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A great TedTalk about teacher burnout and preventing it

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Preventing Teacher Burnout | Geraldine Hogan | TEDxMiramar

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Great ways to increase teacher retention

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Administration & Leadership

These days it's getting harder for administrators to retain staff, but there are ways to boost teacher morale and turn things around.

Why have so many teachers either failed to return to work, resigned, or chosen not to enter the field since the pandemic? What's made the profession become less attractive, and what can we do to change it?

Some districts in the United States have tried to incentivize becoming a teacher. Offering $1,000 signing bonuses and modifying district calendars from five-day weeks to four-day weeks, school leaders have tried to entice more candidates to work in their schools. But during a time when students are still dealing with learning loss and budgetary constraints, both of these solutions seem not to be in the best interest of the schools and students long term.

So what can schools and districts do to increase teacher retention and enhance recruitment efforts? We believe the answers are not in time and money but in appreciation and connection.

4 Tips for Administrators

1. Learn to appreciate the efforts of others. If you work in schools, your job is challenging, full stop. Rolling your sleeves up and working in the classroom is as hard as evaluating teachers and managing student interventions. The problem we face in schools is a lack of perspective. The days can become so encompassing that we forget to see the school from the eyes of the others who call it home. All administrators have been there; we were teachers once, too. The problem is that the further we get from the role, the easier it is to forget how hard the job truly is.

The number one reason people leave their jobs is that they don't feel appreciated. Take a step back and learn to see the job through the lens of your staff. Once you have that perspective, you can appreciate how difficult everyone's job is.

2. Eliminate toxic cultures. You can usually feel a school's culture as soon as you walk through the main entrance. You can tell if it's a building where teachers love to teach and where the students flourish, or if it's a place where teachers complain that students aren't happy. Ask yourself if there's a feeling of community in the air or something far less welcoming.

Negativity is contagious. It spreads like wildfire. A building's culture is often invisible, yet it can be one of the most critical components of a school's success and a teacher's desire to stay. What can start as the dismay of a single staff member can quickly become the culture of an entire building. For young, up-and-coming teachers, this can become a dealbreaker.

Overwhelmed by logistics and responsibilities, new teachers are often oblivious to the toxicity they've been enveloped by until it's too late. They often cannot see that their change in mindset, attitude, and motivation directly results from the toxic culture in which they work. Instead, they believe teaching isn't for them, that toxic environments are normal, and that the profession, unfortunately, is not what they thought it would be.

As educators, we must pride ourselves on pointing out the positives we see. Just as negativity is contagious, so is positivity. You may be the only one noticing great things, but it doesn't have to be that way. Give compliments, leave a note, do something that shows you notice the great things happening around you.

3. Connect with your staff on a personal level. Humans are social beings. We are more likely to reach our full potential when we feel connected to others. When we are forced to work in isolation, we struggle with motivation, appreciation, and success. Showing staff they are cared for beyond the schoolhouse walls makes them feel valued and connected. When we feel valued, we become committed and more likely to stay where we are.

Be authentic. The more real you are with your staff, the more real your staff will be with you. You are more than just an educator. You are likely a mother or father, sister or brother, aunt or uncle, neighbor, best friend, etc. Talk about the other roles you play in your life.

Ask staff questions, and get to know them as more than just teachers and educators. Get out of your office and get involved in the day-to-day activities of your school. Gain a better understanding of what's happening at each grade level or department, and create opportunities for effortless conversations. Bottom line: Take care of your employees personally.

4. Give teachers a voice. Besides being a good listener, leaders should empower staff and encourage them to lead. When educators realize they are being heard and have a voice in the important decisions of the school, they tend to show more attention and productivity in every task they are delegated. This starts by showing you value their voice and work. Moreover, giving every individual a say makes them more satisfied at work and puts them on positive terms with the school leaders.

Teaching is hard. If it were easy, anyone could do it. Retaining staff is an active proposition; it requires a degree of sacrifice that other tasks do not. We're in the business of people, and people are fluid, easily influenced by positive reinforcement, and vulnerable. We require constant recalibration. It's our job as school leaders to do the recalibrating and ensure that teachers work in optimal conditions. If we had taken care of our teachers in the spring of 2022, we likely wouldn't have found ourselves replacing so many of them in just a matter of weeks.

Improving teacher retention can support more significant learning for students in your building and educator growth in the art of teaching. A high turnover rate makes it incredibly difficult to institute educational initiatives or change. Experienced teachers who are familiar with the needs of a school and its students are best poised to educate and prioritize student needs.

When teachers leave your building or the profession, those voices are lost, and education suffers. Reducing turnover and dependence on substitutes is an integral step toward enhancing schools and our students' futures.

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These days it's getting harder for administrators to retain staff, but there are ways to boost teacher morale and turn things around.

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Showing appreciation

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Teacher Retention Strategies: The Power of Appreciation - Teaching Strategies

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Summary of Insights Showing appreciation is a powerful strategy for supporting teacher retention and strengthening early childhood programs. This blog highlights how meaningful recognition helps educators feel valued, connected, and motivated to stay in the profession. Feeling appreciated supports teachers’ well-being and long-term commitment Small, consistent acts of recognition can meaningfully improve staff morale Appreciation […]

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Detailed information on Chronic Absenteeism

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Detailed information on Chronic Absenteeism

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Looking at how it is linked to Mental Health deficiencies

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Chronic absenteeism, a primary cause of poor academic achievement, is defined as missing at least 10 percent of days in a school year for any reason, including excused and unexcused absences. For example, a student who misses as few as two days per month for each month of the school year is described as being chronically absent. In a school year, that's 18 to 20 total missed school days.

Chronic absenteeism is linked to health disparities and the achievement gap

Attendance matters

Being present in school every day matters. In addition to chronic absenteeism predicting low academic success, it also predicts which students may eventually drop out of school. Being chronically absent from school makes it hard for a student to keep up with the pace at which they are expected to learn and grow, causing that student to fall behind. Students who are chronically absent also miss out on opportunities to build friendships at school, become active in their school community and pursue future career interests.

Why aren't students in school?

Unfortunately, many students are not consistently present at school. Patterns of chronic absenteeism reflect common equity issues: Students who come from low-income families, students of color, students with disabilities and students involved in the juvenile justice system are more likely to be chronically absent. Additionally, major social determinants of health are intimately linked to chronic absenteeism. For example, factors like unsafe school conditions, bullying, housing instability, substance abuse and delinquency affect a student's attendance.

A Better Picture of Poverty explores the connection between chronic absenteeism and the important social supports students need, especially in New York City. It shows that students who often miss school are also deeply affected by poverty, enrolled in dysfunctional schools and disconnected from social services. This report also explains how a community schools approach can connect students to supports in an effort to reduce chronic absenteeism.[1]

School personnel are essential to eliminating chronic absenteeism

The first step in addressing chronic absenteeism is to understand what it is and who it affects. Knowing the causes and effects of a child being chronically absent can help inform solutions to reduce and ultimately eliminate this issue. Although eliminating chronic absenteeism may take years, school personnel can take steps now to help students succeed.

The federal initiative Every Student, Every Day produced a toolkit that outlines how schools can do more to prevent the long-term consequence of widespread chronic absenteeism, which is describes as "a population that is less educated, less healthy, underemployed, less financially stable, and more disenfranchised." 2 In the toolkit, the U.S. departments of Justice, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, and Education joined together to acknowledge the severity of chronic absenteeism and to recommend action steps:

Generate and act on absenteeism data.

o Prioritize the development of early warning prevention and intervention systems. Rates of chronic absenteeism are only so helpful. Strong data systems help schools and districts get timely information to prevent problems and intervene before it's too late.

o Identify which students are or may soon be chronically absent from school. The next important step is to ask "why?" and to identify the underlying causes of absenteeism.

o Increase every student's access to support services to address absenteeism before any student misses so much school that it is nearly impossible to catch up.

o Explore and enter into partnerships to increase and improve coordinated supports and interventions to address and eliminate chronic absenteeism. The community schools approach is an excellent framework for thinking about how to identify priorities and the partners who can assist.

Create and deploy positive messages and measures.

o Implement positive and supportive engagement strategies to improve students' attendance at, connection to and success in school. Consider mentoring, counseling and positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS).

o Refrain from using disciplinary measures, unless necessary. These are often ineffective, and can lead to unreasonable suspensions and expulsions from school and inappropriate referrals of schools and families to law enforcement.

Focus communities on addressing chronic absenteeism.

o Raise awareness amongst youth and families about the importance of chronic absenteeism.

o Design trainings for school personnel and affiliated community partners that are aimed to identify root cause analyses of absenteeism trends.

o Support student success by using effective research and evidence-based tools and programs.

Ensure responsibility across sectors.

o Communicate the key message: Chronic absenteeism is a problem that affects the entire community.

o Evaluate efforts across sectors to examine whether or not there has been progress toward eliminating chronic absenteeism.

o Work as a community so that everyone feels responsible for successfully addressing chronic absenteeism.

In addition to these four action steps, Every Student, Every Day also includes community action guides designed to support communitywide action to reduce chronic absenteeism.

Incentives as a way to eliminate chronic absenteeism

Rewarding students for being present in school has shown to be an effective and successful way to reduce absenteeism. For example, Diplomas Now operates AttenDANCE. The program rewards middle school students for being present at least 95 percent of their second quarter of school by letting them attend a dance. The incentive-along with calling absent students, tutoring, and case management to provide counseling, housing and healthcare-has been adopted across the country, including in Boston, Los Angeles, Washington, D.C., and Miami. 3

Another incentive-based program, Count Me In!, has been implemented in some California schools. Whole districts are rewarded at the end of the trimester at the elementary school level, and at the end of the semester in middle and high schools. Students may also enter a year-end drawing for larger prizes. This program uses rewards, such as a new car for one lucky high schooler, to change the way parents and students view attendance. This program has been successful in increasing attendance at all levels. 4

The most successful anti-absentee programs involve close tracking of attendance, identifying reasons for absence, building strong relationships with students and families, recognizing students for good attendance, and having assigned staff members to follow up with students who are absent.

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Chronic absenteeism, a primary cause of poor academic achievement, is defined as missing at least 10 percent of days in a school year for any reason, including excused and unexcused absences. For example, a student who misses as few as two days per month for each month of the school year is described as being chronically absent.

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A look at how schools are taking this on and tackling it

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How Schools Are Tackling Chronic Absenteeism | NEA

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Chronic absenteeism-when a student misses 10 percent of school days or more in one academic year-is a persistent nationwide problem. And many schools are still working to get students back to the classroom.

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A deeper look into what this is and who is impacted the most

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Learn more about how the Department of Education is supporting schools and communities to increase student attendance and combat chronic absenteeism in our nation’s schools.

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Family-School-Community Partnerships

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Research shows that when schools, parents, families, and communities work together, students:

This is true for students of all ages, all backgrounds, and across race and ethnicity. Furthermore, a variety of supports cutting across the spectrum of social, health, and academic needs may be necessary for school success. High quality schools have demonstrated track records connecting with community resources and families to improve student outcomes in all domains of development.

Although schools may interpret lack of involvement of immigrant or non-English speaking families as "not caring" about their children's education, this is most often NOT the case. Bilingual resources and staff, programs to help parents understand how to support their children's education, and parent liaisons who can connect the school and families to linguistically and culturally diverse community resources can be highly effective strategies for developing partnerships between schools, families, and the community.

Foundations for academic success begin in early childhood and are further developed during elementary school years. Conversely, patterns of failure and disengagement also begin early. For example, struggling readers are likely to continue to experience ongoing difficulties in secondary school if they are not supported early in their development. Continuity with family engagement strategies and partnerships with community programs from Pre-K/Elementary School to middle and high school can help support academic achievement throughout students' school tenure.

Adelman, H. & Taylor, L. (2007). Fostering School, Family, and Community Involvement. The Hamilton Fish Institute on School and Community Violence & Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Available at: http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/publications/44%20guide%207%20fostering%20school%20family%20and%20community%20involvement.pdf

Epstein, J. L. et al. (2009). School, family, and community partnerships: Your handbook for action. Third edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Family Support. (n.d.). National Education Association. Available at https://www.nea.org/student-success/engaged-families-communities/family-support

Handbook on Family and Community Engagement. (2011). http://www.families-schools.org/downloads/FACEHandbook.pdf

National Family, School, and Community Engagement Working Group: Recommendations for Federal Policy . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Family Research Project; 2009. Available at https://archive.globalfrp.org/family-involvement/publications-resources/national-family-school-and-community-engagement-working-group-recommendations-for-federal-policy

National Network of Partnership Schools' (NNPS). (n.d.). Available at https://nnps.jhucsos.com/

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Family-school-community partnerships are a shared responsibility and reciprocal process whereby schools and other community agencies and organizations engage families in meaningful and culturally appropriate ways, and families take initiative to actively support their children's development and learning.

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We know parents and caregivers are crucial to providing our students with the best possible education. We've seen-and research shows-that when families and communities are involved in their children's education, students attend school more regularly, stay in school longer, and perform at higher levels.

NEA Is Here for You

Families: we see how many responsibilities you have, how you support your children, how you extend yourselves further to help our educators do their jobs. We're here to support you, too.

NEA has teamed up with PBS station WETA to offer expert tips and resources to help educators and families navigate distance learning. Use these resources to make sure that learning continues-no matter where it takes place:
Find more support >

Parent engagement is central to education. They are the ones who will continue teaching their children long after they're out of class. - Nitzah Santiago-McRae, Aspiring Educator

How to Get Involved

Educating young people is a partnership between administrators, teachers, students, families, and the community. You can make a difference wherever you are. Join us at home, in your community, or at the state or national level. Ways to get started include:

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We know parents and caregivers are crucial to providing our students with the best possible education. We've seen-and research shows-that when families and communities are involved in their children's education, students attend school more regularly, stay in school longer, and perform at higher levels.

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Partnerships between families and the community

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Partnerships between families and the community

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Begin by engaging leaders of identified community organizations to learn how they are already supporting SEL and discuss ways to align and contribute to the district's approach to SEL. Schools and their partners may have similar social and emotional learning goals for the youth they work with, but may be using different terms or practices to achieve those goals. By comparing SEL frameworks, practices, and language, your district can learn what's working well from partners who often are better attuned to local needs and community culture, and partners can learn how to better reinforce and build on the social and emotional learning that takes place during the school day.

For key SEL community partners, set up regular meetings (such as quarterly) to intentionally align language and practices; check in on how they're working with schools, students and families; and strategize on how you can work together to ensure SEL is a priority during the school day and out-of-school time.

If you have many partners, you may want to set up a SEL community partner committee that meets regularly as a group to discuss strategies for aligning language and practices across organizations and the district. This is also a good way to ensure coordination and minimize duplicating efforts so that resources are efficiently allocated to ensure students and families have access to a broad range of SEL-related services.

You can learn about the process and common challenges of partnership through the experiences of school districts and out-of-school-time partners in Boston, Dallas, Denver, Palm Beach County, Tulsa, and Tacoma as part of the CASEL-supported Partnerships for Social and Emotional Learning Initiative (PSELI). The report shares lessons learned about launching and coordinating work, developing partnerships, supporting adult capacity building to promote SEL, and improving climate and the delivery of SEL instruction.

SEL Dallas, a collective that includes Dallas Independent School District, Big Thought, Dallas Afterschool, and City of Dallas Parks & Recreation, has published an online Guidebook that describes their approach to strengthening partnerships between schools and partners and provides tools and best practices they have developed through their ongoing collaborative work.

AIR's Beyond the Bell project provides resources for assessing and integrating SEL in OST programs.

