal of the issues we face are related to a systemically racist society that we live in. A system that has set us up to lose our life in one way or another. Educating ourselves on these factors and gaining the finical ability to afford to eat better and healthier foods, have better medical care, and going to therapy to work out some of our anxieties and stress may be helpful in improving out life expectancy.

4. Find one resource that helps you understand this theme and post it to your Padlet. State the resources' significance to this unit's material.

Per the article, "Life Expectancy Proves How Far Black Americans Have Come," it is said that " Black Americans’ life expectancy declined to about 71 years old, six years lower than their white counterparts. National disparities in life expectancy can represent the permanency of racism..." the resource helped me understand the theme I choose because it explains racisms contribution to this issue. This article is significant to this unit's material because it highlights the causes of why the life expectancy of African Americans are so low.

Life Expectancy Proves How Far Black Americans Have Come | TIME

5. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

The thing that stood out to me the most is the loss of life expectancy for the African American community. I have always known that our life span is said to be shorter however seeing the statistics helped gain me a broader perspective.

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Life Expectancy Proves How Far Black Americans Have Come

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Brookings scholar Andre M. Perry explores how life expectancy and progress for Black Americans are directly linked.

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Theme two: The Yoruba Faith

1. What is the significance of the Yoruba Orisha faith also known as Santeria?

Per the reading, "Power of the Orishas: Santeria, an Ancient Religion from Nigeria, Is Making Its Presence Felt in Los Angeles" the text states, "The religion of the Yoruba recognizes one supreme being who created the universe, but it holds that God entrusted the orishas with watching over the world. Orishas are similar to the ancient Greek gods in that each represents both a force of nature and a set of human behavioral characteristics, or archetypes."

2. How does this faith provide a connection back to Africa for those African Americans choosing to join the faith?

The Yoruba faith provides a connection back to Africa for African Americans in the way of worship with music and black physicality. Per the audio clip, a lady stated, "They had the drums going, and the ladies were up dancing, and after a while, I was, hey, cause I was feeling it. I was feeling everything." Drums and dancing are some traditions that are rooted in Africa. Also, the faith can provide an African American person a sense of self by affirming their black physicality. Per the audio, " And it also allows them to affirm their black physicality in a place that has said that you represent anti-beauty in this culture. You know, it is this religion that comes and says, no, you look like the gods of Africa."

3. How does the Yoruba faith treat health and healing in their religion?

To treat health and healing in the Yoruba faith, advice is given from a Santero to make regular offerings like foods, fruits, and at times live animals to the orishas. They are told to continue to receive orthodox medical treatments, and they begin to heal.

4. Please locate a resource that helps you understand this theme. Analyze the resource and state the most important thing you learned from it about this topic.

I found this source while researching more information on Yoruba. This Article was interesting to me because it focuses on the how important healing and health is to the Yoruba faith. This faith is one of the most studied theories of faith because of this.

The Survival of the Yorùbá Healing Systems in the Modern Age - News (ufl.edu)

5. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

One thing that stood out to me the most this unit was the similarities between the Yoruba Orisha faith and Christianity. It is said in the Yoruba faith that a person is in control of themselves while the spirit and soul is not under their control. This is similar to Christianity because it is said that people can make decision because of their flesh(body) or their spirit which is connected to the Lord and savior Jesus Christ. Per the article I found, "While the body is under the control and influence of man, the soul and the spirit are metaphysically controlled and are not within the realm of the mortal."

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Ilesanmi Akanmidu Paul
Department of History and International Studies
Adekunle Ajasin University
Akiungba-Akoko, Nigeria
paul.akanmidu@gmail.com

Abstract

This study investigates the philosophy and tradition of the Yorùbá healing system and the reasons for its survival into the modern age. The introduction of western-style healthcare by missionaries-which became consolidated under colonial rule, from any point of view was attempted to stiffen the survival of the former. Intentionally or inadvertently, the Yorùbá healing system was derogatorily deemed primitive and unscientific because of its ritualistic aspects, which were severely condemned. The activities of missionaries in the context of proselytism and colonial governmental policies entailed copious attempts to stifle and do away with the Yorùbá healing system. This study uses historical analysis to synchronize the factors that helped the Yorùbá healing system to survive in a threatening milieu, namely the pressures of western ideology. The study concludes that despite efforts by the propagators of western ideology, the Yorùbá healing system is still a highly favored form of healthcare in Yorùbáland.

Introduction

The concept of healing systems in Yorùbáland has attracted the attention of several scholars. While this effort is highly commendable, it is also important to note that despite the large body of literature on the subject matter, there are still some contradictions in the postulations and arguments of several scholars on this aspect of Yorùbá history. There are aspects of Yorùbá healing system that have been veiled or obscured to many people up to the present that need to be unlocked intellectually. This study, therefore, clarifies some of the convoluted observations of some scholars who-per sheer lack of adequate information on this subject matter-have transmitted misconceptions, which were then passed from one generation to the next. While this may be considered a forgivable error for some extant scholars, who have arguably also committed such monumental errors because of their misguided informants, who themselves were unwilling to divulge the truth about their cultural heritage to those they perceived as alien to their historical heritage, this cannot be accepted in the case of local researchers who were not diligent enough to cross-check their findings before transmitting erroneous information. Thus, it is from this mindset that this study sheds light on Yorùbá healing systems, which several scholars have misconstrued. Effectively, this study portrays Yorùbá healing systems as an aspect of history that takes time and effort to grasp. Reasons for this are clear: first, most of the traditional information about the healing systems of Yorùbá is not readily available to the public, so as to preserve its sacredness. Secondly, the custodians of this information and their trainees are bound by an oath to keep certain tenets that are fundamental to observe in secrecy. Such information becomes inaccessible to those who are not directly connected to the vocation. Thirdly, most researchers are not patient enough when they conduct research on the fundamental aspects of Yorùbá healing systems. Partial information that is divulged to them by appendages of the main actors of this tradition is often not carefully examined, questioned, or explained.

The Philosophy and Theories of Yorùbá People on Health and
Healing

The Yorùbá people are one of the most researched ethno-linguistic groups in Africa. Their historical origin, sociology, religious, and economic lives have been extensively examined by varying scholars such as, Johnson (1921), Abimbola (1965), Fadipe (1970), Falola (1991), Asiwaju (1976), Akinjogbin (1967), and Akintoye (2010). The Yorùbá inhabit the southwestern part of Nigeria, as well as part of eastern Benin. Boundaries imposed by different colonial powers account for the division of Yorùbáland into what is presently two different countries, which themselves have endured distinct colonial experiences. They have been in existence long before colonialism. The philosophy of the Yorùbá on health and healing cannot be divorced from Yorùbá tradition and belief, in this case the philosophy of natural epistemology and the spiritual ontology of man. The former maintains that the man's life is influenced by his environment. In other words, the environment where man lives has a way of influencing his health. In this case, the Yorùbá believe that people who live in dirty environments will have poor health. In this respect, the Yorùbá believe that consuming contaminated food and drinking bad water, to a large extent, affect man's health. Other things that are also encompassed in this philosophy are that man is prone to accidents in his environment, which also have the ability to affect his health. For instance, a man could fall down in the farm during the rainy season and break his leg; likewise he could be bitten by a snake in the forest. The philosophy of the Yorùbá on these issues centers on the fact that all these affect man's physical body. They also believe that physical ailments can be remedied through the application of physical elements found in his environment. They apply herbs, leaves, bird feathers, and other aquatic elements to bring about solutions to physical health challenges. With regards to spiritual ontology, the belief of the Yorùbá is complex. The cornerstone of this belief is that man exists in both the physical and spiritual worlds. The physical world entails all the physical things that are visible to the eyes. It includes his height, stature, outlook, and the ways in which he relates to his environment. On the other hand, they believe in the spiritual existence of man, which entails ontological dimensions of man. In this ontology, it is believed that man's life consists of three elements: the spirit (èṃ í), the soul (ọkàn), and the body (ara). These three elements are necessary for a man to be whole. While the body is under the control and influence of man, the soul and the spirit are metaphysically controlled and are not within the realm of the mortal. This largely explains why the Yorùbá people believe that destinies are pre-determined in the realms of the spirit before transformation into life. Also, according to their belief, whatever a man becomes in life is a function of what he has chosen in the spiritual realm. An Ìjálá chant goes as follows:

Bí orí bá ń da rokoroko láà mú
Yóò dà bíi pé kò lè rook tég̣ bé ̣ rè ̣
Ìkà kì í fé ̣ ká rẹrù ká sò ̣
Bí orí bá ń da sọ̣ dẹsọ̣ dẹ láà mú
Yòó dà bíi pé kò leè pẹran tég̣ bé ̣ rè ̣
Àtàrí laláyànmó,̣ orí lẹléj̣ ó ̣
Kò sóò sạ̀ tí ń bánií jà léḥ ìn orí ẹni
Orí ẹni ní wí pé kó yẹ ni
Àkàndéọ mọ o sẹ é fìjàgbà1

If a farmer's head is against him
It will appear as if he cannot work like his colleagues
The wicked don't want one unburden his burden
If a hunter's head is against him, it will appear as if he cannot hunt like his colleagues

A man' head is his most intimate deity
There is no Òrìs̩à working against one except one's head
It is a man's head that decrees success for him
Àkàndé is a difficult child to earn by quarrel.

The Yorùbá worldview, each human being acquires a destiny prior to his birth, which entails crossing the threshold that divides existence in the "other world (òṛ un) and existence in this world (ayé). However, after acquiring this destiny in òṛ un, the individual is induced to forget the content of that destiny before crossing the threshold that transforms the individual into a corporeal being. Once in this world, the only way for an individual-ignorant of his or her fate-to gain knowledge of that destiny is through divination, in which it is believed that the witness of destiny (ẹléṛ ìi-ìpín) reveals aspects of the divine plan to the inquirer through a highly trained diviner (Payne 1992). This is captured in this epigram:

Àkúnlèỵ ànè ̣ dá
Òun làdáyébá
A dáyétán ojú ń kán gbogbo wa
Sụ̀ gbóṇ èḍ á náà kò leè padà lọ yan òmíràn
Àfi ètùtù ló kù2

What was chosen kneeling down
Is what we find on arrival in this world
On arrival in this world, we became too impatient
(too much in a hurry to achieve our potentials)
But it is impossible to go back and choose another,
To prevent the deterioration of things is the
only course of action left.

