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But what exactly are aqueducts? These were the lifelines of the Roman world-vast networks of stone, concrete, and brick that carried fresh water from distant springs and mountains directly into the heart of the city. They didn't just quench the thirst of a growing metropolis; they powered fountains, fed public baths, and made large-scale urban life possible.

For modern visitors, Roman aqueducts are more than ancient plumbing-they're a powerful symbol of Rome's architectural genius and the innovation that shaped Western civilization.
If you're planning a trip to Rome, here's everything you need to know to make the most of this engineering marvel.
When we talk about the greatest achievements of ancient Rome, aqueducts always rise to the top of the list-and for good reason. These engineering masterpieces weren't just functional; they were revolutionary.

Before the Romans, most civilizations relied on basic channels or clay pipes to transport water over short distances. The Romans, however, transformed this humble concept into a sophisticated, large-scale system that could carry millions of gallons of water across miles of rugged terrain.

In combining beauty with brilliance, Roman aqueducts exemplify the ingenuity and ambition that defined the Roman Empire. They were built to last-and they certainly have.

Who Invented Roman Aqueducts?

The idea of transporting water wasn't born with the Romans. Ancient civilizations like the Egyptians and Greeks had already developed basic water systems using canals, pipes, and rudimentary aqueducts to support agriculture and urban life. But while these early systems laid the groundwork, it was the Romans who took the concept to astonishing new heights.

The Romans didn't invent aqueducts-but they expanded, standardized, and perfected them like no one before. They created a city-wide network of aqueducts that was unparalleled in the ancient world.

They developed innovations in materials-like concrete lined with waterproof mortar -and implemented precise gradients that allowed water to flow smoothly over long distances.

This Roman approach turned what had been a local or regional solution into a vast urban infrastructure. By the time of the Roman Empire's peak, the city of Rome alone was served by 11 major aqueducts, delivering fresh water to over a million people.

So while the idea wasn't uniquely Roman, the execution certainly was-and it's why Roman aqueducts remain a symbol of ancient brilliance and modern inspiration.

The entire system was designed to let water flow naturally from higher elevations to lower ones, without the use of pumps or modern machinery. Some aqueducts ran for over 50 miles, yet the incline was so subtle, it was almost imperceptible to the eye.

To follow the landscape and maintain this delicate gradient, the Romans used a variety of structures:

Underground channels to protect the flow from contamination and evaporation.

Siphons to cross valleys using air-pressured pipes.

Bridges and arcades to span rivers and lowlands-some of which still tower over the Roman countryside today.

The result? A silent, seamless system that could deliver millions of gallons of fresh water every day-with no motors, no electricity, and no interruptions. It's a testament to Roman innovation and why how Roman aqueducts worked continues to inspire engineers even today.

Roman aqueducts worked with gravity, so water always flowed downhill overall. But when the landscape dipped into a valley or depression, the Romans had a clever solution: the inverted siphon.

This wasn't about forcing water to climb up a hill-it was about letting gravity and pressure do the hard work. Picture a giant U-shaped pipe: water would flow down one side of the valley, gain pressure at the bottom, and then be pushed up the other side by the force of the water behind it.

The Romans used strong materials like lead or stone pipes to contain that pressure, effectively "lifting" the water across the dip without ever defying gravity.

To non-engineers, it might sound like a magic trick-but it's all basic physics. And it shows just how brilliantly Roman aqueducts were designed. They didn't just follow the path of least resistance; they adapted to the land with smart, practical solutions that still impress modern engineers.

So next time you see a dip in the landscape or a low-lying valley crossed by an ancient aqueduct, remember: the water didn't flow uphill-but the Romans sure knew how to make it seem like it did.

Roman aqueducts were essential to daily life in ancient Rome, delivering fresh water to public baths, fountains, latrines, and even private homes. They didn't just support hygiene and health-they shaped Roman culture and urban development.

By ensuring a steady water supply, aqueducts improved sanitation, fueled social life, and helped Rome grow into one of the largest cities of the ancient world. They also stood as powerful symbols of Roman engineering, prosperity, and civic pride -a lasting reminder of the empire's ingenuity and ambition.