The Partnership for Children & Youth shares Finding Common Ground: Connecting Social-Emotional Learning During and Beyond the School Day to support stronger alignment between in-school and expanded learning.

The Wallace Foundation's Social and Emotional Learning in Out-of-School Time Settings provides guidelines for adapting leading SEL programs for OST settings.

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Family and Community Partnerships Process - CASEL District Resource Guide

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Social and emotional learning (SEL) is reinforced and sustained when districts, families, and community partners align and work together. View process information here.

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Finding Hope Through School-Community Partnership | Heather Simonich | TEDxFargo

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Positive engagement to help schools with mentors, resources, and more!

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Learn and share ideas about how to engage caring individuals, organizations, and businesses to help schools with resources, mentors, internships, and more.

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Tiers of intervention for absenteeism

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3 Tiers of Intervention - Attendance Works

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Attendance Works recommends a tiered approach that starts with foundational supports for the whole school. These foundational supports are followed by prevention-oriented supports for attendance (Tier1), more personalized outreach or early intervention (Tier 2), and intensive intervention (Tier 3).

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Creating, maintaining, and supporting these schools

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The National Child Traumatic Stress Network

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Creating, Supporting, and Sustaining Trauma-Informed Schools: A System Framework

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Presents a tiered approach to creating a trauma-informed school environment that addresses the needs of all students, staff, administrators, and families who might be at risk for experiencing the symptoms of traumatic stress.

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An easy to follow definition of what MTSS is

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What is MTSS? A Helpful Analogy to Help Explain Multi-Tiered Systems of Support

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A look into retention and the importance of teacher to teacher support

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The overlooked importance of teacher to teacher relationships | Peter Ulrich

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A look into a community school and the benefits of it

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How a Community School Helps ELLs Succeed

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Great ways to support out learners who are multilingual

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Schools and school districts are being asked to provide more and more services to students while being given few additional resources. This brief discusses how school districts can use partnerships with outside organizations and agencies to help provide those additional services. Partner organizations can help schools and districts build and strengthen healthy learning environments by bringing in additional programs and services and providing additional opportunities for schools to connect with families and other local community members. This brief first describes what school-community partnerships are and the evidence on whether partnerships can promote students' social and emotional well-being and their academic success. It further reflects on how districts and schools can expand these partnerships to assist school transformation at three levels-the program level, the staff level, and the structural and policy level-while weaving in practical advice from district leaders with successful district-wide partnership systems.
What Are School-Community Partnerships?

They are respectful and collaborative partnerships between schools and outside organizations.

Partners can provide academic enrichment activities, tutoring and behavior support, health and social services, and family and community engagement.

School-Community Partnerships Have Proven to Be Effective

Studies show these partnerships can lead to:

Stronger social and emotional skills development

Enhanced student engagement (higher attendance rates and lower chronic absenteeism)

Improved academic outcomes (higher test scores and better grades, higher rates of on-time grade promotion, and higher graduation rates)

Partnerships at Three Levels

At the program level partnerships can:

Provide additional learning experiences inside and outside the normal school day

Offer individual support for students and their families

Supply additional opportunities for meaningful relationships with adults

Create deeper connections with families and communities

Districts can strengthen partnerships at the staff level by:

Including partner organizations in staff training related to social and emotional well-being, restorative behavioral practices, and equity

Creating district- and school-level positions to manage relationships and foster school and partner communication

Providing school principals and other administrators with the guidance and training needed to make partnership successful

Districts can advance partnerships at the structure and policy level by:

Developing formal ways for partner organizations to contribute to a school's strategic plan

Enabling data sharing between schools and partner organizations

Developing district-level funding streams to help bring stability to partnerships

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Schools and school districts are being asked to provide more and more services to students while being given few additional resources. This brief discusses how school districts can use partnerships with outside organizations and agencies to help provide those additional services.

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How to develop engagement between the school, community and our families

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How to develop engagement between the school, community and our families

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A starting point for engagement

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20 Tips for Developing Positive Relationships With Parents

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Blogger Elena Aguilar shares 20 tips to help teachers better connect with parents.

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The difference between empathy and sympathy

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Let's walk toward our bias to overcome it

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Let's walk toward our bias to overcome it

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An incredible discussion to how to overcome biases

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How to overcome our biases? Walk boldly toward them

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Our biases can be dangerous, even deadly — as we’ve seen in the cases of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, and Eric Garner, in Staten Island, New York. Diversity advocate Vernā Myers looks closely at some of the subconscious attitudes we hold toward out-groups. She makes a plea to all people: Acknowledge your biases. Then move toward, not away from, the groups that make you uncomfortable. In a funny, impassioned, important talk, she shows us how.

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What is Implicit Bias? an easy to follow definition

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What is Implicit Bias? an easy to follow definition

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Implicit bias defined

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POV | Implicit Bias: Peanut Butter, Jelly and Racism | PBS

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What does implicit bias have to do with peanut butter?

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A dive deeper into the PTA and how it partners with the school and home

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A dive deeper into the PTA and how it partners with the school and home

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The PTA and the standards in which make an exceptional partnership between families and the school

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National Standards for Family-School Partnerships | National PTA

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The benefits of family-school-community partnerships are many: higher teacher morale, more parent involvement, and greater student success are only a few. Learn how to raise awareness, take action and celebrate success as your school sees increased involvement by following these steps.

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The role of mental health professionals in the school...what do they do?

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The role of mental health professionals in the school...what do they do?

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Partnerships between the schools and Mental health professionals

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Partnerships between the schools and Mental health professionals

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Partnerships at the Interface of Education and Mental Health Services: The Utilisation and Acceptability of the Provision of Specialist Liaison and Teacher Skills Training

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Partnerships between school staff and mental health professionals have the potential to improve access to mental health support for students, but uncertainty remains regarding whether and how they work in practice. We report on two pilot projects…

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Effective partnerships with the school and community

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Effective partnerships with the school and community

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Mental health professionals within the school

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Mental health professionals within the school

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Mental Health Professionals in Schools

Schoolwork can sometimes take a mental toll on students. Added to the demands of home life, extracurriculars, and social pressures, school children sometimes find themselves facing legitimate mental crises.

While these mental health crises often do not require medical intervention, students may need a mental health professional to help them organize their stressors and identify their problems. That is the benefit of mental health professionals in schools.

Mental health professionals are typically school counselors who are present to talk with students and intervene if they have a mental health crisis. They provide an alternative to teachers, staff, or parents, as school mental health professionals are specifically trained to help adolescents overcome their struggles and progressively work through their problems.

In this post, we will discuss mental health professionals in schools, including their role when it comes to student psychology, and the benefits they can offer schools and students.

Importance of Mental Health Support in Educational Settings

Mental health has a significant impact on academic performance and overall well-being. Students who are dealing with mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, or general stress may find it difficult to concentrate, participate in activities, and perform to the best of their abilities in the classroom. This can lead to falling grades, decreased motivation, and a lower overall sense of well-being.

Addressing the stigma surrounding mental health issues in educational environments is crucial. Many students may feel ashamed or embarrassed to seek help for their mental health concerns due to the stigma surrounding mental illness. This can prevent them from getting the support they need to thrive academically and emotionally.

Providing mental health support in educational settings is essential for this reason. Schools and colleges should prioritize creating a supportive and inclusive environment where students feel comfortable seeking help for their mental health concerns. This can include offering counseling services, mental health education, and promoting open discussions about mental health. By normalizing the conversation around mental health, educational institutions can help reduce the stigma and encourage students to seek the support they need.

How can you transform teen behavior with positive communication? Check out this guide to learn more!

Student Psychology: Common Challenges and Concerns

Student psychology encompasses a wide range of common challenges and concerns that students may face as they navigate their academic and personal lives.

Social and peer relationships also play a significant role in student psychology, as students navigate friendships, social dynamics, and peer pressure. Family dynamics and the home environment can also have a profound impact on student mental health, as conflicts or lack of support at home can contribute to stress and emotional struggles.

Identity development and self-esteem are also key areas of concern for students, as they navigate the complexities of adolescence and strive to establish a sense of self and belonging. Additionally, coping with transitions and life changes, such as moving to a new school or facing major life events, can be challenging for students and may require support and coping strategies.

Middle school and high school are often periods when chronic mental illness arises. Students are often unprepared to deal with these sudden new challenges and school psychologists or counselors can play a key role in helping students navigate these obstacles.

A strong relationship between parents and children is one of the best ways to ensure strong mental health for children. Learn more about relationship-building conversations between parents and children in this blog post!

In the next section, we will look at the benefits of mental health professionals in schools, and how they can help improve student academic performance.

Benefits of Having Mental Health Professionals in Schools

Academic stress and pressure are often at the forefront, as students juggle coursework, exams, and expectations from teachers and parents. This can lead to feelings of anxiety and overwhelm, impacting their mental well-being.

Having mental health professionals in schools can bring many benefits to students, staff, and the school community. These professionals play a crucial role in early intervention and prevention of mental health issues, providing support to students who may be struggling with anxiety, depression, or other mental health challenges. By addressing these issues early on, mental health professionals can help prevent these problems from escalating and impacting a student's academic performance or school engagement.

Furthermore, the presence of mental health professionals can also contribute to improving academic performance and school engagement by addressing the underlying mental health factors that may be hindering a student's ability to focus and participate in their education. They can also help create a safe and supportive school environment, fostering positive relationships and communication among students, parents, and school staff.

In addition, mental health professionals can enhance student resilience and coping skills, reducing behavioral issues and discipline problems. They can provide mental health resources and interventions that support students in developing healthy coping mechanisms and managing stress and emotions effectively.

These services at schools can make a big difference, especially if students are also pursuing help from mental health providers. School psychologists in both public schools and private schools provide mental health services that go a step beyond what a school nurse, social worker, or teacher can provide. Many school districts are investing in mental health professionals and the benefits are becoming clearer with more research.

Looking for more details? The Ohio Department of Education and Workforce recently published a comprehensive guide on school-based mental health. Review the full report here!

Mental Health Support from Child Focus

Today, there is more mental strain on children than ever before. Advancements in technology, like smartphones and social media, mean that the students of today are never truly separated from social pressures. That takes a mental toll.

Unfortunately, because of this the support of parents, teachers, and even school mental health services are often not enough. Public schools and private schools do what they can, but often students need more specialized and dedicated support.

That is where Child Focus comes in. We offer school-based mental health prevention and case management. For additional services like medication and ongoing individual, family or group therapy is offered in Norwood, Eastgate and Mt. Orab offices. Our team of experienced professionals offers individual and family therapy designed to assist in crisis intervention, academic or professional development, and treating mental health and substance use disorders.

Child Focus is here for you and your family. Click here to reach out today and begin a discussion on your family's mental health needs!

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Mental Health Professionals in Schools | Child Focus

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Schoolwork can sometimes take a mental toll on students. Added to the demands of home life, extracurriculars, and social pressures, school children sometimes find themselves facing legitimate mental crises.  While these mental health crises often do not require medical intervention, students may need a mental health professional to help them organize their stressors and identify their problems. That is the benefit of mental health professionals in schools.

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Young people today show troubling signs of declining mental health, and more than half of children with mental health issues have an unmet need for mental health care. Schools rely on school counselors, psychologists, and community mental health providers to support students’ mental health; however, their ability to provide needed supports is strained.

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Students’ connectedness to peers and school is linked to teachers promoting pro-social behaviors.

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Managing challenging behaviors in children

"There is a lot of research on programs to help parents manage their children's behavior. It is not complex for clinicians to learn key evidence-based principles and share them with parents, even in brief office visits," explains Elena Man, MD, a board-certified pediatrician and faculty member at The REACH Institute.

We asked Dr. Man to walk us through how clinicians can respond when parents come to them with concerns about their child's behavior.

As a clinician, the first step is to get the details.

"Parents will often come in with generalities," explains Dr. Man. "They are frustrated and overwhelmed by their children's behavior, such as extended tantrums, hitting, and yelling. Their school or daycare may even be threatening to remove the child if their behavior doesn't change."

To get to the root of the problem, clinicians need to understand specifics, including the context of and response to the behavior. It is important for parents to realize that if a child is tired, hungry, mentally fatigued, sick, or in pain, behaving appropriately can be difficult. Dr. Man advises clinicians to also "consider the home structure, the parent's mental health, and the overall psychosocial situation. For example, if there is abuse happening, acting out may be the child's way of coping."

Clinicians can start by asking parents for an example of the concerning behavior and using the COLDER approach to learn more:

Clinicians should also keep an eye out for medical conditions that may require separate treatment, such as sensory overload, developmental delay, cognitive deficit, mental health conditions, or hearing difficulties.

During the conversation, be sure to empathize with parents and children.

Parents may feel shame or guilt about their child's behavior, which can come off as defensiveness. The school or daycare may also blame the parent, adding to their frustration. Clinicians can empathize and explain that every child is unique and some children are more challenging than others.

Clinicians can then introduce parents to the basics of positive reinforcement

There are several programs that train parents to manage behavioral issues, but not all parents have the time and resources to participate in these. This is why The REACH Institute created our newest course, Practical Behavior Management in Pediatric Primary Care, which enables clinicians to deliver the most effective evidence-based strategies directly to parents.

Indeed, recent research reveals that when supporting parents and managing difficult behaviors, sticking with fewer but more effective interventions delivers better results.

Key strategies clinicians can share with parents are:

Praise the positive opposite. "Data shows that positive reinforcement is the most powerful tool for changing children's behavior," explains Dr. Man. Rather than catching their children misbehaving, parents should aim to "catch them being good."

Parents can start by identifying what Dr. Alan E. Kazdin calls the "positive opposite" of a problematic behavior. For example, if a child is hitting their sibling, the positive opposite is treating each other gently. The parent should explain what it means to treat each other gently and let the child know they will be looking for this behavior during the different periods of the day. When the parent notices the positive behavior, they should praise the child with enthusiasm and specifics.

When parents consistently use praise this way, the positive behavior will recur and become a habit.

For example, in Dr. Man's practice, the parents of a nine-year-old boy came to her because anytime their child became frustrated he started yelling and cursing. Dr. Man helped the parents identify the "positive opposite" of the undesirable behavior: using kind and respectful language.

The parents talked to their child about why kind and respectful language was important and empathized with how hard it can be to control language when you're upset. Along with their child, the parents committed to managing themselves better too. They verbally praised their child's positive behavior when it occurred and even set up a reward system where the child could earn stars for positive behavior during different segments of the day. Very quickly the cursing resolved.

Be intentional with attention. "Children do not distinguish between positive and negative attention," explains Dr. Man. "So if parents are yelling at their child for misbehaving, they are still giving them attention." Instead, parents should focus on praising positive behaviors and, when needed, using strategies like time outs effectively, which REACH covers in our course.

Prioritize behavioral changes. Clinicians should encourage parents to focus on one behavior at a time, instead of reacting to all behaviors. For example, if the most challenging behavior is hitting, parents should ignore smaller things like eye rolling or occasional door slamming while they work on the larger behavioral change.

Make sure the punishment fits. Parents should make sure that any punishment for their child's behavior at home or in school is both appropriate and effective. Evidence shows that physical punishment or prolonged duration of punishment does not work.

Dr. Man shared a story of how punishment can go awry. A parent came to her because their child was acting out at school. When the child misbehaved, the school called the parent, who would leave work, take the child home, and return to work. The result? The child spent afternoons at home playing video games - a "punishment" that incentivized rather than deterred the behavior.

RESOURCES

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Managing challenging behaviors in children | The REACH Institute

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"There is a lot of research on programs to help parents manage their children's behavior. It is not complex for clinicians to learn key evidence-based principles and share them with parents, even in brief office visits," explains Elena Man, MD, a board-certified pediatrician and faculty member at The REACH Institute....