Yorùbá Perception of the Causes of Illnesses

Contrary to the European postulations of germ theory-that physiological and anatomical disorders are a result of the activities of germs and viruses in the body system, the Yorùbá people believe that illness can be caused by enemies (òṭá), which include witchcraft (àje̩), sorcery (osó̩ ), a god (òrìs̩à), or ancestors (ẹbo̩ra). There are also natural illnesses (àáre̩) and hereditary diseases (àìsàn ìdílé). There seems to be some overlapping content in the two philosophies, such as the belief in heredity. Both philosophies believe that illness could be hereditary. This forms a focal point in the classic studies by Erinoso (1978), and Oke (1982), who classified the causes of illness in the Yorùbá perspective into three categories, namely: supernatural, preternatural, or mystical and natural causes. It is also believed that when gods inflict a person with a disease, such disease can only be treated by traditional healers, who will consult an oracle (ifá) to know the cause and appropriate cure. Curing such an illness requires the appeasing of the gods, usually by a diviner (babaláwo). In some cases, certain diseases were attributed to the anger of the gods, especially when taboos had been broken.3 Some people also linked this with the high incidence of infant mortality (àbíkú). Some diseases were attributed to the evil machinations of certain people who seemed to bear certain grudges against some individuals.

Yorùbá people see the Universe as a single unit, which contains the unborn, the living, dead, ancestors and other deities (Erinoso and Oke 1994). Beings in the spiritual realms protect those who live according to the norms and values that regulate the society. They believe that transgression against the deities or gods result in illness sent directly by the spirit or through sorcerers and witches. This type of belief does not only exist among the Yorùbá people but other groups in Africa-for instance, the Luo in Kenya, the Amhara in Ethiopia, and the Zulu in South Africa-also share the same philosophy.45

Beside the above beliefs of the Yorùbá on the causes of illness, Odebiyi and Togonu-Bickersteth (1987) have discovered that diseases and misfortunes are sometimes associated with the actions of the parents, particularly illnesses that are congenital in nature. In this case, the infant suffers an illness that is not of his or her "doing." Morakinyo (1988) asserts that the various beliefs of the Yorùbá people on causes of illness are complex. Their beliefs are encapsulated in sentiments, which vary considerably from one group to another within the Yorùbá ethnic group. Zewi (1989) also notes the activities of witchcraft, sorcery, spirit and poison were noted as part of the causes of illness among the people. Ebigbo (1989) has also found that Yorùbá people believe that breaking the rules of the deity can sometimes lead to illness. Prince (1975) explains that the Yorùbá believe that lives exist in two worlds: material, and immaterial spirit worlds. The latter, he argued, reflects the real world. Whatever the nature of the cause of illness or disease, there are those that specialize in healing and curing in Yorùbá land. These people are called different names, such as diviner (babaláwo), medicine man (onísẹ̀ gùn), and herbalist (elégbogi).

Babaláwo is a diviner who is knowledgeable in esoteric knowledge and secrets. 6 He pries into human problems, events, the future, and causes of sicknesses etc. through divination. He makes use of an oracle (ifá) to find out the cause of ailments and how it could be cured especially when it appears to be spiritual problems. He often relies on sacrifices as remedy to ailments. On the other hand, the olóò gùn or elégbogi an expert in herbal formulae.7 He is wellversed and knowledgeable in herbal combinations that have the properties to cure ailments. There are two categories of olòò gùn or elégbogi in Yorùbáland. The first group specializes in medicine for adults, while the other group (eléwé ọmọ) cares for children. However, there are some who combine the two functions, even though both are not often interested in ritual or incantations.8This is a major point that differentiates between babaláwo and olóò gùn or elégbogi. Commenting on this, Maclean wrote inter alia:
Although the latter are primarily concerned with treating bodily symptoms through the use of herbal remedies, while the former specialized in a form of psychotherapy for mental troubles and in disease due to supernatural influence or malevolence, in fact, they have much in common. Thus, a herbalist whose management of a case after prescribing several medicine has been unsuccessful, may resort to some simple divination procedures to clarify his diagnosis. On the other hand, a diviner is generally familiar with a large number of medicines of his own specialty.9

Another misconception that can be observed in the accounts of several scholars deals with the properties that are used in curing ailments and other diseases in the Yorùbá healing system. Many Eurocentric and some Afro-centric scholars have continued to use magic inclusively interchangeably with medicine. Field (1937) describes witchcraft as bad medicine directed destructively against other people, with no rites, ceremonies, incantation, or invocation that the witch has to perform connected to it. He defines a witch as a person who is the abode of an evil entity. At this juncture, we must distinguish between witchcraft and sorcery as duly applicable to the Yorùbá people. A sorcerer uses charms, incantation or invocations, spells and magic knowingly, and with premeditation. A witch performs no rite, utters no spell, and possesses no medicine.10 An act of witchcraft is a psychic act. In their own contribution to our understanding of the distinction between sorcery and witchcraft, Middleton and Winter inform:

Witchcraft is part of an individual's being, a part of his innermost self, while sorcery is merely a technique which a person utilizes. Thus, in some societies, a person's witchcraft can operate at times without his being consciously aware of the fact that it is doing so. This can never be the case with sorcery; recourse to it must always be on a deliberate, consensus and voluntary basis.11

The above suggests that the sorcerer makes magic to kill, but a witch has an inherent and intangible power to harming others. While a witch projects her evil imagination directly from the mind, invisibly, without cursing or invoking, a sorcerer manipulates some tangible materials to carry out his illicit deeds. In the mental and social attitude of the Yorùbá (and of Africans in general), there is no belief more profoundly ingrained than that of the existence of witches (àjé)̣ . All strange diseases, accidents, untimely death, inability to gain promotion in office, failure in examinations and business enterprise, disappointment in love, barrenness in women, impotency in men, failure of crops-along with many other misfortunes-can be attributed to witchcraft (Awolalu 1979).

It is true and we cannot deny the fact that magic and medicine are closely related but their goals are always different. However, Awolalu suggests that it is only in theory and in consequence of their being related to nature and the supernatural that magic and medicine are related.12Magic according to Yorùbá dictionary is a ritual performance or activity believed to influence human or natural events through accents to an external mystical force beyond the ordinary human sphere. The above definition suggests that magic is a practical affair. It is a human art which involves the manipulation of certain objects which are believed to have power to cause a supernatural being to produce or prevent a particular result considered not obtainable by natural means. It is regarded as a means of handling the forces of nature (subjecting them to man's will), safeguarding his welfare, and shaping his destiny. It must be understood that magic in Yorùbáland is non-therapeutic in nature. It caters to concerns that are not associated with disease or illnesses.13 By nature, the Yorùbá people (and human beings in general), want victory, success, good luck, protection from dangers, good harvest, successful business, rain for better crop yields, protection against accidents, and protection against forces of evil, among others. These concerns are quite distinct from pathological or therapeutic conditions of human beings, and they are mainly dealt with by the use of magic. One can fully observe that the babaláwo knows that man as a creature knows he is limited in wisdom, understanding, and ability. He knows that he needs things that he cannot procure on his own. He is confronted with many problems in the world and he seeks aid to be able to cope with them. Man is thus convinced that there are supernatural resources in the universe for his benefit and that these resources can be obtained by two different means:

By appealing to the transcendental being to satisfy his needs and by devising a means of tapping the elemental forces which are already created in the universe by the Supreme Being, and which can be procured by those who have "know how." Based on the above, we can suggest that magic-in nature, and in practice-involves the use of coercion on the transcendental Being to accomplish things. No one can exert force on the Supreme Being. What magic does is to tap the resources that are already provided by the transcendental being for the use of mankind, which resources are known only to those who have the esoteric knowledge.

Medicine, on the other hand, is both therapeutic (for the treatment or curing of diseases) and prophylactic (intended to prevent disease). It is rather a substance used for treating diseases. We can say, it is a science of treating and understanding diseases. This probably justifies the reason an olóò gùn-a practitioner of oògùn-in Yorùbáland does not concern himself only with the treatment of disease, but he also understands the nature and etiology of disease or illness before embarking on treatments. It is in view of this that Awolalu (1979) defines medicine as, "the traditional art and science of the prevention and cure of diseases. It is the use of natural substance to prevent, treat or cure diseases. It can also mean medicament used internally or externally.

Among the Yorùbá people, "magic" (idán) is used interchangeably among many people with "medicine" (oògùn, egbogi, or ìsẹ̀ gùn). But this is only in theory and a consequence of their being related to nature and the supernatural. There are recognizable similarities between magic and medicine, which must have informed this common misconception. For both magic and medicine, people use herbs, leaves, roots, bark, stems, seeds, flowers, fruits, binds, sap (or juices of trees and plants), as well as various birds and their feathers, beaks, lizards, heads, feet, toes, bones, and additionally, various animals and their skins, bones, skulls, heads, quills, excretions, various reptiles such as lizards, snakes, iguanas, monitors, geckos, and chameleon, various insects such as butterflies, flies, wasps, beetles, crickets, ants, and bees, as well as other inanimate objects like sand, water, stone, sulphur, iron, steel, gunpowder, and honey. One can also employ salt, whisky, palm oil, palm wine, and other types of liquid (Dopamu 1992).

Also, the practices of magic and medicine have similar methods of preparation. This may be by grinding or pounding materials, by burning into ash, by boiling or squeezing into a concoction, and by cooking the ingredients as a soup, all of which are done in specific places and at particular times (Dopamu 2000). In some preparations, it might be necessary to perform certain rituals, observe certain taboos, or sacrifice certain animals, including birds. At times-during the process of preparation-an herbalist may be required to refrain from eating certain foods, and abstain from having sexual intercourse. At times, it may be required that the process of preparation takes place at a particular time and the herbalist be naked. Another similarity is that magic and medicines are used almost in the same way. This could be by drinking, eating, wearing, burying, hanging, rubbing or exposing, by washing the body with infusion or by putting an object under one's pillow or carrying in a pocket; by throwing it away after use; or by reciting incantations either after the preparation of the recipe or before using it.

More importantly, both magic and medicine are invariably related to religion in terms of rituals, taboos, divination, and the supernatural (Dopamu 2000). Divination, gods, and spiritual beings are connected with religion- as well as magic and medicine-in Yorùbá medicine. Names of divination feature prominently in traditional Yorùbá religion. Indeed, magic and medicine are similar to religion in practice, to such an extent that certain magical and medical preparations are not efficacious without religion. Some even depend on divine intervention for the achievement of their goals. This informed why Buckley noted that Yorùbá medicine is inextricably intertwined with religion.14
Besides, once magic or medicine has been prepared into powder, soup, liquid or any other form, it is difficult for an observer to tell which is which. The inability to distinguish between magic and medicine once they have been prepared lends credence to the assumption that both are the same. But all the similarities above do not obscure the fact that they are distinguishable in many respects.