Here's a fact that always surprises visitors: the Aqua Virgo, built in 19 BC, is still in use today. It continues to supply water to several of Rome's most famous fountains-including the iconic Trevi Fountain. That's right: the coin you toss into the fountain is carried by water flowing through a system designed over 2,000 years ago.

So yes, Roman aqueducts are not just ancient relics-they're living, working parts of the Eternal City.

Porta Maggiore, where several aqueducts intersect dramatically.

Sections of Aqua Marcia, still visible around the city.

Tips: Wear comfortable shoes, bring water, and consider visiting with a guide to fully appreciate the history.

Spotting a majestic Roman aqueduct in or around Rome? Here's a quick guide to help you figure out where you are:

Near Cinecittà? You're likely in or around the Parco degli Acquedotti, home to the Aqua Claudia and Aqua Felix. This area is part of the larger Appian Way Regional Park, and it's one of the most scenic and iconic places to see Roman aqueducts in full view.

At a busy intersection with ancient arches overhead? You're at Porta Maggiore, where several aqueducts-including the Aqua Claudia and Aqua Anio Novus -converge dramatically above modern roads. It's a fascinating blend of ancient engineering and urban life.

Walking or biking along a straight, cobbled road lined with ruins and pine trees? You're on the legendary Appian Way (Via Appia Antica). While the aqueducts aren't as continuous here, you'll encounter sections and remnants along the route-especially if you continue toward the outskirts.
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Roman Aqueducts: Fascinating Facts

Looking for quick, shareable trivia about Roman aqueducts? Here are some impressive facts that show just how advanced-and ambitious-the Romans really were:

Over 260 miles (around 420 km) of aqueducts supplied ancient Rome-only about 30 miles were above ground, but they made a big impression.

The Aqua Marcia was the longest Roman aqueduct, stretching over 56 miles (91 km) and delivering some of the purest water to the city.

By the 3rd century AD, Rome was served by 11 major aqueduct systems, with dozens more built across the empire-from France to North Africa.

Roman engineers mastered gravity flow, allowing water to travel across vast distances with no pumps-just precise planning.

In rural areas, aqueducts often ran underground, while in valleys or lowlands, they crossed over dramatic stone arcades still standing today.

These facts aren't just fun-they highlight why Roman aqueducts are considered one of the greatest engineering feats in human history.

One of the most astonishing facts about Roman aqueducts is that some of them are still functioning-over 2,000 years later. The most famous example is the Aqua Virgo, originally completed in 19 BC under the reign of Augustus. While much of its original path now runs underground, its legacy is very much alive in modern Rome.

The Aqua Virgo still delivers fresh water to the Trevi Fountain, one of the most iconic landmarks in the world. Every time a visitor tosses a coin into its shimmering basin, they're interacting with a living piece of ancient infrastructure.

It's a powerful reminder: in Rome, history doesn't just surround you-it still flows beneath your feet.

Reading about Roman aqueducts is fascinating-but seeing them in person, with the guidance of a local expert, brings the experience to a whole new level.

Joining a guided walking tour allows you to go beyond the ruins and truly understand the story behind them. You won't just be looking at ancient stones-you'll learn how these awe-inspiring structures were built, how they worked, and how they transformed daily life in ancient Rome.

One of the best ways to explore this legacy is through our Appian Way and Roman Aqueducts Tour. This immersive experience takes you through the peaceful countryside of the Via Appia Antica, past ancient tombs, Roman roads, and of course, the towering aqueducts of Parco degli Acquedotti.

So if you're ready to walk through history, don't just visit the aqueducts-experience them with a guide who brings their story to life. Let us help you see Rome through the eyes of those who built it.

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Rome aqueducts: where to see them and how they work

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But what exactly are aqueducts? These were the lifelines of the Roman world-vast networks of stone, concrete, and brick that carried fresh water from distant springs and mountains directly into the heart of the city. They didn't just quench the thirst of a growing metropolis; they powered fountains, fed public baths, and made large-scale urban life possible.