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Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) (83)

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Trauma-Informed, Resilience-Oriented Schools Toolkit - National Center for School Safety

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A toolkit outlining a framework for implementing Trauma-Informed, Resilience-Oriented (TR) approaches in schools and school districts.

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An agency that is able to support your needs.

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Clearfield and Jefferson County — Center for Community Resources

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No Bad Kids | Destini Ann | TEDxRutgersCamden

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How to deal with students who are disruptive

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How to deal with students who are disruptive

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What can we do with disruptive children? | Debbie Breeze | TEDxNantwich

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From Attention to Connection: Responding to Challenging Behavior in Caring Ways

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Mental Health in Schools

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Mental Health in Schools: We’re Doing it Wrong | Maya Dawson | TEDxYouth@CherryCreek

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Transforming communities

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Restorative Practices in Schools Have Power to Transform Communities | Liz Knapp | TEDxMcMinnville

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How culture can play a part in mental health

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How culture can play a part in mental health

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Hello Idaho: How culture can play a role in mental health

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How administration and staff collaborate to support the students

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9.2023 CC TIE Interview with ES MS Principal and SW

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Teaching expectations

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Deploying a Trauma Informed Approach

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Our nation's teachers are as critical to young people and society as they've ever been. Teachers provide care that might be lacking in the home. They're trained to guard against school violence, and more recently, the threat of COVID-19. They're working with students to adjust to new models of learning and new modes of forming relationships. And, amid this backdrop, teachers are still charged with their most important task: shaping the hearts and minds of their students every day. In doing so, they often make decisions about which information and which discussions are appropriate for the school setting-and which ones may not be. The reality, however, is that students often enter their learning environments well aware of the latest news headlines or are directly experiencing the challenges of a world in crisis: a global health pandemic, racial injustice, and economic uncertainty.

The Experience of Trauma

Trauma-defined as any event that makes a person feel like their life or the life of someone they love is threatened in some way-is a widespread experience among children in the United States. According to the 2018 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH), one in three children under the age of 18 experiences trauma (a number that has only been increasing during 2020). When trauma occurs early in life, it can be debilitating if adequate supports for healing are unavailable. The National Education Association (NEA) reports that traumatized five-year-olds are three times more likely to have problems with paying attention, and two times more likely to show aggression.

Today many children are experiencing trauma firsthand, and some are facing tremendous loss. It may be the loss of a family member, a routine, or the mental health services often provided through school. For students of color and students in vulnerable communities, these concerns are especially profound; data from the Education Trust reveals that these children often have far less access to a range of resources and, therefore, more learning gaps and elevated stress levels.

Activating Powerful Approaches for Trauma Informed Care

As school leaders and educators, being equipped to deal with heightened and varying degrees of behavioral and mental health challenges-feelings of isolation, anxiety, grief, and much more-among all of our students is currently as essential as ensuring their academic achievement. So how do we support them in dealing with the uncertainty of these times, while bolstering their feeling of emotional safety? As we expand support for students in our care, it is important that we understand and are ready to deploy a trauma-informed approach. A trauma-informed approach is, at its heart, a relationship-based approach: it creates an opportunity for the teacher to work with students to understand their life stories and identify their triggers, develop their coping skills, and find their power to show up in our schools authentically.

Download 4R's PDF Here First I want to offer a powerful example of a teacher using a trauma-informed approach and then introduce you to an effective framework for activating it. In the classroom one day, a teacher's student walked into class wearing a hat. Everyone knows students can't wear a hat during class. The teacher said: "Young man you need to take your hat off." He didn't respond. She repeated herself, and he still didn't respond. At that moment, she might have been inclined to discipline him-like many of us may be similarly inclined at that point. But instead, she thoughtfully took the student aside, asking him: "What is so important about this hat?" After some nudging, the student finally revealed that he had been placed into foster care the night before, and the only thing connecting him to his mother was his beloved hat. The teacher worked with him: she talked to him with compassion and helped him to put the hat in a place where he could see it and know it was there; but they agreed he wouldn't wear it until the end of the day. Understanding his story led to an effective trauma-informed approach instead of an escalating situation leading to the principal's office.

4 R's Framework

A useful method for understanding and deploying a trauma-informed approach similar to the aforementioned is using the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's (SAMHSA) 4 R's framework:

Realize the widespread impact of trauma

Recognize how it is impacting the student

Respond in a way to allow students to feel heard and facilitate healing from trauma

Resist re-traumatization

1. Realize the widespread impact of trauma

The traumatic events students experience are sometimes difficult for adults to believe given the unthinkable pain these experiences inflict. However, a school's realization of the widespread impact trauma has on the student body is the first meaningful step toward creating a trauma-informed school. By acknowledging trauma can disrupt students' academic, social, and emotional well-being, administrators and teachers are positioned to respond to student behavioral challenges with supports that keep students in the classroom, instead of disciplinary actions that disconnect them from school.

Realizing the widespread impact of trauma begins to restore trust that may have been lost when others failed to see how these traumatic experiences contributed to challenging behaviors. Creating regular opportunities to check in with students about the impact of experiences outside the classroom provides a practical strategy for trauma acknowledgment without requiring administrators and teachers to become mental health professionals. Questions such as, "what has been toughest for you about everything happening in the world this past week?" or "could you share some of the feelings you and your family had this week about the changes we experienced this school year?" open the door to regular communication that destigmatizes students sharing about their experiences. Ultimately, simply asking these questions routinely can increase insight about drivers of student behavior and begin the process of healing from trauma that occurs when administrators and school staff recognize the signs of trauma.

2. Recognize how it is impacting the student

As students navigate current life challenges while managing in-person or remote learning during an uncertain time, it is important to actively engage students in opportunities to share how challenges are impacting their social-emotional well-being. Whether students are eager to engage or appear unresponsive, their behavior provides insight into their mental health and can clue school staff into signs that trauma is impacting students. Signs may include changes in mood, appearing "zoned out," argumentative and aggressive behavior, avoidance of class, and pervasive negative feelings about themselves or the world in general.

When students are displaying these behaviors frequently or intensely, it is likely that their brain is working to keep them safe from threats they consciously or unconsciously believe are present. If we were to simplify how the brain responds to trauma, we could divide the brain into two parts: survival brain and learning brain. The survival brain is responsible for our stress response (fight, flight, or freeze), while the learning brain is responsible for our executive functioning skills (i.e., impulse control, accurately reading situations, etc.). Recognizing the signs that students are impacted by trauma and their survival brain is highly activated is an important step toward restoring feelings of safety for students and prompting the use of their learning brain to deal with challenges in school and life.

Administrators and teachers can begin helping students calm their survival brain by identifying triggers for feeling unsafe. These triggers are anything that consciously or unconsciously reminds students of traumatic experiences and may include unpredictable situations, yelling, being ignored, people who remind the student of someone who traumatized them in the past, or certain times of the year such as the holidays because they remind students of people they have lost. Actively asking students about thoughts or body sensations the student had before feeling very unsafe and their survival brain activated begins to help the student and staff feel empowered. This empowerment supports students controlling their behavior before it becomes too disruptive to the class or the student's life.

By working with students to document triggers, it gives students practice using their learning brain to think through effective strategies for responding to triggers, and will likely give administrators and teachers ideas for reducing or eliminating triggers from the classroom and school environment. Ultimately, this trauma-informed approach opens the door to schools effectively responding to the impact of trauma and facilitating healing.

3. Respond in a way to allow students to feel heard

As educators encourage students to activate their learning brain, administrator and teacher responses using strategies that help students feel heard and seen are foundational to facilitating a trauma-informed approach that calms a highly activated survival brain. A primary strategy is ensuring information is digestible and easy to understand for students. Students who have experienced trauma may have difficulty finding emotional safety in the classroom. Educators who give confusing directions, create unpredictable situations, or abruptly introduce transitions such as moving quickly to the next task without a warning, can heighten student feelings of emotional unsafety. Actively creating a predictable school environment that is structured to support students' emotional needs communicates a desire to be responsive to student needs prior to their behavioral outbursts.

When students feel their emotional needs are seen by educators before they are in crisis, it can empower them to communicate emotional needs more frequently. A trauma-informed approach maximizes students' feelings of empowerment by providing opportunities for student choice and access to opportunities for expression of emotional needs and healing. Trauma can lead to feelings of powerlessness and providing opportunities for students to choose their school experiences can counter these feelings and promote healthier decisions. Choices as simple as students choosing their seat in the classroom can potentially diffuse volatile situations while cultivating empowerment and accountability for managing their behavior after they make a choice. Coupling choices with opportunities to receive emotional support ranging from access to a calming corner to an opportunity to speak with a trusted adult when upset can validate legitimate feelings of anger and sadness, while opening the door to experiences that strengthen the learning brain.

The hope is students who have experienced trauma receive support that bolsters trust, provides a pathway to therapeutic services when needed, and does not re-traumatize the student and cause further harm.

4. Resist re-traumatization

Schools generally have intentions to support students, particularly those impacted by trauma. Intentions, unfortunately, do not always equate to impact. Holistically integrating a trauma-informed approach involves recognizing the impact of individual traumatic events such as abuse and domestic violence while also acknowledging the role of historical and intergenerational traumas on communities. Historical traumas represent collective woundings that have impacted entire communities such as the Holocaust, genocide of indigenous people, and slavery, while intergenerational trauma reflects the transmission of trauma across generations. Collectively, these individual and collective traumatic experiences may lead students and their parents to protect themselves from systems that they believe caused harm to their community in the past.

Parental behaviors such as refusing to let students engage with school counselors or showing sensitivity to exclusionary disciplinary actions for their child that received less punitive responses for students of a different race or ethnicity may be misinterpreted by administrators and teachers as defiant or oppositional. From the parent and student perspectives, it may be viewed as students and parents protecting themselves from the unintended systemic impacts of bias that is generated from historical and intergenerational traumas. By educators believing the route to trauma-informed responses in schools can only happen when trauma-informed solutions are proposed by school staff, schools may unintentionally cause additional harm and ignore one of the most important steps to building a trauma-informed school: asking parents and students what will support their healing. Administrators and teachers position schools to maximize trauma-informed approach by viewing students and families as partners in building a trauma-informed school.

Learn More: Empowered Students

Overcoming the impact of past traumatic experiences can be a healing journey for students that schools can serve as a central facilitator. Educators have the unique opportunity to create a trauma-informed school that increases emotional safety, builds prosocial skills, and promotes healthy decision-making processes for all students. It can be a challenging, extended process, but the reward is creating more empowered students prepared to contribute as citizens in a complex and interconnected world.

As you and your school consider how to meet students where they are during challenging times, online psychoeducational services may support your school in extending its in-person team and reaching students at home and in school.
Dr. Pickens is a licensed clinical psychologist, an avid speaker, and the founder of iOpening Enterprises. He recently partnered with PresenceLearning to launch Finding Your Power in Uncertain Times, a six-session program designed to help students who are struggling with life's current stressors including COVID-19, economic uncertainty, and civil unrest.

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Deploying a Trauma-Informed Approach: Use the 4 R's | Presence

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Use the 4 R's of trauma-informed care-realize, recognize, respond, resist-to create safe, supportive learning environments for all students.

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Everyone is different, embrace the differences

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Everyone is different, embrace the differences

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Respecting the differences between people | Mariana Chartier | TEDxYouth@BSCR

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We Are All Different - and THAT'S AWESOME! | Cole Blakeway | TEDxWestVancouverED

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A look into our County's children and youth services

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Children & Youth | Clearfield County, PA

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The purpose of Clearfield County Children, Youth and Family Services is to protect children and preserve families, assuring their safety and permanent placement.

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Looking at the likelihood of a positive outcome

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Criminal

Arrest rates for male former foster children are between 25% & 35%, but have been reported to be over 40%.

Of those arrested, one-quarter to one-half are subsequently convicted.

Arrest rates for women are much lower-about 10%.

Adults who had received foster family care participated in less criminal behavior than those who had been in group care or had been living with relatives.

Homelessness

The number of former foster children among the homeless may suggest that efforts have fallen short to provide some sort of transition to independence for those who age out of foster care. Or it may suggest something else entirely, such as that children sent to foster homes have severe problems that make them vulnerable to homelessness, or that the foster care experience is debilitating in a way that leaves them unable to function independently, or that they lack family support networks to provide them with housing in a crisis. The exact link between foster care and homelessness is not known.

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Arrest rates for male former foster children are between 25% & 35%, but have been reported to be over 40%. Of those arrested, one-quarter to one-half are subsequently convicted. Arrest rates for women are much lower-about 10%. Adults who had received foster family care participated in less criminal behavior than those who had been in group care or had been living with relatives.

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The effects can last longer than you may think

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Children in foster care are facing tremendous hardships. The simple act of leaving home is a traumatic experience, but this is just the beginning for children entering the welfare system. Many have been removed from their home due to abuse or neglect. Many are forced to adapt to constantly changing environments, as they are bounced from home to home. Some are returned to their biological family after a short-term placement, only to be reentered back into the system.

Living in foster care is challenging, no matter the situation, and this experience can have a negative impact on a children's mental and behavioral health.

While the goal of foster care is to provide children with a safe and nurturing temporary home until they can be reunited with their biological family or given permanent placement, the reality is that more than 20,000 foster care children age out of the system on an annual basis before this happens.

To support the health and well-being of children in foster care, it's important to understand what they endure on a regular basis, what risks they face, and what solutions are available to prevent negative mental health outcomes.

The Effects of Early Childhood Trauma

In many foster care cases, children are removed from their biological home due to maltreatment, abuse, or neglect, which means the child has likely experienced physical, emotional, or psychological trauma.

Even if a child is taken out of their home for other reasons-a parent is sent to prison, both parents have died, a parent is battling a substance use disorder-they are still dealing with a traumatic event that can have serious mental health implications.

"In foster care, children are often moved around a lot and have to interact with multiple people in their journey. With instability comes loss, and loss is always part of foster care starting with the removal or separation of the child from their first family," says Ebony E. White, PhD, LPC, NCC, ACS. There is a constant 'starting over' process that children endure in the system, and this can cause problems with attachment and detachment, which impacts the child's ability to form and maintain healthy relationships.

Without support or the proper treatment, children in foster care may have a hard time processing, understanding, and recovering from their circumstances and this can cause physical, mental, and emotional symptoms that can extend into adulthood.

Not only do these children need proper mental health care, but they need ongoing support from their guardians, social workers, and state agencies.

Mental Health Disorders Associated With Foster Care

Foster care children are among the most vulnerable in the world, so it's no surprise that the majority face mental and behavioral health problems. When you're taken out of your home by a stranger and placed in a new home or congregate setting with more strangers, you're bound to experience anger, confusion, fear, and distrust.

When placed into another home, many children in foster care ask the following questions, according to John DeGarmo, Ed.D, founder of The Foster Care Institute: Why am I here? Did I do something wrong? Do my parents not love me anymore? How long will I be here?

Foster care children experience high rates of mental health disorders and are at an increased risk of experiencing negative long-term health outcomes.

Common mental health disorders seen among foster care youth include:

It's also common for foster care children to experience comorbid disorders and engage in high-risk behaviors such as violence, substance use, and delinquency.

"Children in foster care often struggle with issues of trust, attachment, and anxiety," says Dr. DeGarmo. They also face significant emotional difficulties such as a lack of self worth and the need to be in control, which can make it hard to establish healthy, loving relationships.

Barriers Facing Long-Term Foster Care Youth

While some children are reunited with their biological family or adopted into a new family, many others age out of foster care and find themselves without the support they need to live independently. Youth leaving foster care, also called care leavers, suffer more with mental health and behavioral problems than non-fostered youth and are more likely to be incarcerated.