Witchcraft, on the other hand, is derived from the word "witch," which identifies a person who possesses supernatural powers in consequence of having formed a league with the devil or with evil spirits, and through this evil alliance and co-operation possess a craft which enables her to perform supernatural acts that, in most cases, are destructive in nature.15 Thus, in Yorùbáland, witches are seen as the personification of evil: innately wicked people who work to do harm against others. They are capable of their nefarious deeds through their possession of mysterious powers unknown and unavailable to ordinary people. Idowu describes it as, "human beings of very strong determined wills with diabolical bent; [they] are the veritably wicked ones who derive sadistic satisfaction from bringing misfortunes upon other people16

On the subject of incantation and its uses among the Yorùbá people, various scholars have done extensive studies. For instance, Dopamu (1977), Olabimtan (1971), Awolalu (1979), Ajayi (1997) agreed that incantations involve the chanting or uttering of words purported to have magical powers. Sometimes, the incantations accompany medicinal preparations that are carried in the form of a ring (òrùka), amulet (ìfúnpá), girdle (ìgbàdí), small gourd (àdó), or needle (abéṛ é)̣ . The chanting of these words, often esoteric, entails commands to the gods or transcendent forces to help solve problems that are beyond the imagination of mortals. Charms have mysterious powers that are not frequently used, but once they are uttered, could make one escape death, vanish in the face of an imminent danger, destroy enemies (or wild animals), stupefy thieves, or shorten a distance, etc. Men who know these incantations claim to be capable of escaping imminent danger and being transported to wherever they command the charm to take them.17

In the analyses above, effort has been made to explore the concepts of magic, medicine, witchcraft, sorcery, and incantation as applicable to the Yorùbá people. Western science has, however, scorned the ideas behind these phenomena as a means of bringing about good fortune, prosperity, or misfortune. Ordinarily, in the everyday experience of the Yorùbá people, there is nothing to suggest that these elements have the power to bring a person's wealth or misfortune. But, the incantation that accompanies a prescription sets it out clearly as a theory and shows that the items are a medium for the transmission of other information.18 The incantation contains the knowledge that the items have specific powers when used in magic. Buckley seems to express this idea better in writing, "by exploring the etiology of the names of the ingredients, the incantations are able to bring to light knowledge about the power of ingredients which would otherwise remain hidden. The incantation shows the names of the ingredients as embodying facts about the properties of natural phenomena."19

In the traditional Yorùbá healing system, no one individual possesses a monopoly on the knowledge of healing diseases. This explains why Paul argued that there are specialties in Yorùbá healing systems.20 There are those who specialize in handling diseases that are largely associated with children (eléwé-ọmọ). One could deem the eléwé-ọmọ, in modern terms, as "indigenous pediatricians." They are versed in the application of therapeutics for diverse sicknesses that usually pose challenges to the health balance of children. Sicknesses such as measles, small pox, and chicken pox are cured through the use of therapeutics and concoctions prepared by the eléwé-ọmọ. Other medicine men, and medicine women, also specialize in female-specific diseases and childbirth. These individuals could be referred to as "indigenous gynecologists," and midwives, respectively, as they manage female-specific sicknesses, issues related to pregnancy, and deliver babies. In addition, they also see to women's healthcare before, during, and after the delivery of babies. They work in conjunction with herbalists who prescribe the herbs, leaves, and roots that are medicinally valuable to pregnant women. They give inoculation to pregnant mothers in the form of tattoos on their bodies, in order to prevent certain danger before, during, and after birth.21Other people specialize in setting broken bones. Those who are involved in any form of accident-either in the farm or at home-which results in the breaking of any part of the body, such as legs and hands, are handled by bonesetters, who employ a method commonly referred to as telepathy. In this case, an object is used to represent an injured person. For instance, the leg of a hen can be broken and treated instead of the leg of the injured person. As the leg of the hen heals, so too does the leg of the injured person.

Interaction of the Yorùbá Healing System with Western
Medicine

The interaction of the Yorùbá healing with orthodox or biomedicine began in the middle of the nineteen century when missionaries first made contact with the Yorùbá people. Ajayi (1965) and Ayandele (1966) have given elaborate accounts of how the missionaries penetrated into Yorùbáland.

Attacks on the Yorùbá healing system began when the missionaries penetrated western Nigeria for missionary enterprises. As part of the efforts to consolidate their influence, schools were established, initially as an agent of evangelization. Schram corroborates the work of Ajayi and Ayandele in submitting that the missionaries laid the foundation for western healthcare services in Nigeria22 As part of the "proof" of genuine conversion and proselytism, converts were mandated to make an open declaration of their new faith. Missionaries condemned the use of traditional medicine in its entirety, due to its therapeutic processes. They also warned their converts against the use of divinations, which were a common means for the Yorùbá people of diagnosing diseases believed to have been caused by metaphysical forces. Similarly, missionaries frowned at sacrifices to the gods. They condemned traditional immunization against poison and evil forces, as well as any kind of magical invocation or incantation.23The wearing of traditional charms and amulets was also condemned. Pregnant women were discouraged from consulting traditional herbalists for care. Paul (2015) argues that part of the reason some missions originally established maternity hospitals and clinics was to reduce the use of traditional healers. Furthermore, missionary schools did not incorporate anything on the traditional healing system in their curricula. The implication of this development was that children were dislocated from their traditional heritage. Although western ideologies against certain inhumane practices in the Yorùbá healing system were commendable (such as the killing of twin babies, human rituals, etc.), the condemnation of the entire system was undoubtedly excessive.

In the same vein, the colonial administration that was eventually established disrupted the activities of the Yorùbá traditional healing system. Colonial policies were by no means favorable to the Yorùbá healing system. In the first instance, the government did not include the teaching of Yorùbá traditional healing system in the curricula of its schools. Washington-Weik (2009) reiterates that traditional healers who sought to practice were mandated to register with the colonial government. The requirements for registration were so stringent that only a few healers could fulfill them. The survival of traditional healing during this period was a result of the resiliency of healers to keep their profession alive. Oyebola affirms that traditional healers in Yorùbáland demonstrated unity of purpose by organizing themselves into various associations, which enabled them to resist the pressures against them from the colonial government.24 However, Olu (2016) demonstrates that the colonial government opposed the activities of the traditional healers to create a monopoly for itself. Because most of the drugs used in Nigeria were imported from the countries of colonial powers, it became obvious that the policy of discrediting the potency of the traditional healers was to avoid competition or threats to their lucrative industry. However, the outbreak of the First World War broke this barrier and created a level playing field for the Yorùbá traditional healers in competing against the Europeans (Prince 1962). During the war, shipments of consignments from the metropolitan state were largely halted or reduced because of the security challenges of shipping in the Atlantic Ocean, as Britain, an active participant in the war, presumed that her ships could become a target of enemy forces. This anecdote accounts for how traditional medicine became lucrative as a result of the scarcity of western medicine.

By the end of the Second World War, traditional healers in Asia had made great strides and were clamoring for global recognition. The World Health Organization (WHO) granted approval to their effort and rebranded it as "alternative medicine" in 1947. Hyma and Ramesh note that the successful recognition and integration of indigenous health care services with western medicine in India, Korea, China, Indonesia, and Singapore motivated the campaign in many developing countries, including Nigeria.25 What perhaps served as the greatest advantage in this struggle for survival of traditional healers was that the campaign was wholeheartedly supported, accepted, and promoted by the World Health Organization (WHO 1978).

The WHO began to canvass for legislation in support of the official recognition of traditional healers globally, with the aim of expanding the scope of healthcare services to all people, irrespective of their social status. In line with this development, traditional Yorùbá health practitioners made bold efforts to embark on structural re-organization and repackaging. First, they changed their identity from one of "traditional medicine" to "alternative medicine." It is highly probable that the term "traditional," as they were formerly called, seemed more primitive, hence the need for a new term. This strategy became necessary in the face of a global age of modernization of culture, as it had the aim of gaining acceptance, as well as making it more interesting and attractive to people who were gradually imbibing new trends in modernism (Maclean, 1976). Furthermore, the high rate of poverty in Nigeria, including within Yorùbáland, further accounted for the survival of traditional medicine. Health care services were not administered freely by missions, nor government or private hospitals. Acquiring drugs was expensive and beyond the means of a large portion of the population, leaving them outside the coverage of Western healthcare services. According to Oke, traditional medicines were relatively cheaper, thus affordable and closer to the people.26 Ogunlola (2014) argues that Western medicines do not have solutions to all health problems, especially in societies where people still believe in spiritual causes of diseases in the form of witchcraft and sorcery. The Yorùbá still believe that spiritual problems can only be cured with spiritual solutions. In this case, traditional healers, especially diviners (babaláwo) must be consulted on who applied the knowledge of divination, in order to offer solutions to such problems.27 This might require sacrificing specific animal to the gods. Considering the efforts of the indigenous practitioners and their possible successes in some Asiatic countries, such as India, China, and Singapore, the WHO, in 1976, canvassed and lobbied for the official recognition of traditional healthcare services, which entailed official recognition, acceptance, and integration of traditional medicines along with their Western counterparts. It also entailed incorporating the services provided by traditional medicines with those of Western medicine, without prejudice and for the benefit of all.28 The Nigerian government accepted this, while expressing its readiness for integration. As Tella remarked, "judging from close to a hundred years of promoting western medicine in Nigeria, its services are only available to between 25-30 percent of Nigerian population leaving 70-75 percent to the care of traditional medicine."29 To address this, the Nigerian Government has sought to facilitate the integration of traditional and Western medicine in Nigeria, which has not yet yielded any appreciable results.

Reasons for the Survival of Yorùbá Healing Systems

Despite the challenges and pressure against the Yorùbá healing system over the years (by the missionaries and later the colonial government), it is remarkable that the Yorùbá healing system has survived various phases of historical development. Ogaga (2015) noted that Yorùbá healing system is the largest means of healthcare delivery among the Yorùbá people of western Nigeria, despite the popularity of Western medicine. The reason for the survival of Yorùbá healing system despite modernity rests largely on their culture. The worldview of Taylor (1994) on culture seems to capture and reinforce the argument here in that he posits that culture is the complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, moral laws, customs, and other capacities and habits acquired by man as a member of the society. The attachment of the Yorùbá people to their culture explains why the introduction of Islam and Christianity have not been able to detach them from their traditional observances and customs, which Taylor counts as part of culture. It is within this attachment that Washington-Weik (2009) argues that the resiliency of the Yorùbá healers during the period of colonialism allowed them to survive several health policies put in place by the colonial administration, which was not favorably disposed to the survival of the Yorùbá healing system. The claim of Mbiti (1969) that Africans are attached to their religion is one suggestion as to the reason for the survival of Yorùbá healing system. This to some extent explains why, despite the expansion of Islam and Christian missions across Yorùbáland, herbalists are still being patronized. An average Yorùbá person is inquisitive about his or her destiny. The babaláwo or herbalists do not just prescribe therapeutics, moreover, they pry into why certain thing-like sickness- occur and what could account for them. Olaoye (2003) reiterates this in highlighting the belief of the Yoruba that is evidenced when they say, "there is more to what happens to man than what meets the eyes (ìsẹ̣ ́ kan kì í sẹ̣ ́ lásán). These are the further reasons the babaláwo usually pries into matters by consulting an oracle (ifá) to find out the cause of certain things.30This belief explains why people patronize the babaláwo.
Similarly, the Yorùbá healing system is ubiquitous, accessible, potable, flexible and inexpensive. As Paul (2012) explains, every family has its own herbalist- a father, mother, aunt, or uncle-who handles small illnesses. Every family head has a pot of concoction (àgé) in his bedroom, which he resorts to at the onset of any symptom of illness in any member of the family. This, to a large extent, serves as first aid in the modern age, as it is given to a sick person before the arrival of a medical doctor. Apart from this, medication is very cheap. Ojo (2016) emphasized that in the Yorùbá healing systems; emphasis has not been put on the benefits or gains accruable from medical prescriptions, as it has in western medicine. In this case, herbalists treat their patients irrespective of their social or financial status, administering medicines, and allowing sick people to use the medicine and return later to compensate the prescribe. Within this system, sick people are not obliged to pay for medicine, but rather to appreciate the prescriber with cash or in kind. In the Yorùbá healing system, treatment of disease or sicknesses must not be commercialized to the point of making financial gains of sick people, is believed that such scheme makes medicines lose their potency and power to heal. The reason behind this philosophy among the Yorùbá people is the fact that the God of wisdom and knowledge (Olódùmarè) has supreme power over everything in the universe and that he gives such wisdom and knowledge to whoever he wants (Idowu 1973). Misuse of such knowledge is believed to be punishable by God after earthly existence.