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Kids learn about the housing and homes of the people of Ancient Rome including homes in the city, insulae, private homes, typical rooms in a Roman house, villas in the country, and fun facts.

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Roman Housing - The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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Domestic display is a good example of the conspicuous consumption of the Roman elite, proving that they had wealth and therefore power and authority.

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Robert Harding Picture Library

The Roman aqueduct was a channel used to transport fresh water to highly populated areas. Aqueducts were amazing feats of engineering given the time period. Though earlier civilizations in Egypt and India also built aqueducts, the Romans improved on the structure and built an extensive and complex network across their territories. Evidence of aqueducts remain in parts of modern-day France, Spain, Greece, North Africa, and Turkey.

Aqueducts required a great deal of planning. They were made from a series of pipes, tunnels, canals, and bridges. Gravity and the natural slope of the land allowed aqueducts to channel water from a freshwater source, such as a lake or spring, to a city. As water flowed into the cities, it was used for drinking, irrigation, and to supply hundreds of public fountains and baths.

Roman aqueduct systems were built over a period of about 500 years, from 312 B.C.E. to C.E. 226. Both public and private funds paid for construction. High-ranking rulers often had them built; the Roman emperors Augustus, Caligula, and Trajan all ordered aqueducts built.

The most recognizable feature of Roman aqueducts may be the bridges constructed using rounded stone arches. Some of these can still be seen today traversing European valleys. However, these bridged structures made up only a small portion of the hundreds of kilometers of aqueducts throughout the empire. The capital in Rome alone had around 11 aqueduct systems supplying freshwater from sources as far as 92 kilometers away (57 miles). Despite their age, some aqueducts still function and provide modern-day Rome with water. The Aqua Virgo, an aqueduct constructed by Agrippa in 19 B.C.E. during Augustus' reign, still supplies water to Rome's famous Trevi Fountain in the heart of the city.

National Geographic Society

October 19, 2023

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The Roman aqueducts supplied fresh, clean water for baths, fountains, and drinking water for ordinary citizens.

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Roman Housing - The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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Domestic display is a good example of the conspicuous consumption of the Roman elite, proving that they had wealth and therefore power and authority.

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Kids learn about the baths of Ancient Rome including getting clean, socializing, a typical Roman bath, who went to the baths, why there were public baths, and where the water came from.

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The Roman Domus - World History Encyclopedia

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history channel riverhunters GIF by HISTORY UK

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Would you rather be a wealthy Roman or a poor Roman?

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An aqueduct is a watercourse constructed to carry water from a source to a distribution point far away. In modern engineering, the term aqueduct is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose. The term aqueduct also often refers specifically to a bridge carrying an artificial watercourse. Aqueducts were used in ancient Greece, ancient Egypt, and ancient Rome. In modern times, the largest aqueducts of all have been built in the United States to supply large cities. The simplest aqueducts are small ditches cut into the earth. Much larger channels may be used in modern aqueducts. Aqueducts sometimes run for some or all of their path through tunnels constructed underground. Modern aqueducts may also use pipelines. Historically, agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops and supply large cities with drinking water.

The word is derived from the Latin aqua (water) and (led, guided).

Although particularly associated with the Romans, aqueducts were devised much earlier in Greece, the Near East, Nile Valley, and Indian subcontinent, where peoples such as the Egyptians and Harappans built sophisticated irrigation systems. Roman-style aqueducts were used as early as the 7th century BC, when the Assyrians built an 80 km long limestone aqueduct, which included a 10 m high section to cross a 300 m wide valley, to carry water to their capital city, Nineveh.

The Indian subcontinent is believed to have some of the earliest aqueducts. Evidence can be found at the sites of present-day Hampi, Karnataka. The massive aqueducts near river Tungabhadra supplying irrigation water were once 15 miles (24 km) long. The waterways supplied water to royal bath tubs.

In Oman from the Iron Age, in Salut, Bat, and other sites, a system of underground aqueducts called falaj or qanāts were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping horizontal tunnels.