Among foster care youth who receive five different placements, approximately 90% get involved with the criminal justice system.

The transition to adulthood - and independent living - for foster care youth is extremely difficult, as many experience low levels of support, which leads to an increased risk of social exclusion, homelessness, unemployment, low education, financial difficulties and behavioral problems. This is especially true of LGBTQ+ youth, youth of color, and youth diagnosed with mental illnesses.

In order to aid in this transition, we need to provide foster care youth with educational assistance, job training, housing placement, and financial support, as their biggest concerns often revolve around social drivers like housing, finances, employment, and access to health care.

Providing Mental and Behavioral Health Care and Support

Studies suggest that among the 40% of youth in foster care, up to about 80% exhibit a serious behavioral or mental health problem requiring intervention. The problem is that many mental health issues go unaddressed and untreated, and far too often, the children are blamed for their behavior rather than offered support and care.

"Children need to have structure, boundaries, consistency, affection, and attention," Dr. Ebony White explains. "We have to try to and support our children in foster care with some sense of stability and consistency in order to support healthy mental, emotional, and social well-being."

Simply living in foster care, for any period of time, puts a child at a high risk of developing medical, behavioral, and/or emotional difficulties.

Children in foster care don't always get their basic human needs met. A child may be experiencing homelessness, housing instability, food insecurity, financial hardship, maltreatment, or neglect, which prevents them from addressing and meeting other human needs like connectedness, intimacy, love, independence, and self-actualization.

"It is important that children in foster care receive professional therapy and counseling services," says Dr. DeGarmo. "Along with this, foster parents need to ensure that their child in care and in their home are provided security, safety, consistency, and feelings of being loved unconditionally. Foster parents must also be patient, understanding, compassionate, and non-judgmental in order for the child to heal and thrive."

A Word From Verywell

Living in foster care can negatively impact a child's health, but the system isn't all bad. Many children are reunited with their biological parents or adopted by family members or foster care families-and one study shows that foster care youth who experienced maltreatment have increased levels of adaptive functioning.

Adverse childhood experiences can have long-term consequences, which is why it's so important to address them as soon as possible. Mental health professionals are available at any time to discuss symptoms, diagnoses, and treatments or simply offer mental health support as you navigate life.

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The Mental Health Effects of Living in Foster Care

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The difficulties of living in foster care can take a significant toll on children's mental and behavioral health. Learn more about mental health in foster care.

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A look at the impact on the development of children in foster care

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The impact of foster care on development - PubMed

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Foster care is a protective intervention designed to provide out of home placement to children living in at-risk home environments. This study employs prospective longitudinal data (N = 189) to investigate the effects of foster care on the development of child behavior and psychological functioning …

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Many children need temporary placement. Are you willing to open your home to be a safe place

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A look into child maltreatment

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WHO fact sheet on child maltreatment providing key facts and information on the scope of the problem, consequences, prevention and WHO response.

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They are a part of our lives, but just who are they? what do they need to report?

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How you are able to report abuse or neglect, and yes you can remain annon too!

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Various resources such as applying for SNAP assistance, Medicaid, Chip, etc.

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A real life event and the effects of trauma; a look into implementing trauma informed teaching

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Trauma Informed Teaching | Dr. Meredith Fox | TEDxFieldstoneDriveED

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Being able to effectively teach those who are impacted by trauma

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Working in a variety of school settings, it’s important to have an understanding of how to support students who have dealt with trauma. Trauma is the #1 risk factor for young people to develop a mental illness. This workshop will (1) define trauma as a normal reaction to an abnormal situation, (2) teach educators ways to support students struggling to cope with past trauma, and (3) leave educators with an understanding on how to connect students with appropriate self-help, peer-to-peer, and professional resources.

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How you are able to prevent child abuse and neglect

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Offering children safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments prevents child abuse and neglect.

Training and treatment for children and families can reduce short- and long-term effects of child abuse and neglect.

Everyone has a role to play in preventing child abuse and neglect.

Overview

Creating safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments is essential for helping children and families thrive. These relationships and environments also help protect children against or lessen the negative effects of violence.

Safety, stability, and nurturing are defined as follows:

Safety: extent to which a child is free from fear and secure from physical or psychological harm within their social and physical environment.

Stability: degree of predictability and consistency in a child's social, emotional, and physical environment.

Nurturing: extent to which a child's physical, emotional, and developmental needs are sensitively and consistently met.

Everyone has a role to play in preventing child abuse and neglect and helping all children reach their full potential.

Prevention

Parents and Caregivers

Young children experience the world through their relationships with parents and other caregivers. The quality of these relationships and the environment in which they develop, play a significant role in a child's development. Parents and caregivers can:

Set aside time each day to talk or play with your child.

Establish routines. Children feel secure when the environment is structured for them.

Validate your child's feelings and offer physical and emotional support.

Know who is supervising your child when they're outside your home.

Teach your child how to stay safe when they're online or on digital devices.

Seek parenting skill training programs to help build stronger relationships with your children.

Raising children can be challenging- ask for help when needed. Reach out to babysitters, family members, or close friends. Discuss your concerns with your child's doctor. Also consider finding out if your community offers support groups or programs for parents and caregivers.

Everyone

Ensuring the well-being of children is a shared responsibility. Friends, family, and other trusted adults can help by developing nurturing, supportive relationships with the children in their lives. Volunteering as a mentor at an afterschool program or offering to babysit are other ways to help.

Neighborhood associations can connect families to resources and other neighborhood adults to help with household tasks or with childcare.

Employers can adopt or support workplace policies that help families, such as livable wages, paid leave, and flexible and consistent schedules.

Everyone can recognize the challenges that families face and offer support and encouragement to reduce stress. Help encourage parents and caregivers to ask for help when they need it. Everyone can also support efforts to:

Adopt policies in support of families (such as family-friendly work policies).

Increase access to high-quality childcare and education.

Create safe places or neighborhood activities where children are supervised, and families can gather.

Provide access to free or low-cost evidence-based parent training.

Discourage violence and help ensure the safety of all members of a community.

Public health practitioners, partners, and other professionals also play a vital role in preventing child abuse and neglect.

Treatment

Training and treatment for children and families can reduce the short- and long-term effects of child abuse and neglect exposure. These effects can include physical, emotional, behavioral, and mental health issues. It can also improve parent-child interactions, parenting behaviors, and family functioning. Treatment for children and families can also help prevent later involvement in violence.

Resources

These are a few evidence-based resources that promote safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments.

Early Head Start: These programs are designed to nurture healthy attachments. Services encompass the full range of a family's needs from pregnancy through a child's third birthday.

Adults and Children Together Against Violence: Parents Raising Safe Kids (ACT): The program teaches positive parenting skills to parents and caregivers of children from birth to age 10.

SafeCare: The program focuses on creating positive relationships between caregivers and their children, ensuring homes are safe to reduce the risk of child unintentional injury, and keeping children as healthy as possible.

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This page explains how everyone can help prevent child abuse and neglect.

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Helping your student(s) to navigate through trauma

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How teachers can help students navigate trauma | Lisa Godwin

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How foster care placements can be harmful

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How foster care placements can be harmful

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The harmful ways placements can affect a child's brain

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How foster care placements can harm a child's brain

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Foster care through the eyes of the kids

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Foster care through the eyes of the kids

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An explanation to what it feels like being moved from place to place

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Taken into foster care, through the eyes of a child

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A look into children in the foster system

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A look into children in the foster system

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A heartbreaking look at children being removed from harmful situations

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Full Episode: “Children of the System” (Ep. 405) | Our America with Lisa Ling | OWN

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Taking a look into the system

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(un)wanted | Foster Care Documentary [4k] (2017)

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Emotional Abuse is just as harmful as Physical Abuse

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Emotional Abuse is just as harmful as Physical Abuse

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One is not any worse than the other, this article takes a look at that.

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Different types of child abuse have equivalent psychological effects, according to a study in JAMA Psychiatry. It has previously been assumed that emotional and verbal abuse could have different or less harmful impact on a child's psychology than physical or sexual abuse, but research now suggests that these forms of abuse can be just as damaging.

It is estimated that nearly forty percent of children worldwide suffer some kind of emotional abuse or neglect, referred to as child maltreatment (CM). Research has connected these non-sexual forms of maltreatment with a broad range of mental health problems, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, substance use, and suicidal behavior. However, legal punishments for many forms of maltreatment largely vary, with some carrying felony sentences while others may be frowned upon but legal. The standard "nonequivalence" assumption is that child maltreatment has less severe long-term psychological effects than physical and sexual abuse.

To test this hypothesis, a team of researchers led by David Vachon at McGill University studied 2,292 children enrolled at a summer camp between 1986 and 2015. The camp allowed for the children, who had previously suffered forms of maltreatment, to be psychologically assessed from multiple perspectives, including by their peers and counselors, over several years.

"Our results suggest that physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect are equivalent insults that affect broad psychiatric vulnerabilities," they wrote.

The study is limited by the fact that there is no way to separate out the effects of childhood sexual abuse because it co-occurs with other forms of maltreatment and it is often underreported.

They conclude:

"Finally, population-level prevention and intervention strategies should not ignore the considerable psychological harms imposed by emotional abuse, which rival those of physical violence and neglect. Taken together with high worldwide prevalence and evidence that emotional and physical pain share a common somatosensory representation in the brain, it is clear that emotional abuse is widespread, painful, and destructive."

*

Vachon, D. D., Krueger, R. F., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2015). Assessment of the harmful psychiatric and behavioral effects of different forms of child maltreatment. JAMA psychiatry, 1135-1142. (Abstract)

MIA Research News Editor: Justin M. Karter is the lead research news editor for Mad in America. He completed his doctorate in Counseling Psychology at the University of Massachusetts Boston. He also holds graduate degrees in both Journalism and Community Psychology from Point Park University. He brings a particular interest in examining and decoding cultural narratives of mental health and reimagining the institutions built on these assumptions.

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Emotional Child Abuse Just as Harmful as Physical Abuse

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Different types of child abuse have equivalent psychological effects, according to a study in JAMA Psychiatry.

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Defining Emotional and Verbal abuse. Recognizing the behavioral outcomes of it

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Child abuse needs to stop and education is the key.
The following free resources are essential to driving change and
are made possible through your contributions. Thank you.

WHAT IS EMOTIONAL ABUSE?

Just as physical injuries can scar and incapacitate a child, emotional maltreatment can cripple and handicap a child emotionally, behaviorally, and intellectually. Self-esteem can be damaged. Severe psychological disorders have been traced to excessively distorted parental attitudes and actions. One of the hallmarks of emotional abuse is the absence of positive interaction (e.g. praising) from parent to their child. Following chronic and severe emotional abuse of a child, emotional and behavioral problems may be present in varying degrees, especially when there is little or no nurturing.

This is especially true for neonates, infants, and toddlers. After emotional abuse, these children may become chronically withdrawn and anxious and lose basic social and language skills necessary for intimate relationships. They may become developmentally delayed, socially limited, and, in some cases, antisocial or chronically unable to protect themselves from others.

Emotional abuse and neglect are also components of other abuse and neglect. Sexual abuse and physical abuse may be the official category for a report, but emotional damage also exists. Emotional abuse and neglect may damage children of all ages, but can be critical with infants and toddlers, leaving them with permanent developmental deficits. It is crucial to recognize the indicators of emotional abuse in order to prevent further harm.

What is Verbal Abuse?

Verbal assault (belittling, screaming, threats, blaming, sarcasm), unpredictable responses, continual negative moods, constant family discord, and chronically communicating conflicting messages are examples of ways parents may subject their children to verbal abuse. There are several signs in parents and in children that may indicate verbal abuse is occurring.

Behavioral Indicators OF ABUSE

Indicators in Parents

These signs indicate that a parent may be engaging in verbal or emotional abuse of a child:

Parents or caretakers place demands on the child that are based on unreasonable or impossible expectations or without consideration of the child's developmental capacity.

The child is used as a "battle ground" for marital conflicts.

The child is used to satisfy the parent's/caretaker's own ego needs and the child is neither old enough nor mature enough to understand.

The child victim is "objectified" by the perpetrator, the child is referred to as "it" ("it" cried, "it" died).

The child is a witness to domestic violence.

Emotional abuse can be seen as proving a self-fulfilling prophecy. If a child is degraded enough, the child will begin to live up to the image communicated by the abusing parent or caretaker.

Emotional abuse cases can be extremely difficult to prove, and cumulative documentation by witnesses is imperative. Such cases should be referred to treatment as soon as possible.

Suspected cases of emotional abuse that constitute willful cruelty or unjustifiable punishment of a child are required to be reported by mandated reporters. This means a report must be made of any situation where any person willfully causes or permits any child to suffer, or inflicts on any child, unjustifiable mental suffering. (Pen. Code, § 11165.3.) However, mandated reporters may also report any degree of mental suffering. While these cases may not always be prosecuted, reporting provides the opportunity for intervention and/or therapy with the family.

Indicators in Children

These signs indicate that a child may be experiencing emotional or verbal abuse:

Is withdrawn, depressed, and apathetic.

Is clingy and forms indiscriminate attachments.

"Acts out" and is considered a behavior problem (e.g. bullies others, chronically uses profanity).

Exhibits exaggerated fearfulness.

Is overly rigid in conforming to instructions of teachers, doctors, and other adults.

Suffers from sleep, speech, or eating disorders.

Displays other signs of emotional turmoil (repetitive, rhythmic movements; rocking, whining, picking at scabs).

Suffers from enuresis (bed wetting) and fecal soiling.

Pays inordinate attention to details or exhibits little or no verbal or physical communication with others.

Unwittingly makes comments such as, "Mommy/Daddy always tells me I'm bad."

The behavior patterns mentioned may, of course, be due to other causes, but the suspicion of abuse should not be dismissed.

WHAT IS EMOTIONAL DEPRIVATION?

Emotional deprivation has been defined as ". . . the deprivation suffered by children when their parents do not provide the normal experiences producing feelings of being loved, wanted, secure, and worthy."

Signs of emotional deprivation such as withholding affection with touch, smiles and sound may be more damaging than verbal and even physical assault. Children may provoke assault if necessary to gain negative interaction rather than suffer the pain of being ignored. This may damage children of all ages but is critical for infants and young toddlers.

Caretakers might also provide cause for evaluation and possible reporting of a neonate at risk. Intervention may include consideration of caretaker depression, substance abuse, parenting deficits, and lack of social or financial support for the caretaker. Consideration should be made for evaluation of the caretaker for these issues, as well as possible domestic violence.

SIGNS OF EMOTIONAL DEPRIVATION

The signs of emotional deprivation in children can be quite varied. Indicators may include:

Refuses to eat adequate amounts of food and is therefore very frail.

Is unable to perform normal learned functions for a given age (walking, talking); exhibits developmental delays, particularly with verbal and nonverbal social skills.

Displays antisocial behavior (aggression, behavioral disruption, bullying others) or obvious "delinquent" behavior (drug abuse, vandalism); conversely, is abnormally unresponsive, sad, or withdrawn.

Constantly "seeks out" and "pesters" other adults, such as teachers or neighbors, for attention and affection.

Displays exaggerated fears.

Apathy, withdrawal, and lack of response to human interaction.

When parents ignore their children, whether because of drug or alcohol use, psychiatric disturbances, personal problems, outside activities, or other preoccupying situations, serious consequences can occur. However, reporting these situations is not mandated unless they constitute a form of legally defined abuse or neglect. Emotional deprivation and neglect may be seen as a lesser form of child abuse/neglect. It may not be reportable or may be assessed out with no intervention. It is, however, a central issue for much of what damages children.