Moreover, the spirit of communalism-which envelops the social life of the Yorùbá people-has also contributed to the survival of the Yorùbá healing system. Yorùbá people believe that no one lives to himself alone, which accounts for the practice of an extended family system. The welfare of every member of the family is the responsibility of every member of the family. The chain of linear connection (filial bonds) makes it extremely difficult for patriarchal family unit to be indifferent to the plight of any of their kin. Based on this aspect of Yorùbá philosophy, herbalists are obliged to respect this bond to and lend help to whoever requires it at any point in time.
Poverty is another potent factor that has helped or assisted the survival of Yorùbá healing system, in that the high rate of poverty in Africa generally has made it absolutely impossible for a high percentage of Africa's people to obtain Western medication when they are sick (Paul 2015). Western healthcare is indeed expensive, and its delivery is slow.

One cannot overlook the fact that the Yorùbá healing system has been dynamic, as it has acknowledged the impact and effects of modernism and globalization. This could have informed Oguntola-Laguda, who maintains that the Yorùbá healing system has witnessed many changes, as well as developments, in recent times.31 The years of interactions of Yorùbá healing system with Western medicine has influenced its practices and operation, to a large extent. In the first instance, traditional medicines are now produced and packaged in tablets, sachets, and bottles, which in form resemble Western medicines. In some places, there are resident doctors who are experts in diagnosing ailments with high-tech medical instruments. A good example of this experience can be seen in Yem-Kem, a traditional healing shop in Lagos that has many branches across Nigeria. This development can be appreciated better when one looks at the way in which traditional healers use modern equipment to expand their ventures. For instance, in gynecology, antenatal, and maternity practice, ultra-sound scanning machines are used to determine the sex, position, and well-being of a developing fetus. Complications that may require surgery are referred to specialist hospitals for treatment.

Other reasons for their survival is the existence of metaphysical ailments that are not known or clear to Western medicine. The last resort for those who suffer such ailments is typically quick intervention by the traditional healers, especially the babaláwo. Examples of such health problems is a terrible sickness commonly contacted from women who engage in sexual relations with men other than their husbands (mágùn) which can neither be detected nor diagnosed scientifically, nor can science give remedy to the sufferer. Other ailments are spiritual in nature. These types of ailments cannot be detected by Western-style machines or laboratory examinations (Lambo 1969). The person affected by this type of incurable ailment languishes and suffers great pains, though laboratory tests and other methods of diagnosis confirm his or her health and do not provide evidence of impairment. Such ailments require the attention of diviners who pry into the realm of the metaphysical-through the instrumentality of their esoteric knowledge of nature-to correct the person's spiritual anomaly. People with these types of problems are advised by hospitals to try traditional methods. The activities of Western healthcare services are popular in urban centers. Until the present, many rural areas have had no Western healthcare center. In such places, healthcare delivery consists completely of traditional methods. Itayvyar (1992) and the recent study carried out by Paul (2016) show that only 40 percent of the Yorùbá population lives in cities and urban centers. 60 percent of the Yorùbá population dwells in rural areas, such as plantation farms, hamlets, and villages, where there are no hospitals, maternity hospitals, or clinics. Healthcare is delivered in these places by means of traditional methods. Apart from the above, the materials and the ingredients for medicines are simple, accessible, and most are easily prepared. Exceptions to this are in cases of complicated matters such as mental illness, barrenness, and sickle cell anemia, which require sacrifices and invocation of spirits.32Common ailments such as fever, cold, cough, malaria, jaundice, and body pains are cured through the elemental part of the medicine. Dopamu (2000) enumerated the various items used as common ingredients in Yorùbá healing system, and they are mentioned in the first part of this article.

Most of these items are obtained easily, as they are available in the environment. Others can be acquired easily in the markets. Sellers usually display the items conspicuously for buyers to see them from a distance. Some of the items are grounded or mixed together for drinking, licking, or eating. Through this simple mechanism, within the family unit, healing is achieved. However, complicated matters are referred to the Yorùbá traditional herbalists: babaláwo, elégbogi, and olóò gùn, among others, as the case may require intensive examination and prescriptions.

Conclusion

The Yorùbá healing system is blessed by the weight of history or practice over the ages. This traditional healing system affects every aspect of human healthcare, just like in the Western worldview. The Yorùbá are a religious people who also cannot be separated from their philosophy, beliefs, and tradition. It is this interconnectedness of their philosophy, tradition, and beliefs that pitted them against the ideological perceptions of Western philosophy (Payne1992). Western healthcare ideologies frown at the principles that surround and govern the operation of the Yorùbá healing system. For instance, contrary to germ theory of disease in Western medicine, the Yorùbá believe in circular and spiritual theories. The latter aspect emphasizes sorcery (osọ́ ), witches (àjé)̣ , ancestors, and transcendent forces among others, as possible causes of sicknesses and ailments. Similarly, in the Yorùbá healing system, sicknesses and ailments that are associated with spirituality are also handled spiritually. This sometimes involves sacrifices to the gods or invocation of spiritual forces through incantations that appeal to the gods for a cure. The obscurantism of the practices perhaps underscores the various epithets employed by the proponents of Western healthcare against the ancient system of the Yorùbá, such as the missionaries and exponents of colonial government who opposed the use of the Yorùbá healing system and deemed it as primitive and unhygienic. The missionaries condemned the whole process as idolatry and persuaded many converts to abandon the system. The consolidation of the British government and its policies favored the ideology of these missionaries. This development further aggravated the survival and challenges of the Yorùbá healing system. The government enacted several policies that were indisposed to the continued existence of the Yorùbá healing system. Despite the opposition of missionaries and the colonial government, the Yorùbá healing system has survived into the present. In the first instance, the Yorùbá traditional medical practitioners proved indefatigable, resilient, and focused. The inseparability of Yorùbá tradition and religion continues to make their healing system inevitable to even those that have been won over by Western philosophy. Yorùbá philosophy-which forbids profiteering from traditional healthcare delivery-makes these services affordable to everyone, irrespective of social status. The principles of accessibility, flexibility, and affordability have been major factors in its survival. This is coupled with the monopoly it still enjoys over certain spiritual problems, which are alien to and outside of the purview of Western medicine. The commonality of the Yorùbá healing system makes it universal in such a way that every family unit, household, and community has a basic knowledge of how to use the elements around them should health challenges arise. Despite the campaigns for Western-style healthcare and medicine in the modern times, the Yorùbá healing system remains the most patronized and largest medium of healthcare delivery in Yorùbáland.

Works Cited

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Foot Notes

1 Babalola (1966).
2 Dosumu(1949), cited in Morakinyo(1983).
3 Odebiyi (1980,111-115).
4 Pearce (1989); Raharjo and Corner (1990).
5 Several scholars have done extensive studies in this regard, whose efforts are worthy of mention, including: Simpson (1980); Odebiyi (1980, 1989); Odebiyi and Young (1983); Ekong (1982); Odebiyi and Togonu-Bickesteth (1987); Foster and Anderson (1978); Morley (1978); Seijas (1973); Foster (1976); Hallgren (1992); Last (1993); Jahoda (1966); and Valabrega (1962), among others.
6 Awolalu (1979, 86-98).
7 Dopamu (1977, 276).
8 Dopamu (1979, 2001).
9 Maclean (1971, 32).
10 Evans-Pritchard (1937, 9).
11 Middleton and Winter (1942, 96-116).
12 Awolalu (1979, 74-76).
13 Dopamu (2003, 44).
14 Buckley (1981, 1).
15 Awolalu (1979, 79-91).
16 Idowu (1973, 63).
17 Dopamu (1977, 451).
18 Awolalu (1979, 43).
19 Buckley (1985, 1).
20 Paul (2014 136-142)
21 Odebiyi and Ekong (1982); Omorodion (1993); Jegede (1994).
22 Schram (1971, 19-21).
23 Paul (2014, 136).
24 Oyebola (1980, 23-34).
25 Hyma and Ramesh (1991, 42-43).
26 Oke (1995, 23-25).
27 Maclean (1979); Os̩unwole (1978).
28 Cais (1988, 521-522).
29 Tella (1992, 3).
30 Abimbola (1965); Evans-Pritchard (1937).
31 Oguntola-Laguda (2015, 118).
32 Oshadare and Paul (2009, 228-229).

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The Survival of the Yorùbá Healing Systems in the Modern Age - News

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Ilesanmi Akanmidu Paul Department of History and International Studies Adekunle Ajasin University Akiungba-Akoko, Nigeria paul.akanmidu@gmail.com Abstract This study investigates the philosophy and tradition of the Yorùbá healing system and the reasons for its survival into the modern age. The introduction of western-style healthcare by missionaries-which became consolidated under colonial rule, from any point of view [...]

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1. What does it mean to code switch and how does this affect an African American's success in life?

Code switching is when a person switches from their authentic self they would be around close friends and family to the dominate culture or expectations in a professional setting to adapt to their environment. This can affect an African American's success because one may think that their authentic self is not good enough which can ultimately lead to a low sense of self.

2. How does expecting code switching threaten diversity?

Code switching threatens diversity because it does not allow for people the space to be their authentic self. We are all different however if we code switch our personality to fit in then there is no diversity. Also, if people of color are told we are talking "white" just because we are talking properly, that also allows no room to be diverse.