There are three types of falaj:

Daudi (داوودية) with underground aqueducts

Ghaili (الغيلية ) requiring a dam to collect the water

Aini (العينية ) whose source is a water spring

These enabled large scale agriculture to flourish in a dry land environment.

In Persia from early times[vague ] a system of underground aqueducts called qanāts were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping tunnels. This technique:

taps into subterranean water in a manner that delivers water to the surface without need for pumping. The water drains relying on gravity, with the destination lower than the source, which is typically an upland aquifer.

allows water to be transported long distances in hot dry climates without losing a large proportion of the source water to seepage and evaporation.

Petra, Jordan

Throughout Petra, Jordan, the Nabataean engineers took advantage of every natural spring and every winter downpour to channel water where it was needed. They constructed aqueducts and piping systems that allowed water to flow across mountains, through gorges and into the temples, homes, and gardens of Petra's citizens. Walking through the Siq, one can easily spot the remains of channels that directed water to the city center, as well as durable retention dams that kept powerful flood waters at bay.

On the island of Samos, the Tunnel of Eupalinos was built during the reign of Polycrates (538-522 BC). It is considered an underground aqueduct and brought fresh water to Pythagoreion for roughly a thousand years.

Roman aqueducts were built in all parts of the Roman Empire, from Germany to Africa, and especially in the city of Rome, where they totalled over 415 kilometres (258 mi). The aqueducts supplied fresh water to public baths and for drinking water, in large cities across the empire, and set a standard of engineering that was not surpassed for more than a thousand years. Bridges, built in stone with multiple arches, were a distinctive feature of Roman aqueducts and hence the term aqueduct is often applied specifically to a bridge for carrying water.

Near the Peruvian town of Nazca, an ancient pre-Columbian system of aqueducts called Puquios were built and are still in use today. They were made of intricately placed stones, a construction material widely used by the Nazca culture. The time period in which they were constructed is still debated, but some evidence supports circa A.D. 540-552, in response to drought periods in the region.

The Guayabo National Monument of Costa Rica, a park covering the largest archaeological site in the country, contains a system of aqueducts. The complex network of uncovered and covered aqueducts still functions well. The aqueducts are constructed from rounded river stones, which are mostly made of volcanic rock. The civilization that constructed the aqueduct system remains a mystery to archaeologists; it is suspected that Guayabo's aqueducts sat at a point of ancient cultural confluence between Aztecs, Mayans, and Incas.

When Europeans saw the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán, early in the 16th century, the city was watered by two aqueducts. One of these, Chapultepec Aqueduct, built circa 1420, was rebuilt by the Spanish almost three hundred years later. Originally tracing part of its path over now-gone Lake Texcoco, only a fragment remains in Mexico City today.

Extensive usage of elaborate aqueducts have been found to have been used in ancient Sri Lanka. The best example is the Yoda Ela or Jaya Ganga, an 87 kilometres (54 mi) long water canal carrying excess water between two artificial reservoirs with a gradient of 10 to 20 cm per kilometer during the fifth century AD. However, the ancient engineering methods in calculating the exact elevation between the two reservoirs and the exact gradient of the canal to such fine precision had been lost with the fall of the civilization in 13th Century.

Modern aqueducts are a central part of many countries' water distribution infrastructure.

The United States' aqueducts are some of the world's largest. The Catskill Aqueduct carries water to New York City over a distance of 120 miles (190 km), but is dwarfed by aqueducts in the far west of the country, most notably the 242-mile (389-km) Colorado River Aqueduct, which supplies the Los Angeles area with water from the Colorado River nearly 250 miles to the east and the 701.5-mile (1,129.0 km) California Aqueduct, which runs from the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta to Lake Perris. The Central Arizona Project is the largest and most expensive aqueduct constructed in the United States. It stretches 336 miles from its source near Parker, Arizona to the metropolitan areas of Phoenix and Tucson.

An aqueduct in New Zealand, "the Oamaru Borough Race", was constructed in the late 19th century to deliver water (and water-power) about 50 km from the Waitaki River at Kurow to the coastal town of Oamaru.

In Spain, the Tagus-Segura Water Transfer system of aqueducts opened in 1979 and transports water 286 kilometres (178 mi) from north to south.