These children may experience more severe damage and are therefore worthy of voluntary intervention and follow-up.

The abuse may be brief, but the trauma lasts a lifetime.
Kids' lives and futures are on the line!
Be the voice against neglect and contribute to end child maltreatment today.

Our Lessons are available for Offline learning!

Parenting Resource Center

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Indicators of Emotional & Verbal Abuse | American SPCC - Signs in Parents & Children

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What are the indicators of emotional and verbal abuse? Visit our Learning Center to learn the signs of emotional abuse and deprivation in parents and children.

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Let's discuss emotional abuse and how harmful it is

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Emotional Abuse Is Far Worse Than You Think

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How neglect is harmful to the brain development in children

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Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University

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How Child Neglect Harms Brain Development in Children

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Extensive biological and developmental research shows significant neglect can cause more lasting harm to a young child’s development than overt physical abuse. This video explains the science behind why significant deprivation is so harmful in the earliest years of life.

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Students who have the biggest behaviors, often have the most to tell us. We just need to listen

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What kids wish their teachers knew | Kyle Schwartz | TEDxKyoto

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Are you able to identify the signs of abuse? here are some ways to identify it.

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Simply dial 211 from your mobile device for access to available resources in your area

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"I got help with things I'd never even thought of when I called PA 211 Southwest."

William, 63, has been avoiding turning lights on or using air conditioning at home and in an effort to conserve electricity. The price of electricity has skyrocketed along with the cost of almost everything else he needs, and his income is fixed. He called PA 211 Southwest when his electricity was in danger of being...
Read More >View all success stories >

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Need help and don't know where to start? Find resources to help you with your utilities bill, housing, food, employment, and more - all across PA.

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Child abuse and neglect defined

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

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What is Neuroplasticity and Why Do Parents and SLPs Need To Know - Apraxia Kids

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What we need to know more about is how to capitalize on these children's capacity for neuroplasticity, from a very young age, to increase the rate and quality of their speech learning. Lebeer and Rijke (2003) studied the life histories of 20 children with severe developmental disturbances of neurogenic origin and determined that early brain imaging and functional testing did not appear highly predictive of later outcome.

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An incredible speaker, Dr. Mate'

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Dr. Gabor Mate speaking at the Neuroplasticity and Education conference - October 25, 2013

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Brain Growth:  Neuroplasticity in the Classroom

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Brain Plasticity and Behaviour in the Developing Brain

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To review general principles of brain development, identify basic principles of brain plasticity, and discuss factors that influence brain development and plasticity. A literature review of relevant English-language manuscripts on brain development…

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The following is based on a conversation Ronit Molko, Ph.D., BCBA-D and Dr. Evian Gordon, Chairman and CEO of Brain Resource. The development of the brain is a fascinating and essential aspect of child development. The science behind the brain provides parents and practitioners valuable insight as to why early intervention is important for individuals with autism and other developmental disabilities.
At birth, a child's brain is a work in progress. It develops as they experience the world through seeing, hearing, tasting, touching, and smelling the environment. The natural, simple, loving encounters with adults that occur throughout the day, such as a caregiver singing, smiling, talking, and rocking their baby, are essential to this process. All of these encounters with the outside world affect the child's emotional development and shape how their brain becomes wired and how it will work.

The experiences of babies have long-lasting effects on their ability to learn and regulate their emotions. When there is an absence of appropriate teaching and learning opportunities in the baby's environment, the brain's development can be affected and there are more likely to be sustained negative effects. Conversely, if we can provide ample learning opportunities, we can facilitate brain development. Let's understand how and why.

Learning is about connection. A baby is born with more than 85 billion neurons in its brain, the major nerve cell of the brain. Neurons transmit information between each other through chemical and electrical signals via synapses thereby forming neural networks, a series of interconnected neurons. This is what is meant by "the wiring of the brain" and "neurons that fire together, wire together". Neurons and synapses grow exponentially in the first years of life, even before a baby can walk and talk. Between birth and about 3 years of age, the number of synapses in the brain increases from about 2,500 to 15,000 per neuron.

As an infant experiences something or learns something for the first time, a strong neural connection is made. If this experience is repeated, the connection is reactivated and becomes strengthened. If the experience is not repeated, connections are removed. In this way, the brain "prunes" what is not necessary and consolidates the connections that are necessary. During infancy and the first years of childhood, there is significant loss of neural pathways as the brain starts to prune away what it doesn't believe it will need to function. By the time your child reaches adulthood, the number of synaptic connections is reduced by half. Therefore, the earlier in a child's development that we create that first, correct learning experience, the stronger those behaviors and skills are secured in the brain.

Children with developmental delays often experience the wiring of neurons together in a manner that is "unhelpful", causing them to struggle with communication, social skills and other activities. These "unhelpful" connections need to be changed, which adds to the challenge and takes time. Technically, learning cannot be undone in the brain, but amazingly, with stimulation, the brain has the ability to re-process new pathways and build circuits that are helpful and functional. The brain has a remarkable capacity for change and adaptation, but timing is crucial. The earlier we create the correct connections in a child's brain, the stronger those behaviors and skills are secured in the brain.

Intervention is best during early childhood when there are 50 percent more connections between neurons than exist in the adult brain. When a child reaches adolescence, another period of pruning begins where the brain starts to cut back on these important brain connections, and neurons that have not been used much. For children with all types of learning difficulties and developmental disorders, this understanding of the brain's plasticity is particularly relevant, because it emphasizes why the correct type and intensity of early intervention is so critical. If we correctly understand a child's skill deficits and design a program that appropriately stimulates the neurons in the targeted weakened areas of the brain, we can exercise and strengthen those areas of the brain to develop language, social skills etc.

While there is much evidence to support that early intervention is the preferred course of action because it capitalizes on this rapid early brain development, this wisdom often leaves parents or caretakers of teenage children with ASD feeling discouraged and concerned. Many children don't have the opportunity to start therapy when they're younger, and many others aren't diagnosed until they're teenagers. It may be easier and faster for children to learn new skills when they are younger, however, neuroscience tells us that the brain is still capable of learning during adolescent years, and this time period should not be forsaken.

So how do you train your child's brain? In order to change the brain's wiring and make new neural connections, a new skill needs to be practiced many times. Dr. Gordon recommends starting with one, simple task and practicing it at least 10 times per day. Measure how long it takes for your child's behavior to change. This will help you determine your child's rate of learning.

An example of a simple task is teaching your child to follow a simple instruction using a preferred item such as asking him to eat his favorite food. You can then move onto a more complex activity such as requesting eye contact by saying "Look at me" and then something more complex such as "touch the car" when playing with a toy car, for example. There are many opportunities throughout the day during normal daily parenting activities (bathing, feeding, diapering, reading, etc.) during which you can support your child's development and train their brain to respond to people and their environment.

One common question is, "What is possible with the brain after childhood?" For many years, science has told us that brain plasticity is at its peak during childhood. However, experts now believe that under the correct circumstances, practicing a new skill can change hundreds of millions, if not billions, of connections between nerve cells in the brain even into adulthood. It is never too late to start. The most important thing to remember is that learning is what changes the brain and learning takes practice. Every opportunity to teach your child is an opportunity to shape their brain and change their future.

For more information, visit Developmental Milestones from the Child Mind Institute http://www.childmind.org/en/developmental-milestones/

Learn more about the work and resources of Dr. Evian Gordon at
https://www.mybrainsolutions.com/index.html

Harvard's "Serve & Return" concept of parent engagement
http://developingchild.harvard.edu/key_concepts/serve_and_return/

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Brain Plasticity & Early Intervention: "Neurons that fire together, wire together"

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The following is based on a conversation Ronit Molko, Ph.D., BCBA-D and Dr. Evian Gordon, Chairman and CEO of Brain Resource. The development of the brain is a fascinating and essential aspect of child development. The science behind the brain provides parents and practitioners valuable insight as to why early intervention is important for individuals with autism and other developmental disabilities.

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Trauma informed care, neuroplasticity, and mindfulness

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Is it possible for the brain to heal from adverse childhood experiences? A look at neuroplasticity and possible implications in healing from the wounds of trauma.

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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2019 Mar 21.

Published in final edited form as: Clin Psychol (New York). 2017 May 20;24(2):111-124. doi: 10.1111/cpsp.12198

Abstract

Neurobiological systems may be particularly susceptible to deleterious impact of childhood trauma, and the impact of childhood trauma on development and subsequent functional outcomes across the lifespan has been well-documented. The current review addresses the neurobiological impact of exposure to interpersonal trauma in childhood in the context of executive function, emotion regulation, and dissociation/interoceptive awareness. Subsequent risk for PTSD and depression is also discussed. The pathway of risk from childhood trauma to these cognitive, emotional, and psychiatric outcomes is addressed in terms of potential structural and functional alterations within the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala resulting from chronic or repeated activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and its interaction with and influence on genetic and epigenetic processes during sensitive periods of development. Implications for practice are discussed.

Keywords: childhood trauma, childhood maltreatment, dissociation, executive function, emotion regulation, neurobiology

Neurobiological Development in the Context of Childhood Adversity

For this review, with regard to childhood stressful and traumatic experiences, we focus on findings related to childhood exposure to interpersonal trauma because, relative to non-interpersonal trauma, interpersonal trauma may be more likely to recur across development and to present in multiple forms ( Masten & Wright, 1998) such that children are often exposed to multiple types of abuse and/or neglect (i.e., physical, sexual, emotional abuse, and/or physical and emotional neglect; Finkelhor, Turner, Ormrod, & Hamby, 2009), as well as to witnessed family violence ( Zolotor, Theodore, Coyne-Beasley, & Runyan, 2007). Because children are likely to spend a large majority of their time during the first several years of life with family or other caregivers, exposure to violence, abuse, or neglect in a primary setting, such as the home, may promote persistent fear and anticipation of recurrence and, thus, represent just the kind of stressor that can profoundly alter neurobiological development ( Tarullo & Gunnar, 2006).

Therefore, the current review considers the impact of childhood interpersonal trauma, as a form of chronic stress exposure, on neurobiological development. We address the impact of chronic stress exposure on neurobiological development during childhood, in part through the potential roles of repeated activation of the physiological stress response system, environmental influence on gene expression, and specific sensitive periods of development. Given the broad-reaching impact of trauma on development (i.e., multifinality), we focus not only on the impact of childhood trauma on neurobiological development with respect to risk for specific diagnoses (e.g., depression, PTSD), but also on the impacts on three areas of functioning that cut across diagnoses: 1) executive function 2) emotion regulation, and 3) dissociation/interoceptive awareness.

Overview of the Neurobiological Impact of Childhood Trauma

Exposure to childhood trauma can impact brain development over time, leading to changes in the structure and function of multiple stress-sensitive areas, including the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex (PFC), and the amygdala ( Cerqueira, Mailliet, Almeida, Jay, & Sousa, 2007; Stevens et al., 2013; Tomoda et al., 2009; van Harmelen et al., 2014). Under normal neurobiological conditions, the hippocampus receives input regarding perceptual information ("who and what") and binds it to contextual information ("when and where"), and the PFC facilitates future recollection of and attributions about that information ("why") ( Ranganath, 2010). The PFC also modulates amygdala activity via inhibitory mechanisms ( Banks, Eddy, Angstadt, Nathan, & Phan, 2007) and communicates with the hippocampus to promote the consolidation of emotional and perceptual information ( Kajiwara, Takashima, Mimura, Witter, & Iijima, 2003). Under adverse neurobiological conditions, such as those shaped by frequent or enduring trauma, the individual and connected functions of the hippocampus, PFC, and amygdala can be impacted in ways that not only facilitate inappropriate associations among perceptual, contextual, and attributional information about traumatic events ( Acheson, Gresack, & Risbrough, 2012), but also diminish capacity for consciously managing recollections of the events and moderating fear responses to the recollections. ( Stevens et al., 2013). Importantly, the pathways from chronic stress exposure during childhood to these differences in brain region structure, function, and connectivity are potentially many, and chief among them is the pathway through the stress response system.

Chronic fear, whether in response to actual or anticipated threat, can lead to repeated activation of the physiological stress response system, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, altering the regulation of glucocorticoids, such as cortisol ( Tarullo & Gunnar, 2006; Trickett, Noll, Susman, Shenk, & Putnam, 2010). Childhood trauma is associated with HPA axis upregulation (i.e., elevated baseline cortisol, as well as greater increase and slower decline of cortisol following stress-exposure; Tarullo & Gunnar, 2006). At elevated levels or with repeated exposure, cortisol is thought to have neurotoxic effects, particularly early in development ( Lupien et al., 2016). Notably, however, lower cortisol levels and attenuated cortisol reactivity (i.e., HPA axis downregulation) are observed in some individuals exposed to childhood trauma, and the onset of downregulation is typically during adolescence ( Trickett et al., 2010). Downregulation of the HPA axis follows a period of chronic upregulation and may be the result of increased glucocorticoid receptor sensitivity leading to blunted stress reactivity and lower baseline cortisol levels, potentially as a compensatory strategy. Nevertheless, upregulation and associated neurobiological differences likely precede and persist beyond the onset of downregulation ( Slattery, Grieve, Ames, Armstrong, & Essex, 2013).

The impact of HPA axis dysfunction on the neurobiology of childhood trauma may be better understood when considered in the context of genetic and epigenetic processes that influence and are influenced by glucocorticoid exposure. Although a more complete consideration is beyond the scope of this review (see Sharma, Powers, Bradley, & Ressler, 2016, and Heim & Binder, 2012), a particularly relevant area of research is the study of gene-environment (G × E) interactions of the FKBP5 gene with childhood adversity. FKBP5 is a gene that contributes to the regulation of glucocorticoid receptor sensitivity, and risk variants of FKBP5 polymorphisms are associated with reduced receptor sensitivity, which can lead to diminished HPA axis negative feedback (i.e., slower "off-switch" for the stress response) and subsequent maintenance of glucocorticoids in the absence of threat ( Dias, Maddox, Klengal, &Ressler, 2015). Sustained elevations of glucocorticoids may interfere with neurotrophic gene expression and protein synthesis across the brain, but particularly within the hippocampus and PFC, resulting in reduced neurogenesis and neuroplasticity in, as well as degraded connectivity between, the two regions ( Cerqueira et al., 2007; Daskalakis, De Kloet, Yehuda, Malaspina, & Kranz, 2015). There is now substantial evidence of an interaction between FKBP5 polymorphisms and early childhood maltreatment in predicting adult PTSD symptoms ( Binder et al., 2008; Boscarino et al., 2012; Xie et al., 2010). This effect is not driven by total trauma exposure and appears directly related to childhood exposure, suggesting a developmental window in which FKBP5-mediated cellular interactions have lasting effects on neurobiology that increase the risk of developing PTSD in adulthood. G × E interactions of childhood trauma and FKBP5 polymorphisms also predict adult risk for other psychopathology, including depression and psychosis ( Appel et al., 2011; Collip et al., 2013; Zimmerman et al., 2011), and there is emerging evidence of a similar G × E effect of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood maltreatment on adult executive function ( Green et al., 2015; Lovallo et al., 2015).

In addition to G × E interactions, there appears to be an important role of epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, in understanding how childhood trauma leads to neurobiological changes and subsequent development of psychopathology ( Heim and Binder, 2012; McGowen et al., 2009). For example, in a sample of low-income, primarily African American adults with high levels of trauma exposure across the lifespan, Klengel et al. (2013) found evidence that epigenetic mechanisms mediated the G × E effect of early life trauma and FKBP5 on the development of PTSD and depression symptoms in adulthood. Epigenetic changes in the form of differential transcriptional activation of FKBP5 by glucocorticoid receptor activation in the presence of childhood abuse may enhance FKBP5 responsiveness, leading to both long-term changes in the body's stress response system and alterations of neuronal circuits, resulting in higher risk for trauma-associated psychiatric disorders in adults. Similar to G × E effects, the effects on DNA methylation in this study were observed only for childhood trauma exposure, further highlighting the potential impact of traumatic events occurring in early development.