3. How do the effects of code switching intersect with a persons' mental health?

Code switching can intersect with a persons' mental health because one may think that their authentic self is not good enough. Constantly having to switch from your authentic self can cause a person to have imposter syndrome as well as having low sense of self. This can ultimately lead to a depression, anxiety and other mental health problems.

4. Search online for a resource that helps you understand this topic more and post it to your Padlet. State why the resource shines some light on a perspective of this issue.

This resource shined light on the topic of code switching very simply. There is a picture of what a person would say if they were being their authentic self-verses them code switching to sound more professional.

The art of code-switching: How Black students adapt to predominantly white spaces - The State News

5. State a strategy that you feel can be successful to address the misconceptions about code switching that exist inside and outside of the African American community.

Educaton can be successful in addressing the misconceptions about code switching. Acknowledging that there is no "right" or "wrong" culture to present yourself as. Aside from using proper grammar in a professional setting, as long as you are respectful you should not have to "code switch" your entire personality.

6. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

The topic of code switching is the one thing that stood out the most to me. This is a very real issue that not only the Black community have to face but all people of color. Code switching can happen in a variety of cultures and settings however the most known is the workplace. This stims back to social and cultural norms and stereotypes that society perpetuates like using proper grammar and speaking intelligently is talking "white." I think that what some may call code switching others may call speaking properly with proper grammar opposed to being more relaxed with your words like you would at home.

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It's only human nature for people to switch their dialect and language tones based on who they are talking to.

However, the act of code-switching - or the practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language in conversation - is used by the Black community to eliminate bias and stereotypes towards them, especially in non-Black dominant spaces.

Digital storytelling sophomore Jabari Washington defines code-switching as changing the way you speak depending on your setting. He uses code-switching every day even in the simplest settings, he said.

"From when I play the game with my friends to when I talk to my roommate, talk to my parents, it's like constantly switching how I talk and what vocabulary they would know," Washington said.

Code-switching presents through verbal communication and body language. The extra effort for Black students requires them to make internal decisions constantly; they have to know their surroundings and be aware of what they're saying and how they're saying it. They also have to focus on open, positive body language to be taken seriously and not be stereotyped, human biology-premed sophomore Ariana Emokah said.

Emokah mostly code-switches in classes in front of professors and classmates who don't look like her. She said that Black students have to upkeep specific code-switching to be taken seriously.

"I think (white students) are definitely ignorant to the fact that I can't walk in the room and just sort of flop down," Emokah said. "I can't walk into the room with my pajamas on. ... I have to present myself a certain way to be seen a certain way, so kind of going beyond just how I talk, ... I definitely don't think that they realize that sometimes."

Black students often use code switching as a personal guard against people they do not know well. Emokah said code-switching gives Black students a way to "assimilate" or perform in a way that will be more accepted than dialects such as African American Vernacular English, which many Black students use with family and close friends.

Non-black students, Emokah said, often use AAVE or other Black-dominant dialects incorrectly, which can come across as mocking to Black students. Emokah said she has had a few odd encounters with some of her white classmates using improper code-switching as a way of trying to fit in with her.

"I would definitely get the 'Hey sis!' or the 'gurl' thing, ... I've definitely been called a 'Black queen,'" Emokah said. "You don't have to address me like that."

But when Black students don't reciprocate the AAVE, many still feel stereotyped.

" The most I've gotten from that was people say like 'you talk very proper,'" Washington said. "And it's like 'Well, I'm in a school setting; how else would I communicate?' Even if I was in a setting where I don't know the people or like they don't know the slang, of course, you would have to use proper grammar and things of that nature when you're talking to them."

Code-switching is a tactic that has been passed down through generations of Black people. Its rules indicate what not to do in specific situations, how to address people in a specific tone of voice - making sure they are aware that you mean business, but also that you are not labeled as aggressive.

This effect is rampant among college-aged students. According to a report by Pew Research Center, among black adults, 48% of those with at least a four-year college degree say they often or sometimes feel the need to code-switch, compared with 37% of those who do not have a college degree.

"When I first formally learned about code-switching, it was actually in the 5th or 6th grade," Emokah said. "My teacher, I had a black teacher at the time, taught us about code-switching as far as interviews go. ... Informally, I learned code-switching through my grandmother. The idea of putting on your 'white voice' when talking to people over the phone ... pronounce all of my syllables."

Solomon said the environment Black students are in plays an important role in when code-switching occurs. For example, the pressure to code switch is more present in professional settings, which leads to the idea of Black people "talking white".

"I definitely notice myself code-switching in environments because I don't wanna be seen as a token," journalism and political science-prelaw senior Angela Solomon said. "When you're around other people from different cultures - white people - it kind of seems like how we speak is a trend they can follow. It's not a trend people can follow, it's just how we speak. ... And that's kind of why I only feel comfortable talking that way with my friends or with people I am comfortable with."

Though it is engrained in his and other Black students' lives, Washington said that one day he hopes code-switching will be a thing of the past and that people would focus on one's scholarly abilities, instead of using the way they look or speak as an automatic "no" before they even meet the candidate.

"Obviously there's a difference between professionalism and unprofessionalism, especially if you're giving an interview or things of that nature, there's certain levels and standards that you have," Washington said. "There should be a gap bridge between if I was to talk to my professors, ... or say someone came from a different background and (uses) their certain language, you shouldn't be able to rule them out based on their language because their scholarly abilities should still be (perceived) the same."

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The art of code-switching: How Black students adapt to predominantly white spaces - The State News

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Code-switching presents itself in numerous ways, not just in verbal communication. Code-switching requires extra effort - making the internal decisions to know your surroundings and to be aware of what you're saying, how you're saying it and how you present it.

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1. State the most important thing that you learned from this unit's readings and how it has deepened your understanding of Black male and female interpersonal and close relationships.

In this unit, I learned that Black men and Black women have a different outlook on interpersonal and close relationships. Black men are more likely to find their ideal mate later on in life after they are established whereas for Black women it is the opposite. Black women are more likely to find a mate that aligns with their educational or fiscal model while they are new to college or in her prime years. For women as it pertains to their choice in mate, the question of being able to provide is the one of the bigger concerns that they have. For men, the question of being able to reproduce the number of children they desire is one of their top concerns. Per the audio of "Black Women who are successful yet still unmarried," Some Black women make a choice to prioritize education over relationships because they were told to by parents. What some parents forget to mention is that if they desire to be married, college is one of the best times to begin looking.

2. How do long-standing stereotypes in the media of African American females being portrayed as property (i.e. in rap videos etc.) affect the psyche of those seeing these images and the African American woman's dating prospects?

The stereotypes in the media of African American females being portrayed as property negatively affects those who see these images because they can then become bias. This ultimately affects the African American woman's dating prospects because we can then be seen as less desirable to society.

3. What factors are contributing to the rising number of single Black unmarried females?

There are a few things that contribute to the rising number of single Black unmarried females. One of the factors is some Black women prioritize their education to generate financial success before they start their families. This requires time taken away from their making possible romantic relationships while they are still within their biological clock. Another factor is there are only a smidgen of black men that are eligible bachelors. Also, if you add in sexually and education level to the quantity become almost scarce. Lastly, some Black women simply choose not to be married because it is not a desire that they have.

4. Why is there a stigma in the African American community against the LGBTQ community?

A larger part of why there is a stigma in the African American community against the LGBTQ community is the fear of judgement. In my opinion, fear of what others may think causes people to shame members of the LGBTQ community. Whether you are a family member, friend, acquaintance, or a member yourself; cultural norms, religious identities, and family dynamics play a large part in the stigma around the LGBTQ+ community.

5. Find one resource that helps you understand these themes and post it to your Padlet. State the resources' significance to this unit's material.

I choose to share an interview a woman by the name of Eboni K. Williams did on a show called The Breakfast Club. This interview is significant to unit's material because it coincides with the factors that may contribute to the rising number of single Black unmarried females. In the interview, as a 40+ year old Black woman, Eboni shared that her and her peers wishes that someone would have told them to keep their eyes open for a potential mate while going to college. Eboni stated that other Black women have told her, "You are doing the service of letting young girls know that are currently in position, to put themselves in best practices because they are currently in school..." She goes on to say, " These are the Conversations that Black elite culture is having with their children every day... I want you to get that degree or PHD... and also, if you want the traditional model family, and that's a big if, this is the best time to be surrounded by the highest concentration of Black men that are also pursing the educational and the fiscal model that you are and that you desire." She is speaking from experience telling a truth that is not often shared in the Black community that may spark a change in the numbers of unmarried females in the Black community.

https://youtu.be/m9w7wj53Fq4?si=vW4OZe9BxNLD7M-u

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Eboni K. Williams Defends Her Comments On Black Women's Market Value, Fertility Challenges + More

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9.6 Thesis, Direction and Resources for Critical Analysis Project

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9.6 Thesis, Direction and Resources for Critical Analysis Project

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1. STRENGTHS: What are the strengths of Black neighborhoods and communities and how have they manifested over time?

The strength of the Black neighborhoods and communities include, having an informal institution, having community groups, becoming educated, and defining all odds against you by creating generational wealth. Informal institutions are a way that the community helps raise its children. The saying "it takes a village" manifests over time and having positive influences in the community increases the children's chance for a bright future. Community groups are also a part of the informal institution in Black communities that can offer support, information, and education. Becoming educated is in my opinion the biggest strength of the Black community. When a person is educated it offers them a different outlook on life and opens up more opportunities to become successful possibly creating generation wealth for their family and community.

2. WEAKNESSES: What are the weaknesses of Black neighborhoods and communities and state one solution to an issue you have raised?

The weaknesses of the Black neighborhoods and communities include and division, crime, and negative generational trends such as the use and distribution of drug and seeing violence among other things. A solution to most of these issues is education. Furthering your education provides an individual with a broader world view, better understanding, and also more career opportunities to generate more income. This would lower the crime levels and provide a positive generational trend. Give the next generation a better head start will lead to a positive impact on the Black neighborhoods and communities and will turn into a strength because it would then be the norm and the standard.

3. OPPORTUNITIES: What are three ways in which Black neighborhoods and communities could play a role in the progressive movement of the Black community?

1. Building community groups.

Building community groups offers support and information. Supporting one another can play a huge role in the progressive movement of the Black community. Community groups may be able to off information about programs and resources that may help you succeed.

2. Being involved in city decision/voting.

Black community members being involved in decision making as it pertains to your city offers progressive ideas for the community that you live in. Also, voting helps a great deal because laws, funding, and bills that contribute to the progression of your community may be passed and can ultimately help meet the essential needs of the community. Making your voice heard matters.

3. Education yourself.

As I stated in the previous questions, education yourself is one of the best ways any person can contribute to the progression of the communities and the neighborhoods they are in. This is especially true for members of the Black community because our community is on the lower end of generational wealth. Although there are a lot of things that contributes to this like systematic oppression, education on these things will offer a different perspective and awareness so that we may be able to come together to make much needed changes. Voting on laws and creating bills that can help the Black community requires understanding and knowledge of our history and education will help.