In China, the South-North Water Transfer Project aims to connect the Yangtze River basin to Beijing through three separate systems. The project will reuse part of the Grand Canal of China.

The simplest aqueducts are small ditches cut into the earth. Much larger channels may be used in modern aqueducts, for instance the Central Arizona Project uses 7.3 m (24 ft) wide channels. A major factor in the design of all open channels is its gradient. A higher gradient allows a smaller channel to carry the same amount of water as a larger channel with a lower gradient, but increases the potential of the water to damage the aqueduct's structure. A typical Roman aqueduct had a gradient of about 1:4800.

Artificial rills

A constructed functional rill is a small canal or aqueduct of stone, brick, concrete, or other lining material, usually rectilinear in cross section, for water transportation from a source such as a river, spring, reservoir, qanat, or aqueduct for domestic consumption or agricultural irrigation of crop land uses.

Rills were traditionally used in Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climate cultures of ancient and historical eras; and other climates and continents worldwide. They are distinguished from a 'water ditch' by being lined to reduce absorption losses and to increase durability. The Falaj irrigation system at the Al Ain Oasis, in present-day Abu Dhabi Emirate, uses rills as part of its qanat water system. Sometimes in the Spanish language they are called .

Rills are also used for aesthetic purposes in landscape design. Rills are used as narrow channels of water inset into the pavement of a garden, as linear water features, and often tiled and part of a fountain design.

The historical origins are from paradise garden religious images that first translated into ancient Persian Gardens. Rills were later exceptionally developed in the Moorish (Spanish) Gardens of Al-andalus, such as at the Alhambra in Granada; and also in other Islamic gardens, cultures, and countries. Early 20th century examples are in the Maria Louisa Park gardens in Seville, Spain; and at the Casa del Herrero gardens in Montecito, California.

Aqueducts sometimes run for some or all of their path through tunnels constructed underground. A version of this common in North Africa and Central Asia that has vertical wells at regular intervals is called a qanat. One historic example found in Syria, the Qanat Firaun, extends over 100 kilometers.

Modern aqueducts may also make extensive use of pipelines. Pipelines are useful for transporting water over long distances when it needs to move over hills, or where open channels are poor choices due to considerations of evaporation, freezing, pollution, or environmental impact. They can also be used to carry treated water.

Historically, agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops. Archimedes invented the water screw to raise water for use in irrigation of croplands.

Another use for aqueducts is to supply large cities with drinking water. It also help drought-prone areas with water supply. Some of the Roman aqueducts still supply water to Rome today. In California, United States, three large aqueducts supply water over hundreds of miles to the Los Angeles area. Two are from the Owens River area, and a third is from the Colorado River.

In modern civil engineering projects, detailed study and analysis of open-channel flow is commonly required to support flood control, irrigation systems, and large water supply systems when an aqueduct rather than a pipeline is the preferred solution.

In the past, aqueducts often had channels made of earth or other porous materials but significant amounts of water are lost through such unlined aqueducts. As water gets increasingly scarce, these canals are being lined with concrete, polymers, or impermeable soil. In some cases, a new aqueduct is built alongside the old one because it cannot be shut down during construction.

The Pont du Gard, constructed in the 1st century, in southern France.

The Aqueduct of Segovia, an aqueduct bridge is one of the most significant and best-preserved ancient monuments left on the Iberian Peninsula, Segovia, Spain

The Valens Aqueduct. a Roman aqueduct in the Eastern Roman capital of Constantinople, now Istanbul, Turkey.

Ponte Mantible Aqueduct in Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 12th century.

