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Stephen D. Krashen (Monitor Model); discussed/extended in later work by Michael Long, Merril Swain, Rode Ellis, among others.

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Acquisition = subconscious development through meaningful communication

Learning = conscious knowledge of rules.

Consciously learned knowledge mainly serves as a Monitor that works only when the learner (1) knows the rule, (2) is focused on form/correctness, and (3) has time; the model emphasizes comprehensible input as the main driver of acquisition. (sdkrashen.com)

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1. Gives a clear pedagogical focus on providing comprehensible input

=> It tells teachers to prioritize meaning-rich input that learners can actually understand. => This gives a concrete instructional anchor: curate texts/audio that convey real messages first, then fine-tune form.

2. Lower affective barriers;

=> It highlights motivation, confidence, and low anxiety as conditions for knowledge absorption.

=> Lowering stress isn’t “nice-to-have”; it directly affects whether input is internalized.

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1. The strict learning–acquisition split is hard to verify

=> The sharp divide between “learning” (explicit rules) and “acquisition” (implicit competence) is difficult to test cleanly. In practice, knowledge types often interact.

2. Lack interaction and feedback also matter for development, focus mainly on just input.

=> Development is not driven by input alone. Negotiation of meaning and feedback (recasts, prompts, clarification requests) help learners notice mismatches and restructure their interlanguage.