4. THREATS: What are three ways in which Black neighborhoods and communities could have a detrimental effect on the progressive movement of the Black community?

1. Division.

Division among the Black neighborhood and communities are a detriment to the progression of the black communities. Some members of the Black community have a "crabs in the bucket" or an individualistic mindset. There is strength in numbers, and we are stronger together than we are a part. Gangs also play a role in this because they were originally founded to help the Black communities and neighborhoods, a lot of them are causing the crime and violence that are a detriment to the Black community's progression.

2. Crime

Crime in the Black neighborhoods and communities contribute to the negative stereotype that is placed on us. This is detrimental to the Black community because while some of the community is fighting to wards progression and against this narrative, others are proving the oppressors right. However, by no means is it okay to treat members of the Black community poorly because again, a lot of these things are a result of systematic oppression.

3. Gentrification

Gentrification can be detrimental to the progression on the Black communities because when this takes place a lot of us end up selling our homes. Selling your houses and businesses contribute to allowing gentrification to take place. An example of this would be the video from this week where Willa and Charles Bruce had their property illegally taken from them. Their decedents were able to retrieve the property back years later and the value was much more. Instead of keeping the property and building generational wealth, they took the money and no longer have the property.

5. Find one resource that helps you understand these themes and post it to your Padlet. State the resources' significance to this unit's material.

WHIEEAA-broch.pdf (ed.gov)

I found this article, "Educational Excellence for African Americans" on the internet and after reading it, it helped get a better grasp of the themes related to this unit. Per the article, "...opportunities and experiences that help Americans attain good jobs that provide the means to succeed, care for a family and fully participate in a community. In the African American community in particular, high-quality education and developmental opportunities have helped us create jobs and new industries, and overcome income and social gaps, as well as other critical challenges..." The article went on to say that students from birth through adulthood deserve opportunities that education provides so that they may be successful and self-sufficient. Education is the key to providing progressive movements toward improving ourselves which ultimately improves our community as a whole. Also, when a member of the Black community lives in a Black neighborhood and they obtain success or resources, they are able to spread their knowledge to the neighborhood and the community members.

6. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

I learned a few things this unit from the required readings, audio material, and lecture. What stood out for me was that public housing was initially created for white "working class" families and it being the step before they were able to buy a permanent house. The intention was never to help the African American communities rather keep us in a particular area. Not approving home loans based off of race due to systemic racism contributes to our struggle of obtaining generational wealth.

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1. What would you say are the psychological consequences of experiencing subconscious racial slights as a person of color?

Some of the phycological consequences of experiencing subconscious racial slights include imposter syndrome, depression, self-doubt, low confidence, and anxiety.

2. What stereotypes are perpetuated when racial microaggressions are thrown around towards a person of color?

Some of the stereotypes are perpetuated when racial microaggressions are thrown around towards a person of color are that we are criminals, dangerous, and untrustworthy.

3. Considering Intersectionality, what other issues does this theme affect in the African American community?

This theme affects the African American community's world view, confidence, and overall sense of self.

4. State how these theories of intersectionality, racial microaggressions, bias or white privilege affect one's understanding of "sense of self" or ethnic identity?

Experiencing various slights such as microaggressions, bias, white privilege, microinvalidations, and microinsults are extremely detrimental to a person's psyche. Over time, this can cause you to question yourself and your abilities which can ultimately affect your sense of self. These theories may result in feeling like your ethnicity is less than which can cause you to have low self-esteem.

5. Search online for a resource that helps you understand this topic more and post it to your Padlet. State why the resource shines some light on a perspective of this issue.

I found an article by Psychogy today about microaggression. This article mirrors the video of Dr. Wing Sue and explains the same concepts of microaggression and how it can be harmful even if it is not intentional. Per the article, "Is subtle bias harmless?

Sometimes a microaggression may appear to be a compliment, You speak English very well. They are seemingly innocuous and nothing to fret over. However, microaggressions carry demeaning metacommunications, whereby the messages are hidden, and the targets of such concealed missives feel on edge as well as under scrutiny." This resource shines some light on the perspective of an offender that is unaware of how their actions affect people of color. What one may think is harmless can be extremely offensive to another. Education is key in these types of scenarios.

Microaggression | Psychology Today

6. State a strategy that you feel can be successful to address the use of microaggressions especially when the offender is unaware of how their reactions affect people of color.

A strategy that I feel may be successful in addressing the use of microaggressions toward myself is communication. Especially if the offender is unaware of how their reactions affect a person of color like me. Expressing the experience to give the offender a better understanding may help with educating them on what can be seen as offensive so that they would be carful in the future to how they communicate with a person of color.

7. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

The thing that stood out the most to me this week was the "Implicit Bias and Microaggressions: The Macro Impact of Small Acts" video. The speaker explained this topic beautifully capturing so many of my own experiences. It is so often that as a woman of color I experience these things. So much so that I have become somewhat numb to them, and it is almost expected. Depending on the day I may help by educating a person that may be unaware they are offending me, however I do not have the time or energy some days. I pray that one day society will be so educated on this issue that we can all just respect one another's existence.

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What Is a Microaggression?

The Roots of Microaggressions

In the workplace, being asked to run and get coffee sounds cliche, but this actually does happen. The target can be a person of color, female, LGBTQ, or other marginalized people. Another good example is assuming that an older employee is incapable of managing technology and lacks versatility with new tools. The workplace can be rife with slights and snubs directed at people who appear different.

Sometimes a microaggression may appear to be a compliment, You speak English very well. They are seemingly innocuous and nothing to fret over. However, microaggressions carry demeaning meta-communications, whereby the messages are hidden, and the targets of such concealed missives feel on edge as well as under scrutiny. This can create an environment filled with distrust, hostility, invalidation, and it can also mean lost productivity, ill health, and overall inequity.

According to Derald Wing Sue, any group in society may become targeted, including women, people of different gender identities, those with disabilities, religious minorities, among others. For example, a forthright white woman might be labeled a bitch just because she exercises assertiveness.

The concept of microaggression has its share of critics. Some argue that the idea has not accrued enough empirical evidence, and research does suggest that core premises of microaggressions and their connection to poor mental health do not have sufficient evidence-such as that most marginalized communities perceive microaggressions to be harmful or that subjective reports are reliable enough to study.

Some people argue that microaggressions foster a culture of psychological fragility and victimhood. If one believes that microaggressions and verbal statements are psychologically and even physically harmful, and therefore avoids them, the person's emotional strength may diminish. There is an assumption of ill will that could prevent the free flow of dialogue in settings from academia to psychotherapy.

Parsing Our Microaggressions

Xenophobia is the fear of people who are different. We inherently feel uncomfortable around what is unknown. People sometimes think that the unfamiliar will harm us, spread disease, and upend our comfortable worldview. We prefer to avoid different people, and avoidance is not wrong, it does not signal racism.

Why is guilt a factor in microaggressions?

People experience guilt when racism is brought to the fore. Who wouldn't feel guilty that large groups are marginalized? A person can feel guilty when he is born with certain advantages, and he can try to deny this truth by evading it. Remaining blind and indifferent might ameliorate guilt, even though it may be healthier to acknowledge those privileges, educate himself, and change his behavior."

Some bullies intimidate others through covert behaviors, making interactions hard to detect. In the workplace, a bully may leave others out of an important meeting. This omission may affect the decision-making process. Such a move can also maintain a mono-culture within the workplace, ensuring the bully's control over other points of view. The word aggression is highlighted here, as bullies are inherently aggressive.

Just being aware of microaggressions is a start. We live in a society that has inherited and promotes bias against people who are different. To be more conscious of microaggressions and avoid having them, one can explore their biases, reflect on the connotations a remark might have, review common interactions, and engage with people from different communities.

If you were called out for being microaggressive, here are some guides to handle the situation. We can all learn a lot about subtle biases that you may not be aware of.

* The person, who called you out, cares enough to say something.

* Being defensive will not help, and virtue-signaling will not either.

* Apologize for the bias and explain that you want to understand better.

* Listen with empathy and compassion.

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A microaggression is a subtle, often unintentional, form of prejudice. Rather than an overt declaration of racism or sexism, a microaggression often takes the shape of an offhand comment, an inadvertently painful joke, or a pointed insult. For example, a person might comment that an Asian American employee speaks English well.

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Theme two: The Imposter Syndrome and Women of Color in the Workplace

1. What is the Imposter Syndrome?

The inability to absorbed one's accomplishments and the persistent fear one would be exposed as a fraud.

2. How does the Imposter Syndrome affect a student in their educational journey AND into their career experiences?

There is a correlation between how imposter syndrome can affect a student in their educational journey as well as their career experiences. Imposter Syndrome can directly affect your self-esteem causing you to have feelings of being out of place, or simply like you do not belong, which can ultimately affect your performance.

3. How does the Imposter Syndrome specifically affect the self-esteem and mental health of African American?

Imposter Syndrome specifically affects the self-esteem and mental health of an African American person can make it challenging to believe in yourself and your abilities. It can cause you to have low self-esteem that can lead to depression and other mental health issues.

4. How do race and gender play into the African American woman's experience in the workplace?

In a workplace, African Americans may be the minority, and if you are an African American woman, you may be a double minority. This environment can make you feel like you have to "code switch," meaning, you have to welcome the prepotent culture while at work and switching back to your real self when around family and friends. This experience can cause feelings of Impostor Syndrome.

5. State one strategy that you believe would be successful in addressing this issue and improving the workplace for women of color.

A strategy that I believe would be successful in addressing this issue is more women of color speaking out about Impostor Syndrome and the correlation between how it can affect a student in their educational journey as well as their career experiences. Education is key to making any improvements and if more women of color shared their experiences, something can be put in place to empower us in these situations.

6. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit.

The one thing that stood out to me was the act of code switching. It is something that I have always been aware of because my mother and grandmother have always had a superior position in the workplace, and I would notice them changing their voice when talking a work or to co-workers than when at home with her family or friends. As a child I remember my siblings and I would jokingly tell my mom that she sounded "White" at work and on her voicemail message. She would explain to us that in her workplace environment, she was expected to speak with proper English and that talking properly it is not "talking white." I recently spoke with my mother, and she shared her experiences of having Impostor Syndrome.

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Name: Ti’Tinia Smith

Date: 2/28/2024

Psych 110

I. Introduction Paragraph: Definition of Race

1. Introduction Statement: A professor once asked me, “What is your personal definition of race?” My reply was, “A fictitious idea put in place to systemically oppress black people.”

2.  Is race biological or social?:  The concept of Race is not a not a real thing. Race was created by white people's European ancestors to push a superiority narrative. Thus, proving that it is merely a social construct.