The Jerwan Aqueduct built by the Assyrian king Sennacherib dated to 688 BC, as part of the water supply system to the city of Nineveh

Wignacourt Aqueduct, Malta; built in the 17th century to transport water from Dingli and Rabat to the new capital city Valletta; today, most of its arches still survive in the localities of Attard, Balzan, Birkirkara, Fleur-de-Lys and Santa Venera

St-Clément Aqueduct, Montpellier, France, 17th century

Bar Aqueduct, Montenegro, 16th century

Águas Livres Aqueduct, in Lisbon, Portugal (built 1731-1748)

Acueducto de Albear Havana, Cuba. (Inaugurated 22 January 1893)

Óbidos Aqueduct, in Óbidos, Portugal (built 1570)

Setúbal Aqueduct in Setúbal, Portugal (built 1696)

Pegões Aqueduct in Tomar, Portugal (built 1593)

Água de Prata Aqueduct, in Évora, Portugal (built 1531-1537)

Santa Clara Aqueduct, in Vila do Conde, Portugal

Carioca Aqueduct in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (built 1744-1750)

Teruel Aqueduct, Spain

Roquefavour Aqueduct, France, built between 1842 and 1847

Greater Winnipeg Water District Aqueduct, Manitoba, Canada, built between 1915 and 1919

Canal de l'Aqueduc, Quebec, Canada

Päijänne Water Tunnel, a 120-kilometer long underground aqueduct (continuous tunnel) connecting lake Päijänne to Greater Helsinki

Wan Mat Saman Aqueduct, Kedah, Malaysia, built between 1900 and 1909

Surviving Spanish aqueducts in Mexico:

Kavala aqueduct, 16th-century Ottoman aqueduct in Kavala, Greece

Levadas, 1,350 miles (2,170 km) of 17th century aqueducts on the Portuguese island of Madeira

Skopje Aqueduct is located 2 km from the capital of North Macedonia.

Espada Aqueduct, built 1735, in San Antonio, Texas, United States

Quabbin Aqueduct, 24.6-mile (39.6 km) long tunnel, in Massachusetts, United States

Chicopee Valley Aqueduct, 13.1-mile (21.1 km) long, in Massachusetts, United States

Central Arizona Project Aqueduct

California Aqueduct, a 715 mi (1,151 km) combination of canals, pipelines, and tunnels, United States

Aqueducts in the New York City water supply system (all in New York State):

Croton Aqueduct, a large and complex water distribution system constructed between 1837 and 1842. Decommissioned in 1955 following improvements in the city's water system.

New Croton Aqueduct, built largely parallel to the original Croton Aqueduct and opened in 1890, supplementing the original Croton Aqueduct. Supplies about 10% of the city's water today.

Catskill Aqueduct, considerably larger than either Croton Aqueduct; built between 1907 and 1916, with construction on related infrastructure lasting through 1924. Carries water from watersheds in the Catskill Mountains, today supplying about 40% of the city's water.

Delaware Aqueduct, built between 1939 and 1945 to carry water from three reservoirs in the Delaware River watershed and one in the Hudson River watershed, supplying about half of the city's water. At 85 miles (137 km) long, it is the world's longest continuous tunnel.

Sooke Flowline located on Vancouver Island, Canada, is a 44 kilometres long, gravity-fed concrete pipe which provided water to the City of Victoria for 55 years

Boothtown Aqueduct, in Sydney, Australia, completed in 1888

National Water Carrier of Israel located in Israel, is a 130 km long system of giant pipes, open canals, tunnels, reservoirs, and large scale pumping stations to transfer water from the Sea of Galilee in the north of the country to the highly populated center and arid south, built between 1953 and 1964

Kamares, Larnaca, Cyprus

Apulia Aqueduct, Apulia, Italy

An entrance to the ancient Puquios, near Nazca

Albear Aqueduct, Havana, Cuba.

Sextus Julius Frontinus, De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae (On the water management of the city of Rome), Translated by R. H. Rodgers, 2003, University of Vermont

Aqueduct entry from Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition

Chanson, H. (2002). Certains Aspects de la Conception hydrauliques des Aqueducs Romains. ('Some Aspect on the Hydraulic Design of Roman Aqueducts.') Journal La Houille Blanche, No. 6/7, pp. 43-57 (ISSN 0018-6368)

Chanson, H. (2008). "The Hydraulics of Roman Aqueducts: What do we know? Why should we learn?" in Proceedings of World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008 Ahupua'a, ASCE-EWRI Education, Research and History Symposium, Hawaii, USA, Invited Keynote lecture, 13-16 May, R.W. Badcock Jr and R. Walton Eds., 16 pages (ISBN 978-0-7844-0976-3)

Aicher, Peter J. 1995. Guide to the aqueducts of ancient Rome. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci.