To fully understand the impact of childhood trauma on neurobiological development, the timing of the trauma exposure, as well as its chronicity across the course of development, should be taken into account. Foundational to the idea that childhood trauma can impact neurobiological development is the observation in human and non-human studies of sensitive periods of brain development marked by enhanced plasticity during which experience is inordinately influential to neurogenesis, synaptic growth, and organization of neural circuits ( Heim & Binder, 2012; Knudsen, 2004). Thus, exposure to stress during these sensitive periods has the potential to alter the neurobiological landscape in powerful and lasting ways ( Knudsen, 2004). Trauma occurring during early, sensitive periods of development can increase risk for psychological, behavioral, and neurocognitive problems across the lifespan. ( Cowell, Cicchetti, Rogosch, & Toth, 2015; Dunn et al., 2017; Enlow, Egeland, Blood, Wright, & Wright, 2012)

In addition to broader neurobiological sensitivity during periods of early development, specific brain regions mature at unequal pace, affording differential, timing-dependent impacts of environmental input across development. If childhood trauma exposure acts through sensitive periods to impact neurobiological changes, timing-dependent effects on brain regions should be observed for relevant developmental periods. Recent research has provided some support for this idea showing age-dependent impacts of childhood environment, including trauma and abuse, on amygdala, hippocampal, and PFC volume (e.g., Pechtel, Lyons-Ruth, Anderson, & Teicher, 2014; Andersen et al., 2008; Rao et al., 2010). Although brain regions mature at unequal pace, regional development is anything but independent. Brain regions are structurally and functionally connected such that regions may facilitate or inhibit activity in other regions. Environmental input during sensitive periods may not only interfere with the normative development of one specific region, but also the nature of its relationship to other regions ( Knudsen, 2004). The hippocampus, PFC, and amygdala are part of a network of connected regions ( Tottenham & Sheridan, 2010), chronic stress reduces connectivity within this network ( Cerqueira et al., 2007), and reduced connectivity is associated with deficits across multiple domains ( Cerqueira et al., 2007; Opitz & Friederici, 2003; Wendelken & Bunge, 2010; Stevens et al., 2013). Thus, even if a particular brain region, such as the PFC, is most vulnerable during a sensitive period later in development, its connectivity to regions, such as the hippocampus, with earlier sensitive periods may introduce opportunity for stressful or traumatic experiences earlier in development to nevertheless degrade both the structure and the function of that later-peaking brain region ( Cerqueira et al., 2007).

Taken together, these findings suggest that childhood trauma can alter neurobiological development, particularly within the hippocampus, PFC, and amygdala, and this may occur at least in part as a result of the chronic or repeated activation of the physiological stress response system acting together with genetic and epigenetic processes during sensitive periods of development. These neurobiological changes can, in turn, influence a number of critical cognitive and emotional processes (i.e., executive function, emotion regulation, and that, when disturbed, may represent transdiagnostic risk factors for trauma-related psychopathology, such as PTSD and depression.

Impact of Childhood Trauma on Executive Function

Executive function refers to a set of processes, supported largely by the PFC, that facilitate awareness of and adaptation to internal and external stimuli and goals, thus promoting flexible, context-appropriate, and goal-oriented emotional and behavioral responses ( Miyake et al., 2000). Executive function comprises working memory (i.e., holding onto and actively manipulating multiple mental representations), cognitive flexibility (i.e., inhibiting previously learned responses to meet new demand), inhibitory control (i.e., inhibiting overlearned or automatic responses), and the ability to form abstract concepts. Exposure to childhood trauma is associated with relative impairments in each these processes ( Cowell et al. 2015; DePrince, Weinzierl, & Combs, 2009; Gould et al., 2012; Kavanaugh & Holler, 2014; Nikulina & Widom, 2013; Nolin & Ethier, 2007; Skowron, Cipriano-Essel, Gatzke-Kopp, Teti, & Ammerman, 2014; Spann et al., 2012), and such impairment is associated with increased risk for PTSD and depression ( Aupperle, Melrose, Stein, & Paulus, 2012; Joormann, 2010).

Impact of Childhood Trauma on Emotion Regulation

Emotion regulation refers to a broad set of strategies to manage cognitive, behavioral, and physiological responses to emotion ( Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004) and encompasses a number of components, including awareness, understanding, and acceptance of emotional experiences ( Gratz & Roemer, 2004). Developmental research points to an important impact of trauma on children's emotional awareness, understanding, and regulation ( Shields, Ryan, & Cicchetti, 2001; Shipman, Zeman, Penza, & Champion, 2000), which are typically developed in part through interactions with parents and other supportive adults ( Bariola, Gullone, Hughes, 2011; Parke, 1994). Because exposure to childhood maltreatment often includes abuse or neglect from a primary caregiver or the presence of violence within the home, children are less likely to be exposed to modeling of appropriate emotional labeling, expression, and regulation behaviors often modeled by primary caregivers and may therefore develop deficits in appropriate emotion regulation.

In addition to the potential absence or scarcity of appropriate models, emotion regulation may also be diminished in the context of childhood trauma due to its partial reliance on executive function-itself diminished by childhood trauma. Executive function contributes to emotion regulation by controlling the contents of working memory to prevent excessive attention to negative thoughts or stimuli ( Joormann, 2010), shifting to new coping strategies when old ones are no longer effective ( Gilliom, Shaw, Beck, Schonberg, & Lukon, 2002), and inhibiting automatic emotional, behavioral, or cognitive responses that do not fit the situation or one's goals ( Carlson & Wang, 2007), such as during cognitive reappraisal ( Goldin, McRae, Ramel, & Gross, 2008).

Emotion dysregulation is considered a transdiagnostic risk factor for a broad range of psychiatric morbidity ( Werner & Gross, 2010), including PTSD and depression ( Bradley et al., 2011a), and exposure to childhood trauma is associated with emotion regulation deficits across the lifespan ( Cloitre, Miranda, Stovall-McClough, & Han, 2005; Kim & Cicchetti, 2010; McLaughlin, Peverill, Gold, Alves, & Sheridan, 2015; Powers, Etkin, Gyurak, Bradley, & Jovanovic, 2015). Similar to executive function, emotion regulation is most impacted by trauma that occurs early and often ( Kim & Cicchetti, 2010). Associated deficits are diverse and may present as attentional bias to negative or threatening stimuli, trouble recognizing emotions in the self or others, and difficulty effectively modulating or reappraising distress ( McLaughlin et al., 2015; Pollak, 2008; Tottenham et al., 2010).

Neuroimaging studies demonstrate an association of emotion regulation and childhood trauma in terms of both neurobiological structure and function and behavioral strategies. In a study of institutionally-raised children, Tottenham et al. (2010) found that prolonged placement was associated with increased attention to negatively-valenced stimuli, as well as with enlarged amygdala, a finding which could represent potential for a relative disadvantage of the PFC in modulating amygdala. For example, in a study of adolescents with histories of childhood maltreatment, McLaughlin et al. (2015) also found a bias toward negatively-valenced stimuli and, relative to non-maltreated adolescences, greater recruitment of the PFC during cognitive reappraisal to achieve comparable reduction of amygdala activity. In this study, both maltreated and non-maltreated adolescents were able to demonstrate emotion regulation ability via amygdala modulation, but maltreated adolescents expended more executive resources to so regulate, which could decrease the availability of those resources for regulating subsequent distress ( Muraven & Baumeister, 2000). It is possible, therefore, for some individuals to present with a pattern of apparent emotion regulation-perhaps even overregulation-followed by depletion of regulatory resources. Efforts to overregulate may be associated with aspects of dissociation.

Impact of Childhood Trauma on Dissociation and Interoceptive Awareness

Notably, individuals with histories of childhood trauma often report depersonalized dissociation, or feeling disconnected from their own bodies ( Simeon, Guralnik, Knutelska, Hollander, & Schmeidler, 2001) and, paradoxically, often have high incidences of chronic somatic disorders and concerns (Friedrich & Shafer, 1994; McFarlane, Atchison, Rafalowicz, & Papay, 1994). Given these findings, it is not surprising that dissociation has been linked to impairments in interoception, or awareness of somatic states. For some individuals exposed to trauma-particularly abuse-attending to their current physiological state can evoke trauma-related reminders and subsequent distress and is thus avoided ( Lanius et al., 2010).

Opportunities for Intervention

Limitations

Second, the potential causes of childhood trauma-related changes to neurobiological development presented in the current review are by no means exhaustive. For example, this review does not address the impacts of poverty or racism, both of which have been shown to exert pernicious influence on neurobiological development ( Blair & Raver, 2012; Chae et al., 2014). Children living in poverty are confronted with distressed and less responsive caregivers, and may also be at increased risk of experiencing maltreatment ( Blair & Raver, 2012; Brooks-Gunn, Schneider, & Waldfogel, 2013). Furthermore, African-American and Hispanic children are disproportionately impacted by poverty ( Macartney, 2011), and compared to all other racial/ethnic groups, African-American children are more likely to be exposed to violence ( Goldmann et al., 2011) and to demonstrate dysregulated HPA axis functioning in infancy, childhood, and adulthood ( Blair et al., 2011; Kuzawa & Sweet, 2009). Although outside the scope of this review, these findings highlight the troubling intersection of poverty and racism with trauma that must not be ignored when addressing the role of childhood trauma in adult functioning.

In addition, this review does not address all physiological sequelae of childhood trauma that may impact neurobiological development. For example, inflammation is elevated across development for individuals exposed to childhood trauma ( Coelho, Viola, Walss-Bass, Brietzke, & Grassi-Oliveira, 2014), increasing risk to physical and mental health and contributing additional influence to neurobiological development ( Hagberg & Mallard, 2005). Finally, this review does not address potential intergenerational effects of trauma on neurobiological development. Elevated cortisol levels in utero are associated with long-term relative deficits in neurocognitive ability ( LeWinn et al., 2009), and childhood trauma may also interfere with later parenting behavior ( Smith, Cross, Winkler, Jovanovic, & Bradley, 2014), potentially creating adverse conditions in the next generation. Certainly, consideration of intergenerational effects is important for better understanding the individual effects in broader context.

Conclusion

Childhood trauma, particularly if experienced early and often, is associated with neurobiological changes that may influence important processes, such as executive function and emotion regulation, as well as increase risk for dissociation and trauma-related disorders, such as PTSD and depression. This neurocognitive, emotion regulation, and psychiatric risk may result from cascading changes to neurobiology facilitated by chronic HPA axis reactivity and interaction with genetic and epigenetic processes during sensitive periods in development in ways that ultimately interfere with the structure, function, and functional connectively of the hippocampus, PFC, and amygdala and limit resilience to future stressors.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Grady Trauma Project research staff and coordinators, Angelo Brown, Allen W. Graham, and Rebecca Roffman, as well as the nurses in the Clinical Research Network of Grady Health Systems. Funding from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD018264), and the National Institute of Mental Health (MH100122-01, MH071537, and MH102890) supported this work. The contents of this manuscript do not reflect the views of the Department of Veterans Affairs or the United States Government

Footnotes

Conflicts of Interest: We have no conflicts of interest to declare

Contributor Information

Dorthie Cross, Department of Psychology, Georgia Southern University.

Negar Fani, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine.

Abigail Powers, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine.

Bekh Bradley, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of MedicineAtlanta VA Medical Center.

References

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Neurobiological Development in the Context of Childhood Trauma

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Neurobiological systems may be particularly susceptible to deleterious impact of childhood trauma, and the impact of childhood trauma on development and subsequent functional outcomes across the lifespan has been well-documented. The current review ...

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Childhood trauma can have a lasting effect on physical and mental health. But with the help of neuroplasticity, healing is possible.

Your brain is constantly changing in response to what's happening around you. This is known as neuroplasticity.

These brain changes help us learn and adapt to our environments. But when we're placed in very stressful situations, like during traumatic experiences, some brain changes can result in lasting physical and mental health challenges.

That said, positive change is possible. The neuroplasticity that enables brains to change in response to trauma also allows them to heal. Therapies like Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) therapy show promising potential for childhood trauma recovery.

During childhood, the brain is very plastic. Connections between different brain areas change in strength as children have different experiences and develop an understanding of the world and their place in it.

Many instances of trauma in childhood are classified as adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). This includes abuse, neglect, violence, or a significant disruption in the first 18 years of life.

According to a , research shows that experiencing one or more ACEs can have lasting effects on a person's physical and mental health, including an increased chance of:

Trauma leads to a sensitized nervous system

Trauma's effect on the brain starts with the activation of the amygdala. This almond-shaped brain region is the gatekeeper of emotional regulation. Once it detects a threat, another brain area called the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic ( fight, flight, freeze, or fawn) nervous system response.

If a child experiences trauma, their brain may detect threats more easily. This means they may feel stress, anxiety, or depression more easily, even as adults.

Trauma leads to increased inflammation

The activation of the sympathetic nervous system triggers the immune system and inflammation response. This aims to prepare the body for repair from physical injury, but the same responses occur when faced with psychological threats.

People who have experienced ACEs are more vulnerable to inflammation later in life.

They may also have reduced counter-inflammatory action from the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The HPA axis usually works with the parasympathetic nervous system, which helps you relax, to prevent chronic inflammation.

A 2017 study involving 1,000 participants who were followed from birth to 32 years of age linked childhood maltreatment to elevated inflammation biomarkers.

Trauma-induced inflammation may change how neurotransmitters work in the brain. When this happens early enough, it can affect brain development.

Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to rewire itself in response to your experiences. In the past, doctors assumed that this ability was limited to a short time during youth. However, because of improvements in brain imaging technology, we now know that neuroplasticity is a lifelong quality.

This means that regardless of age, it may be possible to rewire your brain and nervous system from childhood trauma by having new, positive, and supportive experiences.

Think of neuroplasticity as creating habits. To use it to your advantage, you simply repeat the behaviors and experiences you want to keep and avoid the ones you do not. You can read about some neuroplasticity exercises here.

In the case of an automatic trauma response, which can be hard to manage, a therapy such as EMDR can be helpful.

EMDR therapy changes the way a traumatic memory is stored in your brain using eye movements or rhythmic tapping. This allows you to process the trauma so that you can remember the event without reliving it.

EMDR is considered a medical procedure because of the way it changes the structure of the brain. Electroencephalogram (EEG) suggest that EMDR works by weakening fear memory connections in the amygdala.

Experts are still in the early stages of understanding how EMDR works. According to the American Psychiatric Association, EMDR therapy is "conditionally recommended" for treating PTSD. While the evidence indicates that it can have good outcomes, this evidence may not be as strong as for other therapies.

The treatment increases a low-frequency rhythm in memory areas of the brain, a state that's similar to slow-wave sleep. This disables fear receptors so your memories can be reconfigured to no longer be connected to strong emotions.

Without the amygdala's emotional response, the hypothalamus can allow the parasympathetic nervous system (the relaxation system) to take over. You can help this transition with mindfulness training or breathing exercises.

It's the brain's neuroplasticity that makes it possible for this rewiring to occur and for EMDR to change the way traumatic memories are stored so that they no longer activate strong emotions.

If you're living with the aftereffects of childhood trauma, you likely know how this trauma can affect you for many years.

Your brain is equipped with lifelong neuroplasticity that enables you to heal from trauma. Therapies like EMDR can help you achieve this goal.