II.          Body Paragraph 1: Self Assessments/Scores/Analysis

2. Main point 1: The first Assessment that I took was called the “Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure Assessment.”

1. Supporting Detail: In this assessment I received a score of 45 which is reflective of my high self-confidence.

Main point 2: The second assessment that I took was titled, “Rosenberg’s Self Esteem Scale.”

1. Supporting Detail: Having a high self-esteem and confidence in my abilities contributed to the score of 26 that I received.

III.          Body Paragraph 2: Summary of Stages of Racial Identity Development & Life Examples

Main point 1: At this point in my life, I have passed through the pre-encounter, encounter, and immersion/emersion stages of racial identity development.

3. Supporting Detail:  I know that I have passed the pre-encounter stage because before I had my first Encounter, I had no knowledge of the concept of race.

4. Main point 2: I am currently in the Internalization stage of my racial identity development journey.

1. Supporting Detail: After doing some self-reflecting, I realized that I see racism as the enemy, and I desire to have more control over who I want to be.

2. I have come to find that being in this space is very empowering.

IV.          Body Paragraph 3: Post Racial Society Critical Analysis

4. Main point 1: It is hard for me to believe that we live in a post-racial society.

5. Supporting Detail: Currently, black people are still getting murdered by police for no legal reason.

6. Main point 2: To make matters worse, the officers that are involved receive little to no punishment for their actions.

1. Supporting Detail: While on the other hand, black people are likely given the max sentences for crimes they commit, even in non-violent cases.

V.          Conclusion Paragraph

5. Summary statement: Society may look at me and my skin color and form their own conclusions.

6. Closing Statement: I will not let a social construct and a fictitious idea put in place to systemically oppress my ethnic group define me.

Identity resource

Teacher to teacher: How racial identity work makes us better advocates for our students (understood.org)

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Teacher to teacher: How racial identity work makes us better advocates for our students

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Learn why it’s important for educators to reflect on racial identity. Read one teacher’s story and get tips for starting yourself.

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1. From the reading, what do you think makes the Black family unique? Please provide descriptive examples.

There are a several things that make the Black family unique. One the things I saw in the reading was Hill stating that the Black family is characterized as an extended family. Per the reading, "The extended family is a network of functionally related individuals who reside in different households. The immediate family consists of individuals who reside in the same household, regardless of the number of generations within that household. Akin to the extended family is the notion of the augmented family." In my own experience, growing up, I was told that my grandmother's best friend was my aunt although there was no blood relation. Also, raising my children and nephews in the same household, they refer to one another as brothers although they are only cousins.

2. What do you think are the strengths and challenges of the Black family? Please state why you think so and provide examples.

I think there are many strengths in the Black family including the "extended kinship" and having A grandmother in a household contributing to the upbring of the children in the home. "The extended family is a network of functionally related individuals who reside in different households. The extended family that the Black family provides ultimately is an added resource for the children. Per the text, "Grandparents also provide support that may help to increase cognitive competence of their grandchildren." The Grandparents in a Black family home is another area of strength if they are limited to contribution. When Grandparents are placed in the role of a parent, this can cause challenges in the Black family. Grandmothers that are singlehandedly responsible for their grandchildren due to their child being on drug, incarcerated, or deceased, are often stressed. This environmental factor affects the children who are then likely to have behavior issues at school.

3. How do concepts such as racial socialization affect parents and children in Black families? Please explain.

I believe that foster care is one of the ways that racial socialization affects parents and children in Black families. As stated in the lecture, Black children are refered to the foster care system at higher rates than any other ethnic group. Depending on who is sent to visit the homes of Black families plays a major part in why this happens due to racial views. Some parents are fit to raise their children are unfairly stripped away from them. This can cause children to now be placed in a system where they can potentially get treated or cared for in worse conditions than they began with.

4. Based on our reading, what factors do you think have impacted Black families the most since slavery and why?

Per the reading, in 1939, Frazier thought social welfare measures to combat poverty negatively impacted the Black families. Per the text, "Families became dependent on welfare and handouts and did not achieve self-sufficiency." I can understand why he felt this way because providing resources to providing resources to people that are capable of proving for themselves, given the right circumstances, it can be enabling and hindering to possible growth. As stated in the reading, "At the same time, welfare programs that were intended to help African American families in poverty were, in fact, detrimental to the well-being of the African American family."

5. Search and find one academic resource that helps you understand this topic better and post it to your Padlet. State three main points from the resource and how it helps you understand this topic.

"Family Involvement with African American Youth During the Pre-College Years: From a “Psychology of Oppression” to a “Positive Black Psychology”

1. Researchers have found that family level poverty, low socioeconomical status, and residence in low economically advance neighborhoods, are all key factors that contribute to how a child develops.

2. For a child to be successful, they need to be influenced by at least one person in their early life who believe they are special.

3. A family's parenting style is also essential to how to a child's development.

These main points helped me understand this topic because the family in which you are born and raised plays a major part in the way you develop. As important as these things are, we are not able to choose which family we were born in and do not have control over our development as a child. Understanding this offers me insight to educate my family and extended family. Also, I can make a conscious effort to be an adult that makes a child feel special so they may be successful.

6. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit. State its significance.

One thing that stood out to me from this unit is the dynamic of the Black family and its uniqueness. It makes me think about how on Tik-Tok there are several videos explaining the extended family and how it works. When you grow up in this reality it is a normal concept for you until you read the comments of confusion from other ethnic groups. This is significant because it shows how unique the Black family is.

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 4.4 Race and Racism: Racial Microaggressions

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 4.4 Race and Racism: Racial Microaggressions

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Theme Two: Racial Microaggressions Podcast

1. Please post a response to the audio clip above. What types of "isms" can you identify in the audio clip above? What types of racism did you notice in the audio clip? Give examples.

In regard to the audio clip and what "isms" I can identified, there were several. I identified classism, sexism, racism, and ableism. The types of racism I noticed included, old-fashioned racism, cultural racism, and symbolic racism. The first caller, Kahlila, shared an experience of what she took as a back handed compliment. The cultural and symbolic racism was presented as a complement with an undertone of micro-aggression. The ableism was displayed by the woman approaching Kahlila in what sounded like disbelief of her abilities to speak as well as she did. The experience all boiled down to the caller sharing her experience clear old-fashioned racism. The second caller, Sarah, shared her experiences dealing with classism and sexism. She shared that just because she looks a certain way, her sexual orientation is assumed. When people are making these assumptions of her, they are discriminating against her.

2. From the chapter reading, do you think that we live in a post-racial society? Please state why or why not.

No, I do not believe that we live in a post-racial society because black people are still getting murdered by police for no legal reason. To make matters worse, the officers involved receive little to no punishment for their actions. While on the other hand, black people are likely given the max sentences for their crimes, even in non-violent cases.

3. What is your personal definition of race and do you think that race is a social construct, a biological construct or something else? Please explain your reasoning.

Personal definition of race: A fictitious idea put in place to systemically oppress black people.

In regard to whether I think race is a social construct, a biological construct or something else, it is a proven fact that race is a social construct. Race is not a not a real thing, it was made up by white people's European ancestors to push a superiority narrative.

4. Search and find one resource regarding race being a social or biological concept and post it to your Padlet.

https://youtu.be/926PqQUOVOg?si=OA2RMHWjNqsKmfeN

5. State one thing that you learned or one thing that stood out to you from the unit required reading, optional reading or audio material in this unit. State its significance.

One thing that I learned from this unit is that there are different types of racism. I knew of some of the concepts before the unit however with the learning material I was able to grasp the concept on a more personal level. The audio clip of Kahlila really stood out for me. There have been various times where I have been given a back handed compliment that had an undertone of ableism and Old-Fashioned racism. Some of the times were more obvious than others, however I was left with the same feeling of confusion. With knowing that I presented myself well, I was confused by why they were surprised. This ultimately left me feeling a bit inferior and I believe that this is a part of the cycle of racism.

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3.4 Three Self-Assessments, Racial Identity Development and Identity Resource.

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3.4 Three Self-Assessments, Racial Identity Development and Identity Resource.

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3.1 Padlet post: MULTIDIMENSIONS OF ETHNIC IDENTIFICATION.

1. State your selections under the category of Natal Measures and also state why you chose them. Provide examples.

*Natural Parents

*Grandparents

Why: I chose natural parents and grandparents because in my early childhood development, they were prominent influences. Knowing that I was created by an African American mother and father, who was created African American parents, helped me identify myself.

2. State your selections under the category of Behavioral Measures and also state why you chose them. Provide examples.

*Language use patters

*Music

*Clothing

*Food

*Participating in cultural and religious activities

Why? I chose these selections from the behavioral measures category for many reasons. Language use patterns contributed to identifying myself because African Americans talk differently than other ethnic groups. Words and sayings that are not in the English dictionary like "finna/finse to", "gonna", "boo-boo the fool", "you think that fat meat aint greasy." and newer ones like "standing on business" are platinum in African American households. Growing up, music like "Keep your head up", and "say it loud- I'm black and I'm proud" were played and sung to me to give me a sense of self-awareness while simultaneously giving me confidence in my ethnic identity. The way we dressed and the style we dressed in was different from other cultures. Growing up, in middle school, the "first day back to school" shoes for African Americans the all-white Air Force 1's or All white K-Swiss. Other ethnic groups wore shoes like Etines or vans regularly. Lastly, Food and participating in cultural and religious activities was chosen because this is a big part of my culture and they both go hand and hand with one another. Activities include church, and any celebration which can always turn into a family barbeque afterwards. The food consisted of Mac and cheese, potato salad, and greens to name a few of the main dishes.

3. State your selections under the category of Subjective Measures and also state why you chose them. Provide examples.

*Self identification

*Value preferences

*Role models

Why? I chose self-identification because there was a period of time where I went to an all-white school with very few black children. During this time, we live in a prominently white neighborhood. At home, it was hard to see myself in the world that was around me. My grandmother lived in Watts, Ca and I would spend the summer break with her. That is when I finally began to be able to identify myself, also gaining role models that looked like me.

4. State your selections under the category of Situation-Contextual Measure and also state why you chose them. Provide examples.

*Recreation

*Spirituality

Why? I chose recreation because as I stated previously, in the African American ethnic group, one thing we love to do is celebrate. There is no better way to do so than to get together and "throw something on the grill." we say. This was the recreation growing up for me. An opportunity to hear good music, eat good food, and play with your favorite cousins.

3.2 Padlet post: MULTI-GROUP ETHNIC IDENTITY MEASURE.

1. My Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure score is (state score).

Score: 45

2. To me this score means that (state your analysis.)

In my opinion, this score reflects that I am confident in my ethnic identity.