If you're interested in learning more about EMDR, the EMDR International Association (EMDRIA) is a comprehensive resource with support networks, therapists, and publications.

Crisis support is available if you're experiencing overwhelming emotions. The National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 800-273-8255 and Crisis Text Line at 741741 (text HOME) are there if you need immediate support.

Childhood trauma may be a part of the adult you are today, but tools like EMDR can make use of neuroplasticity to help you heal and move forward.

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Neuroplasticity and Childhood Trauma: Effects, Healing, and EMDR

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Childhood trauma can have a lasting effect on physical and mental health. But with the help of neuroplasticity, healing is possible. Your brain is constantly changing in response to what's happening around you. This is known as neuroplasticity. These brain changes help us learn and adapt to our environments.

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Neuroplasticity and Trauma Recovery: How the Brain Can Heal Itself

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Understand the impact of trauma on neural pathways and the brain. Learn how to strengthen these connections for healing from addiction.

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Neuroplasticity and CBT: How Trauma Reshapes the Brain

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Explore how trauma reshapes the brain through neuroplasticity and discover the role of CBT in healing and rewiring neural pathways for recovery.

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Just what is Neuroscience?

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Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development - NICHD

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Humans are social creatures. Let's take a look

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Social Neuroscience: Knowing Ourselves and Others

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Social neuroscience refers to the study of neural functions underlying our understanding of interpersonal behavior, social rules, socially appropriate choices, and our sense of self and others.

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Let's take a look at Social Neuroscience

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SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

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Social species create emergent organizations beyond the individual. These emergent structures evolved hand in hand with neural, hormonal, cellular, and genetic mechanisms to support them because the consequent social behaviors helped these organisms…

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Let's look at neurodiversity

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Sesame Street: Meet Julia (Full Clip | 10 Min)

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What is cognitive neuroscience?

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Cognitive neuroscience is the study of higher cognitive functions in humans and their underlying neural bases. It is an integrative area of study drawing primarily from cognitive science, psychology, neuroscience, and linguistics. There are two broad directions that can be taken in this concentration - one is behavioral/experimental and the other is computational/modeling. In both, the goal is to understand the nature of cognition from a neural perspective. The standard concentration for the Sc.B. degree requires courses on the foundations, systems level, and integrative aspects of cognitive neuroscience as well as laboratory and elective courses that fit within a particular theme or category such as general cognition, perception, language development or computational/modeling. Concentrators must also complete a senior seminar course or an independent research course. Students may also participate in the work of the Brown Institute for Brain Science, an interdisciplinary program that unites ninety faculty from eleven departments.

Standard Program for the AB degree
These are the new requirements approved by CCC effective Fall 2024. For existing concentrators graduating in 2024-25, the prior requirements can be found by selecting the Bulletin archive https://bulletin.brown.edu/archive/2023-24/
Common Core

Careers in Cognitive Neuroscience and related fields requires familiarity with statistics. Therefore, the Cognitive Neuroscience concentration requires a course in Quantitative Methods (). is a prerequisite for most of the laboratory courses, so concentrators should plan to take this course by their fourth semester. The department does not grant concentration credit of AP Statistics, regardless of score. Students who feel that is too elementary can complete an approved alternative course (e.g., , , , , ).

Foundation

To provide students with a solid foundation of knowledge in their area of concentration and to minimize redundancy, the Cognitive Neuroscience concentration requires four foundation courses in Neuroscience, Cognitive Neuroscience, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Computational Methods.

Each concentrator will take four additional courses that allow the student to go into depth in some of the relevant topics. Three of these courses must be 1000-level courses. Some courses designed to count as electives will often have foundation courses as prerequisites and may include laboratory courses, content courses, or seminars.

Research Methods

Another element in the Cognitive Neuroscience concentration is a research methods course that builds on the introductory statistics course (which will be a prerequisite) but exposes students to a variety of topics in research of the mind: to empirical methods (e.g., surveys, chronometry, eye tracking, brain imaging), to common designs (e.g., factorial experimental, correlational, longitudinal), to research ethics, and to best practices of literature review. Alternatively, students may take an approved laboratory course.

Requirements for the A.B. degree

Honors Requirement

An acceptable upper level Research Methods, for example or an acceptable Laboratory course (see below) will serve as a requirement for admission to the Honors program in Cognitive Neuroscience.

Requirements for the Sc.B. degree
These are the new requirements approved by CCC effective Fall 2024. For existing concentrators graduating in 2024-25, the prior requirements can be found by selecting the Bulletin archive https://bulletin.brown.edu/archive/2023-24/
Common Core

Careers in Cognitive Neuroscience and related fields requires familiarity with statistics. Therefore, the Cognitive Neuroscience concentration requires a course in Quantitative Methods (). is a prerequisite for most of the laboratory courses, so concentrators should plan to take this course by their fourth semester. The department does not grant concentration credit of AP Statistics, regardless of score. Students who feel that is too elementary can complete an approved alternative course (e.g., , , , , ).

Foundation

To provide students with a solid foundation of knowledge in their area of concentration and to minimize redundancy, the Cognitive Neuroscience concentration requires four foundation courses in Neuroscience, Cognitive Neuroscience, Cognitive Neuropsychology, and Computational Methods.

Each concentrator will take four additional courses that allow the student to go into depth in some of the relevant topics. Three of these courses must be 1000-level courses. Some courses designed to count as electives will often have foundation courses as prerequisites and may include laboratory courses, content courses, or seminars.

Research Methods

Another element in the Cognitive Neuroscience concentration is a research methods course that builds on the introductory statistics course (which will be a prerequisite) but exposes students to a variety of topics in research of the mind: to empirical methods (e.g., surveys, chronometry, eye tracking, brain imaging), to common designs (e.g., factorial experimental, correlational, longitudinal), to research ethics, and to best practices of literature review. Alternatively, students may take an approved laboratory course.

Requirements for Sc.B.

In line with university expectations, the Sc.B. requirements include a greater number of courses and especially science courses. The definition of "science" is flexible. A good number of these courses will be outside of CLPS, but several CLPS courses might fit into a coherent package as well. In addition, the Sc.B. degree also requires a lab course to provide these students with in-depth exposure to research methods in a particular area of the science of the mind.

Honors Requirement

An acceptable upper level Research Methods, for example or an acceptable Laboratory course (see below) will serve as a requirement for admission to the Honors program in Cognitive Neuroscience.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Cognitive neuroscience is the study of higher cognitive functions in humans and their underlying neural bases. It is an integrative area of study drawing primarily from cognitive science, psychology, neuroscience, and linguistics. There are two broad directions that can be taken in this concentration - one is behavioral/experimental and the other is computational/modeling.

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Neurosensitivity: Implications for Cognition and Creativity.

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Sensory-processing sensitivity, or neurosensitivity, is a biologically-based personality dimension with implications for personality, creativity and cognition. This thesis focuses on sensitivity and its cognitive implications using recent state-of-the-art sensitivity and creativity assessments with an aim to identify objective cognitive tests of sensitivity that can supplement self-report measures, whilst providing insight into the brain basis for creativity. In Chapter 1, we review literature on creativity and sensitivity. Chapter 2 presents new evidence that positive-affect-related dimensions of sensitivity benefit creativity independently and/or interactively with Big-Five openness. Factor analysis in Chapter 3 provides important evidence that multiple dimensions of sensitivity are distinct from Big-Five personality traits. Chapter 4 and 5 explore sensitivity-related attention components in relation to endogenous and exogenous attention tasks, revealing that positive-affect-related sensitivity is characterized by differences in exogenous inhibition-of-return, and defocused, disinhibited attention states that facilitate creative potential. Chapter 6 shows sensitivity has positive implications for learning and memory processes, demonstrating that neurosensitivity affects neuroplasticity favourably. Chapter 7 explores how individual differences in unconscious cognitive mechanisms of latent inhibition (LI) may underlie higher creative potential and achievement in sensitive, open creators, as theory and evidence suggest low LI in high sensitivity and creative achievement. No evidence was found to support the hypothesis that LI differs in sensitivity, or underlies the sensitive creator. All findings are interpreted in light of a new sensitivity framework that is consistent with cognitive disinhibition and hemispheric asymmetry hypotheses of creativity and models of the creative process suggesting an important role for conscious and unconscious cognition.

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Let's talk about our senses and our nervous system

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Senses, Brain & Nervous System | Science Lesson For Kids | Grades 3-5

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Do you know how the human brain works to process info? Watch this video to learn how the brain processes our five senses for kids in 3rd, 4th & 5th grade!

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The somatosensory system decodes a wide range of tactile stimuli and thus endows us with a remarkable capacity for object recognition, texture discrimination, sensory-motor feedback and social exchange. The first step leading to perception of…

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When holding your friend's hand, you feel the heat from their skin, the softness or roughness of their palm, and the pressure from their fingers. The sense of touch conveys important social information, helping strengthen bonds between people. If your friend grips your hand so hard it hurts, touch lets you know something is wrong or dangerous through the feeling of pain.

Cortical Maps and Sensitivity to Touch

Sensations begin as signals generated by touch receptors in your skin. They travel along sensory nerves made up of bundled fibers that connect to neurons in the spinal cord. Then signals move to the thalamus, which relays information to the rest of the brain. Next stop is the somatosensory cortex, where signals are translated into a touch perception.

Somatosensory information from all over the body spreads onto the cortex forming a topographic map that curls around the brain like headphones. Sensitive areas, like lips and fingertips, stimulate much larger regions of the cortex than less sensitive parts. A region's sensitivity depends on the number of receptors per unit area and the distance between them. Unlike the very sensitive lips and hands, receptors on your back are few and far apart so it's much less sensitive.

Neurologists measure sensitivity by examining the minimum distance between two points on the skin a person can identify as distinct stimuli rather than a single stimulus. Perception is greatest where the two-point threshold is lowest, in the most densely nerve-packed areas, like fingers and lips. But you can distinguish two stimuli on your back only if they're several centimeters apart.

Pain and Itch Signals

Stub your toe on a door jamb too hard and you'll feel an uncomfortable sensation: pain. Primarily a warning signal, pain is the brain's way of signaling something is wrong with the body. Both a sensory and emotional experience, pain signals tissue damage or the potential for damage and makes the experience feel unpleasant and upsetting.

After your toe encounters the door jamb, special sensory neurons, nociceptors, respond to the impact. Nociceptors are attuned to stimuli that cause tissue damage. They respond to strong stimuli, telling you when something is truly dangerous. Touching the door jamb gently isn't harmful. Kick it too hard and you could break a bone. Different nociceptors are sensitive to different painful stimuli, like thermal (heat or cold), mechanical (wounds), and chemical (toxins or venoms).

Some nociceptors respond only to chemical stimuli causing itch. Histamine receptors activate when skin irritation, bug bites, or allergies trigger the release of histamine in the body. Itch receptors have molecular channels in their cell membrane that open when they detect histamine. Scientists have identified other itch-specific receptors that activate when they detect other molecules including, prostaglandins, neuropeptides, and proteases the body releases in response to pain and irritants.

Injury triggers the release of various chemicals at the site of damage, causing inflammation. This inflammatory "soup" prompts nerve impulses that keep you feeling pain, so you'll protect the injury. Prostaglandins make receptors more sensitive to pain, so pain feels more intense. A long-lasting injury may lead to nervous system changes that enhance perceived pain, even without pain stimuli. This neuropathic pain is caused by an over-sensitive nervous system rather than an injury. In diabetic neuropathy, prolonged exposure to high blood sugar damages nerves in the hands and feet, sending signals of numbness, tingling, burning, or aching pain.

Sending and Receiving Messages

Pain and itch messages travel to the spinal cord via A-delta and C nerve fibers. Myelinated A-delta fibers insulate the nerve, so electrons are channeled effectively and travel faster letting you feel immediate, sharp, and easily identifiable pain. Unmyelinated C fibers transmit messages more slowly and their nerve endings spread over a large area. They help you feel dull aches difficult to pinpoint. From the spinal cord, signals head to the thalamus, which relays signals to areas of the cerebral cortex transforming messages into conscious experience. Once aware, you can decide to be more careful the next time you approach the door.

Pain Management

If you and your friend both stub the same toe on the same door jamb, you'll probably experience the pain differently. Pain depends both on the strength of the stimulus and the emotional state and setting in which the injury occurs. When messages arrive in the cortex, the brain can process them differently depending on whether you had a good day or just broke up with your girlfriend.

The cortex sends pain messages to the periaqueductal gray matter, which activates pathways that modulate pain. Pathways send messages to networks that release endorphins - natural opioids that act like the pain reliever morphine. Adrenaline produced during emotionally stressful situations also serves as a pain reliever. Releasing these chemicals helps regulate and reduce pain by intercepting signals traveling through the spinal cord and brainstem.

Although everyone has these brain circuits, how well they work and how sensitive they are influence how much pain someone feels. It's why some people develop chronic pain that regular treatment can't relieve. Endorphins act at multiple types of opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord. Doctors can deliver opioid drugs to the spinal cord before, during, and after surgery to reduce pain. Scientists are studying ways to electrically stimulate the spinal cord to relieve pain while avoiding the harmful effects of long-term opioid use.

No single brain area is responsible for pain and itch perception. Emotional and sensory components create a mosaic of activity influencing how we perceive pain. Some successful treatments target the emotional component like meditation, hypnosis, cognitive behavioral therapy, and the controlled use of cannabis. Patients with chronic pain still feel pain, but it doesn't "hurt" as much. Brain imaging shows that cannabis suppresses activity in only a few pain areas, mostly the limbic system, the brain's emotional center. Scientists don't fully understand how these therapies work yet.

There is more to learn about how the brain and body detect and process touch and pain. The story so far shows the complexity and importance of the somatosensory system.
This article was adapted from the 8th edition of Brain Facts by Marissa Fessenden.
About the Author

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When holding your friend's hand, you feel the heat from their skin, the softness or roughness of their palm, and the pressure from their fingers. The sense of touch conveys important social information, helping strengthen bonds between people. If your friend grips your hand so hard it hurts, touch lets you know something is wrong or dangerous through the feeling of pain.

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Building safe and healthy relationships with our most challenging students

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What if instead of going head-to-head with your most challenging student, you created an ally in him? During the 2013 ASCD Conference on Educational Leadership, presenter Grace Dearborn shared a strategy for making that happen: the "Two-by-Ten."

Dearborn explained that by spending two minutes a day for 10 consecutive days getting to know a disruptive student, teachers can begin establishing an initial connection. Historically referred to as the "two-minute intervention" by researcher Raymond Wlodkowski, the Two-by-Ten strategy is a way to not only break the ice but also form the foundation for a sustainable relationship-and better classroom behavior.

"It's a motivator, it's a management strategy, and it's a formally researched way [to turn a student from a negative to a positive influence]," says Rick Smith, founder of Conscious Teaching , who often presents the method with Dearborn. Smith says Two-by-Ten gives a disruptive student what he is seeking in the first place: a positive connection with an adult.

"Safety is a fundamental human need and if kids don't feel it, they're going to ask for it," he says. "Oddly, the way they sometimes ask for it is to act out." Although it may seem like they are trying to sabotage your classroom, a student is more likely communicating the message "Would you connect with me, so I can let down my guard?"

Lisa Kitzmann, a 3rd grade teacher at Eldridge Elementary School in Hayward, Calif., used Two-by-Ten to address the outbursts that were occurring frequently in her classroom. When Eldridge gained a mix of new students because of local school closures, behavior issues in the Title I school escalated.

Although Kitzmann, who refers to herself as a "teddy bear teacher," already connects with students daily, she says the strategy "really helped me target the kids I was struggling with and give them more structured attention."