3. I think that this means that I have a (strong/week) bond with the (fill in ethnic group) because (state explanation.)

I think this means that I have a strong bond with the African American ethnic group because I am secure in my identity. I would not want to be a part of any other ethnic group than the one that I am. We are beautiful, we are intelligent, we are strong.

4. Explain anything that surprised you about this analysis?

The questions somewhat surprised me because at first glance they seemed to be self-explanatory. However, at times, I forget that everyone is not so proud to be black.

3.3 Padlet post: ROSENBERG'S SELF-ESTEEM SCALE.

1. State your score after taking the Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale.

Score: 26

2. State what your score means to you and your understanding of your self-esteem.

In my opinion, this score reflects that I am confident in the skin that I am in. Also, to me it shows that I am confident in my abilities however there is room to grow.

3. State why you believe your score is the number that it is. Provide examples.

I believe that my score is 26 because while I am confident in the skin that I am in, there are some insecurities that I have to work on. For example, on question number 1 it states, "I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others." I chose I agree because if I am being truthful with myself, I do not strongly agree with this statement. Unfortunately, my race and how we are treated in the world has had an impact on why I feel this way. Not to mention my own person experiences contributes to this as well. It is a fact that Black people are racially profiled and targeted, so how can we feel like we are on an equal plane when everywhere we turn, we are reminded that we are not. We have to work twice as hard to achieve things that are given to other ethnic groups for free.

POST 3.4: RACIAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT PADLET POST

1. State your stage of Racial Identity Development (they are in bold on the summary document provided). Please do not state that you are in the "People of Color" stage because that is not a stage. Please watch the video above for clarification.

Currently, I am in the Immersion stage.

2. State why you think that you are in the stage that you identified.

I think that I am in the Immersion stage because, I have a huge desire to surround myself with visible symbols of my racial identity. At times I actively avoid symbols of whiteness, however I am a big fan of some of their music. Also, I actively seek-out opportunities to explore African American history and I am a big supporter of peers from my own racial background. As Issa Rae once said so beautifully, "I'm rooting for everyone that is Black."

3. Provide an example of how you know that you have passed through the previous stages.

I know that I have passed the pre-encounter stage because before I had my first Encounter, I had no knowledge of the concept of race. In my first encounter, in elementary school, I was forced to see how different I was. I realized my race was looked at as less than and we were targeted.

4. State one thing that you learned from this process.

One thing that I learned is that I am 31 years old, and I still hold a heavy heart to my first encounter with race. This has caused me to have a tainted view of the world and stagnates my growth as a person. As much as I would like to believe that I have grown, at times I may still operate from my inner child when the situation my cause for an adult version of myself. I have some work to do.

POST 3.5: FIND YOUR RACIAL IDENTITY RESOURCE

This was one of my favorite songs as a child. This song helped me to get a better understanding of my abilities and some of our African history.

https://youtu.be/RvVfgvHucRY

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2.4 Padlet Discussion: Ubuntu, Afrocentricity and Nguzo Saba

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2.4 Padlet Discussion: Ubuntu, Afrocentricity and Nguzo Saba

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THEME 1: Ubuntu

1. The concept of Ubuntu is uniquely African. After reading the assigned reading and analyzing the short video by Dr. Nelson Mandela, do you think that the spirit of Ubuntu is alive and well today in African American culture? Explain your answer and give an example as to why you have chosen your position.

Personally, I think that the spirit of Ubuntu is alive in the African American community in some ways however it is not well. Ubuntu is the the practice of respect, helpfulness, sharing, community, caring, trust, and unselfishness. As Dr. Nelson Mandela said, living by Ubuntu does not mean you should not take care of yourself, but rather do so in order to be a better version of you so that you may be of service to your community. I have chosen this position because I there are some instances where I see us helping one another and being unselfish however as a community we have a lot of work to do. In my community, in Compton, the people orchestrate back to school drives, toy drives, getting all the kids new tennis-shoes, and most recently they are getting a Black History Month event together. On the other hand when the police murder African American people for no other reason than them being black, as a community we may speak out, we may march and or boycott however it does not last for long. The Church is probably the only place where Ubuntu is expected to be practiced but there is a lot of our community that do not trust the churches and for good reason.

2. Compare and contrast in detail and provide examples of any parallels/similarities that you have been able to identify between African cultures and African American culture. Has this concept of Ubuntu changed your worldview at all? Explain.

Some of the similarities that I have identified between the African cultures and the African American cultures are; helpfulness, caring, and community.

As I stated above I have seen my community come together and look out for one another. Giving back to the community, especially the youth is practicing helpfulness. As they say, the children are our future. This also shows that they are caring as well because we as a community is taking time out of our lives and money that some may not really have to give towards a bigger picture. The concept of Ubuntu has definitely changed my worldview by being able to look at the bigger picture. Although we have some of the same practices of Ubuntu, I can see that it is on a smaller scale than Africa's. If more of us took the time to practice this concept I believe that the world would be a better place. We have to start with us, becoming a better version of yourself not only benefits you, it also benefits your community because your higher version will instinctively was to be in service of your community.

THEME 2: 7 Concepts of Afrocentric Psychology

1. Choose and define the concept that you feel is most present in the African American community. Provide an example of how you have witnessed the concept you have chosen.

Inclusive metaphysical epistemology: When one uses both affective and cognitive syntheses of information as a way of knowing. Reality is not limited to what is understood by the five senses and rational logic is not the only way of obtaining knowledge.

I feel like this concept is most present in the African American community because every since I was a child, I was always told to go with my gut. Going with your gut feeling is being reliant on your intuition to tell you something that you mind may not be about to grasp just yet. Every one of my grandmothers always told our family, women in particular, when your intuition is telling you need to listen. They would say that our intuition is our spirit alarming us and that it is Gods gift to us.

I have witnessed this concept first hand this past New Years. A friend and I wanted to attended a New Years party. When we arrived the line was long but we wanted to attend so we stayed and waited for about 15 mins. We had notice the crowd getting impatient and upset so at 11:50 pm, we left because we had a gut feeling that made us start to feel uncomfortable. It kind of sucked that we could not get in and had to bring in the new year driving home however we both agreed that leaving was the right choice. The next day we woke up to the news that at same party, 2 people were shot and killed and a few others were injured outside of the event right around where we were standing to get in. God bless the people that lost their live and there families as well.

2. Then, define and provide an example of the concept that you feel is least present in the African American community. Also, provide an example.

Ma'at: A cardinal principle that governs the dynamic functioning of the universe and refers to balance and cosmic order. There are 7 cardinal virtues of ma'at; truth, justice, compassion, harmony, balance, reciprocity, and order. The more one practiced these virtues, the more developed one's self becomes.

I feel like ma'at is the concept that is the least present in the African American community because we do not have any order. The lack of order in our community leaves very little room for balance, harmony, truth, compassion, justice or reciprocity.

I will use the actress, comedian, superstar Mo'Nique as an example. When she initially spoke out about how Oprah and Tyler Perry tried to black ball her and Netflix was trying to under pay her, she asked the African American community to boycott Netflix as a way to flight for this injustice. She received a lot of unnecessary back lash from the very community that she was fight for, there was little to no reciprocity. She was telling the truth, almost no one had compassion for her experiences. The was no balance, the whole world seen how she was treated unfairly. When she went on interviews with African American host, there was no harmony. This is a sad truth in out community, that even when we are wronged and we choose to tell our truth, there is little to no support. There is no order.

THEME 3: 7 Principles of Nguzo Saba

1. Choose one of the 7 Principles of Nguzo Saba and define it on your Padlet. Then explain why it resonates with you and how you feel you have seen this value in action in the African American community. Provide an example.

Kujichagulia (self determination): To define ourselves, name ourselves, create for ourselves, and speak for ourselves.

This principle resonates with me because I feel like it is important that we as a people define ourselves because as we know the world already has an idea of who they think we are and how they think we are. One thing I pride my about being African American is, we ARE the culture. We establish what is "cool" in societies eyes. I think that as a people we know this but lack to confidence to fully stand in it to ignite change. In my opinion, every race wants to be us until it is time to be us. They was the perks (being considered woke, cool)however when it is time to stand with us for OUR cause, their legs mysteriously loose their ability to function.

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1.6 Who am I, First Experience With Race & Sense of Self Brainstorm

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1.6 Who am I, First Experience With Race & Sense of Self Brainstorm

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Theme 1: Who Am I Activity?

1. Who am I?

I am a Thirty one year old African American woman who is a mother of handsome boys. I am a kind hearted person by nature and I am God's child.

2. Who do I pretend to be?

At times I pretend to be a person who does not care what others think of me when really I care too much.

3. Who do people think I am?

People think that I am someone who has it all figured out when I am actually learning day by day like everyone eles.

4. Who do I wish I could be?

I wish I could be more confident in myself. I do not wish to be any other person.

5. How has race or ethnic identity played a role in any of these responses?

Ethnic identity has played a role in my responses because I am of a darker skin tone. Being a little black girl of a darker skin tone was not easy. I was called names and treated poorly by my peers. Also, pertaining to the media, it was not many women that looked like me being called beautiful or even put on a pedestal.

Theme 2: First Experience With Race Activity

1. What was your first experience with race?

If I can recall correctly my first experience with race was when I started a new school in Lakewood that was predominately Caucasian.

1. How old were you?

I was around 7 or 8 years old.

1. What emotions do you associate with the experience?

The emotions that I associate with that experience is feeling inferior, ugly, and uncomfortable.

1. Have you ever talked about the experience?

I do not recall a time where I have talked about this experience and how it effected me except now.

1. How have your early experiences with race shaped your worldview?

My early experiences with race has unfortunately shaped my worldview negatively. I am kinda embarrassed to admit that I still feel uncomfortable and inferior around Caucasian people.

Theme 3: Positive Sense of Self Brainstorm

After contemplating the first two prompts and our unit content, what connections can be made between having a positive sense of self and our experiences with identity and race? Brainstorm regarding your thoughts on how these concepts are connected. For example, do you think someone who has a negative view of their sense of self can have a positive sense of ethnic identity? Would you assume that a person who identifies positively with African American Psychology might have a stronger or weaker sense of self or ethnic identity? Please explain why.

The connection I have made is that my early experiences with race shaped my world view negatively. Those experiences made me feel as if I was inferior, ultimately taking a hit at my overall confidence which I still have issues with today. In regard to a person being able to have a positive sense of ethnic identity while simultaneously having a negative view of their sense of self, I believe there is some gray area. I think that it is possible to have a positive sense of ethnic identity however it may not be to the extent that it could be without going to therapy or working through those issues. I would assume a person who identifies positively with African American psychology has a stronger sense of self and ethnic identity. Being able to identify positively with African American Psychology means that you are secure within yourself.

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Your absolute favorite food ever. Attach your own photo or find search for one through the content picker.

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We don't judge books by covers, but we do accept recommendations!

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Post a photo of your favorite place. Attach your own photo or search for one through the content picker.