Curiosity motivated Kitzmann to study the efficacy of Two-by-Ten for her master's thesis. Over the course of a year, she used the strategy on four students (three separate times) and teamed up with a teacher's aide to collect data based on daily observation checklists (which tracked disruptions such as talking with peers, interrupting the teacher, and not following directions) and the number of "red alerts" or behavior referrals sent home to parents.

Kitzmann ultimately found that the students she worked with were "less disruptive, changed their attitudes, and had a stronger drive to succeed in school" after exposure to the Two-by Ten strategy. In addition, the class as a whole was "running more smoothly."

Still, it was a learning process for everyone, Kitzmann explains. Some of the students were more receptive to the conversations than others, but most tended to warm up to the attention by the second week.

Keeping the content of the conversations PG-rated and centered on the student's personal interests is essential to making the strategy work, Smith asserts. Teachers can use an interest inventory to ask questions or just "focus on whatever the kid is talking about to his friends or what he's wearing-his sneakers, backpack, anything at all," says Smith. "If he has a Packers jersey on, that's a sure clue."

The discussions, however, should extend beyond the typical "how are you today, nice to see you," says Kitzmann. Even talking about what the student shared in class or wrote about in an exercise does not have the same effect as when teachers probe more deeply. "The focus of Two-by-Ten is just getting to know the child outside of school," she says. "Find out what his favorite food is, what his favorite hobby is, how did his baseball game go, etc. If [your approach is] authentic, the child will know it."

When a student is especially "resistant and shutdown," Smith recommends striking up a conversation with one of the student's friends within earshot and eventually drawing that student in, even if it takes several days.

Two-by-Ten is "one of the most powerful relationship-changing strategies I know," writes Allen Mendler in When Teaching Gets Tough (ASCD, 2012). Mendler suggests that, at least for the first few days, teachers build the time into their lesson plans when other students "are engaged in an assignment or project that requires less ... direct teaching."

Kitzmann initiated her conversations outside of class when she could more subtly approach a student. "I would do it walking out to recess, walking beside the student to music or PE, checking in on them at lunch, or walking out with them at the end of the day."

Smith advises, especially at the secondary level, that teachers learn the student's schedule and "position yourself in the hall [during passing periods] so [that] you happen to run into him 'by mistake.'" The planning may take a lot of foresight, he says, "but if that kid turns himself around in your class, it will have been worth it."

Allotting time for shorter conversations can also be beneficial as long as they occur every day (not counting weekends) because consistency is what "allows the walls to come down," Smith continues. Thus "half a minute a day for 10 days is better than one 20-minute conversation because [the student] needs that ongoing connection to relax."

"Does Two-by-Ten solve everything? No," Kitzmann is the first to admit. Although the strategy is not a remedy for disruptive behavior, "in 10 days, you establish enough of an understanding that helps you relate to a child or get a relationship going."

By taking the time to ask the right questions, you learn a lot about the student and often begin to "see the child in a different light," Kitzmann elaborates. "In every experience, I have been surprised by what a student shared, or what they taught me, or how they inspired me."

"Once you make that extra step to connect with a kid, you get results," Kitzmann affirms. "And after the 10 days, the tendency is to keep the momentum going. It just continues; it's natural."

Adds Smith, "You have to remember that the teacher is often pretty guarded as well, initially, because the kid has been acting out. And then as you connect heart-to-heart, that's where the magic happens."

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What if instead of going head-to-head with your most challenging student, you created an ally in him? During the 2013 ASCD Conference on Educational Leadership, presenter Grace Dearborn shared a strategy for making that happen: the "Two-by-Ten." Dearborn explained that by spending two minutes a day for 10 consecutive days getting to know a disruptive student, teachers can begin establishing an initial connection.

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Overview

CE credits: 1

Learning objectives: After reading this article, CE candidates will be able to:

1. Identify the effects of social isolation and loneliness on physical, mental and cognitive health.

2. Explore how loneliness differs from social isolation.

3. Discuss evidence-based interventions for combating loneliness.

For more information on earning CE credit for this article, go to www.apa.org/ed/ce/resources/ce-corner.

According to a 2018 national survey by Cigna, loneliness levels have reached an all-time high, with nearly half of 20,000 U.S. adults reporting they sometimes or always feel alone. Forty percent of survey participants also reported they sometimes or always feel that their relationships are not meaningful and that they feel isolated.

Such numbers are alarming because of the health and mental health risks associated with loneliness. According to a meta-analysis co-authored by Julianne Holt-Lunstad, PhD, a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Brigham Young University, lack of social connection heightens health risks as much as smoking 15 cigarettes a day or having alcohol use disorder. She's also found that loneliness and social isolation are twice as harmful to physical and mental health as obesity (Perspectives on Psychological Science , Vol. 10, No. 2, 2015).

"There is robust evidence that social isolation and loneliness significantly increase risk for premature mortality, and the magnitude of the risk exceeds that of many leading health indicators," Holt-Lunstad says.

In an effort to stem such health risks, campaigns and coalitions to reduce social isolation and loneliness-an individual's perceived level of social isolation-have been launched in Australia, Denmark and the United Kingdom. These national programs bring together research experts, nonprofit and government agencies, community groups and skilled volunteers to raise awareness of loneliness and address social isolation through evidence-based interventions and advocacy.

But is loneliness really increasing, or is it a condition that humans have always experienced at various times of life? In other words, are we becoming lonelier or just more inclined to recognize and talk about the problem?

These are tough questions to answer because historical data about loneliness are scant. Still, some research suggests that social isolation is increasing, so loneliness may be, too, says Holt-Lunstad. The most recent U.S. census data, for example, show that more than a quarter of the population lives alone-the highest rate ever recorded. In addition, more than half of the population is unmarried, and marriage rates and the number of children per household have declined since the previous census. Rates of volunteerism have also decreased, according to research by the University of Maryland's Do Good Institute, and an increasing percentage of Americans report no religious affiliation -suggesting declines in the kinds of religious and other institutional connections that can provide community.

"Regardless of whether loneliness is increasing or remaining stable, we have lots of evidence that a significant portion of the population is affected by it," says Holt-Lunstad. "Being connected to others socially is widely considered a fundamental human need-crucial to both well-being and survival."

As experts in behavior change, psychologists are well-positioned to help the nation combat loneliness. Through their research and public policy work, many psychologists have been providing data and detailed recommendations for advancing social connection as a U.S. public health priority on both the societal and individual levels.

"With an increasing aging population, the effects of loneliness on public health are only anticipated to increase," Holt-Lunstad says. "The challenge we face now is figuring out what can be done about it."

Who is most likely?

Loneliness is an experience that has been around since the beginning of time-and we all deal with it, according to Ami Rokach, PhD, an instructor at York University in Canada and a clinical psychologist. "It's something every single one of us deals with from time to time," he explains, and can occur during life transitions such as the death of a loved one, a divorce or a move to a new place. This kind of loneliness is referred to by researchers as reactive loneliness.

Problems can arise, however, when an experience of loneliness becomes chronic, Rokach notes. "If reactive loneliness is painful, chronic loneliness is torturous," he says. Chronic loneliness is most likely to set in when individuals either don't have the emotional, mental or financial resources to get out and satisfy their social needs or they lack a social circle that can provide these benefits, says psychologist Louise Hawkley, PhD, a senior research scientist at the research organization NORC at the University of Chicago.

"That's when things can become very problematic, and when many of the major negative health consequences of loneliness can set in," she says.

Last year, a Pew Research Center survey of more than 6,000 U.S. adults linked frequent loneliness to dissatisfaction with one's family, social and community life. About 28 percent of those dissatisfied with their family life feel lonely all or most of the time, compared with just 7 percent of those satisfied with their family life. Satisfaction with one's social life follows a similar pattern: 26 percent of those dissatisfied with their social lives are frequently lonely, compared with just 5 percent of those who are satisfied with their social lives. One in five Americans who say they are not satisfied with the quality of life in their local communities feel frequent loneliness, roughly triple the 7 percent of Americans who are satisfied with the quality of life in their communities.

And, of course, loneliness can occur when people are surrounded by others-on the subway, in a classroom, or even with their spouses and children, according to Rokach, who adds that loneliness is not synonymous with chosen isolation or solitude. Rather, loneliness is defined by people's levels of satisfaction with their connectedness, or their perceived social isolation.

Effects of loneliness and isolation

As demonstrated by a review of the effects of perceived social isolation across the life span, co-authored by Hawkley, loneliness can wreak havoc on an individual's physical, mental and cognitive health (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B , Vol. 370, No. 1669, 2015). Hawkley points to evidence linking perceived social isolation with adverse health consequences including depression, poor sleep quality, impaired executive function, accelerated cognitive decline, poor cardiovascular function and impaired immunity at every stage of life. In addition, a 2019 study led by Kassandra Alcaraz, PhD, MPH, a public health researcher with the American Cancer Society, analyzed data from more than 580,000 adults and found that social isolation increases the risk of premature death from every cause for every race (American Journal of Epidemiology , Vol. 188, No. 1, 2019). According to Alcaraz, among black participants, social isolation doubled the risk of early death, while it increased the risk among white participants by 60 to 84 percent.

"Our research really shows that the magnitude of risk presented by social isolation is very similar in magnitude to that of obesity, smoking, lack of access to care and physical inactivity," she says. In the study, investigators weighted several standard measures of social isolation, including marital status, frequency of religious service attendance, club meetings/group activities and number of close friends or relatives. They found that overall, race seemed to be a stronger predictor of social isolation than sex; white men and women were more likely to be in the least isolated category than were black men and women.

The American Cancer Society study is the largest to date on all races and genders, but previous research has provided glimpses into the harmful effects of social isolation and loneliness. A 2016 study led by Newcastle University epidemiologist Nicole Valtorta, PhD, for example, linked loneliness to a 30 percent increase in risk of stroke or the development of coronary heart disease (Heart , Vol. 102, No. 13). Valtorta notes that a lonely individual's higher risk of ill health likely stems from several combined factors: behavioral, biological and psychological.

"Lacking encouragement from family or friends, those who are lonely may slide into unhealthy habits," Valtorta says. "In addition, loneliness has been found to raise levels of stress, impede sleep and, in turn, harm the body. Loneliness can also augment depression or anxiety."

Last year, researchers at the Florida State University College of Medicine also found that loneliness is associated with a 40 percent increase in a person's risk of dementia ( The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, online 2018). Led by Angelina Sutin, PhD, the study examined data on more than 12,000 U.S. adults ages 50 years and older. Participants rated their levels of loneliness and social isolation and completed a cognitive battery every two years for up to 10 years.

Among older adults in particular, loneliness is more likely to set in when an individual is dealing with functional limitations and has low family support, Hawkley says. Better self-rated health, more social interaction and less family strain reduce older adults' feelings of loneliness, according to a study, led by Hawkley, examining data from more than 2,200 older adults (Research on Aging , Vol. 40, No. 4, 2018). "Even among those who started out lonely, those who were in better health and socialized with others more often had much better odds of subsequently recovering from their loneliness," she says.

A 2015 study led by Steven Cole, MD, a professor of medicine at the University of California, Los Angeles, provides additional clues as to why loneliness can harm overall health (PNAS , Vol. 112, No. 49, 2015). He and his colleagues examined gene expressions in leukocytes, white blood cells that play key roles in the immune system's response to infection. They found that the leukocytes of lonely participants-both humans and rhesus macaques-showed an increased expression of genes involved in inflammation and a decreased expression of genes involved in antiviral responses.

Loneliness, it seems, can lead to long-term "fight-or-flight" stress signaling, which negatively affects immune system functioning. Simply put, people who feel lonely have less immunity and more inflammation than people who don't.

Combating loneliness

While the harmful effects of loneliness are well established in the research literature, finding solutions to curb chronic loneliness has proven more challenging, says Holt-Lunstad.

Developing effective interventions is not a simple task because there's no single underlying cause of loneliness, she says. "Different people may be lonely for different reasons, and so a one-size-fits-all kind of intervention is not likely to work because you need something that is going to address the underlying cause." Rokach notes that efforts to minimize loneliness can start at home, with teaching children that aloneness does not mean loneliness. Also, he says, schools can help foster environments in which children look for, identify and intervene when a peer seems lonely or disconnected from others.

In terms of additional ways to address social isolation and feelings of loneliness, research led by Christopher Masi, MD, and a team of researchers at the University of Chicago suggests that interventions that focus inward and address the negative thoughts underlying loneliness in the first place seem to help combat loneliness more than those designed to improve social skills, enhance social support or increase opportunities for social interaction ( Personality and Social Psychology Review, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2011). The meta-analysis reviewed 20 randomized trials of interventions to decrease loneliness in children, adolescents and adults and showed that addressing what the researchers termed maladaptive social cognition through cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) worked best because it empowered patients to recognize and deal with their negative thoughts about self-worth and how others perceive them, says Hawkley, one of the study's co-authors.

Still, some research has found that engaging older adults in community and social groups can lead to positive mental health effects and reduce feelings of loneliness. Last year, Julene Johnson, PhD, a University of California, San Francisco researcher on aging, examined how joining a choir might combat feelings of loneliness among older adults (The Journals of Gerontology: Series B , online 2018). Half of the study's 12 senior centers were randomly selected for the choir program, which involved weekly 90-minute choir sessions, including informal public performances. The other half of the centers did not participate in choir sessions. After six months, the researchers found no significant differences between the two groups on tests of cognitive function, lower body strength and overall psychosocial health. But they did find significant improvements in two components of the psychosocial evaluation among choir participants: This group reported feeling less lonely and indicated they had more interest in life. Seniors in the non-choir group saw no change in their loneliness, and their interest in life declined slightly.

Researchers at the University of Queensland in Australia have also found that older adults who take part in social groups such as book clubs or church groups have a lower risk of death (BMJ Open , Vol. 6, No. 2, 2016). Led by psychologist Niklas Steffens, PhD, the team tracked the health of 424 people for six years after they had retired and found that social group membership had a compounding effect on quality of life and risk of death. Compared with those still working, every group membership lost after retirement was associated with around a 10 percent drop in quality of life six years later. In addition, if participants belonged to two groups before retirement and kept these up over the following six years, their risk of death was 2 percent, rising to 5 percent if they gave up membership in one group and to 12 percent if they gave up membership in both.

"In this regard, practical interventions need to focus on helping retirees to maintain their sense of purpose and belonging by assisting them to connect to groups and communities that are meaningful to them," the authors say.

To that end, cohousing appears to be growing in popularity among young and old around the world as a way to improve social connections and decrease loneliness, among other benefits. Cohousing communities and mixed-age residences are intentionally built to bring older and younger generations together, either in whole neighborhoods within single-family homes or in larger apartment buildings, where they share dining, laundry and recreational spaces. Neighbors gather for parties, games, movies or other events, and the cohousing piece makes it easy to form clubs, organize child and elder care, and carpool. Hawkley and other psychologists argue that these living situations may also provide an antidote to loneliness, particularly among older adults. Although formal evaluations of their effectiveness in reducing loneliness remain scarce, cohousing communities in the United States now number 165 nationwide, according to the Cohousing Association, with another 140 in the planning stages.

"Older adults have become so marginalized and made to feel as though they are no longer productive members of society, which is lonely-making in and of itself," Hawkley says. "For society to be healthy, we have to find ways to include all segments of the population, and many of these intergenerational housing programs seem to be doing a lot in terms of dispelling myths about old age and helping older individuals feel like they are important and valued members of society again."

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Evidence links perceived loneliness and social isolation with depression, poor sleep quality, impaired executive function, accelerated cognitive decline, poor cardiovascular function and impaired immunity at every stage of life.

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The science of EFT tapping

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Just how does Neuroplasticity work?

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What is Neuroplasticity?