Beltrán Lloris, Francisco. 2006. "An irrigation decree from Roman Spain: The Lex Rivi Hiberiensis." Journal of Roman Studies 96: 147-97.

Bruun, Christer. 1991. The water supply of ancient Rome: A study of Roman imperial administration. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica.

Coulton, J. J. 1987. "Roman aqueducts in Asia Minor." In Roman architecture in the Greek world. Edited by Sarah Macready and Frederick Hugh Thompson, 72-84. London: Society of Antiquaries.

Frankel, R. 2002. "The Hellenistic aqueduct of Akko-Ptolemais." Journal of Roman Archaeology (Supplementary Studies) 46: 82-87.

Grewe, Klaus. 2008. "Tunnels and canals." In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John Peter Oleson, 319-36. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

Hodge, A. Trevor. 1992. Roman aqueducts and water supply. London: Duckworth.

Lewis, Michael Jonathan Taunton. 2001. Surveying instruments of Greece and Rome. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Wilson, Andrew I. 1999. "Deliveries extra urbem: Aqueducts and the countryside." Journal of Roman Archaeology 12: 314-32.

--. 2008. "Hydraulic engineering and water supply." In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John Peter Oleson, 337-68. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

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An aqueduct is a watercourse constructed to carry water from a source to a distribution point far away. In modern engineering, the term aqueduct is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose. The term aqueduct also often refers specifically to a bridge carrying an artificial watercourse.

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Would you rather live in a city without aqueducts or one with aqueducts in Rome?

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the household included servants for all members of the family

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would you rather take a bath in the roman bath or a normal one 

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File:Roman Baths in Bath Spa, England - July 2006.jpg ...

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Roman aqueducts were built primarily to transport water from distant sources to cities for drinking, sanitation, and public baths.

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Do you like baths that are big or smaller

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would you rather be a Patrician or Plebeian

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The Roman Baths are a well-preserved in the city of Bath, Somerset, England. A temple was constructed on the site between 60-70CE in the first few decades of Roman Britain. Its presence led to the development of the small Roman urban settlement known as Aquae Sulis around the site. The Roman baths-designed for public bathing-were used until the end of Roman rule in Britain in the 5th Century CE. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the original Roman baths were in ruins a century later. The area around the natural springs was redeveloped several times during the Early and Late Middle Ages.

The Roman Baths are preserved in four main features: the Sacred Spring, the Roman Temple, the Roman Bath House, and a museum which holds artefacts from Aquae Sulis. However, all buildings at street level date from the 19th century. It is a major tourist attraction in the UK, and together with the Grand Pump Room, receives more than 1.3 million visitors annually. Visitors can tour the baths and museum but cannot enter the water.

The water which bubbles up from the ground at Bath falls as rain on the nearby Mendip Hills. It percolates down through limestone aquifers to a depth of between 2,700 and 4,300 metres (8,900 and 14,100 ft) where geothermal energy raises the water temperature to between 69 and 96 °C (156.2 and 204.8 °F). Under pressure, the heated water rises to the surface along fissures and faults in the limestone. This process is similar to an enhanced geothermal system, which also makes use of the high pressures and temperatures below the earth's crust. Hot water at a temperature of 46 °C (114.8 °F) rises here at the rate of 1,170,000 litres (257,364 imp gal) every day, from a geological fault (the Pennyquick fault). In 1982 a new spa water bore-hole was sunk, providing a clean and safe supply of spa water for drinking in the Pump Room.

Water quality

Bath was charged with responsibility for the hot springs in a Royal Charter of 1591 granted by Elizabeth I. This duty has now passed to Bath and North East Somerset Council, who carry out monitoring of pressure, temperature and flow rates. The thermal waters contain sodium, calcium, chloride and sulphate ions in high concentrations.

The Roman Baths are no longer used for bathing. In October 1978, a young girl swimming in the restored Roman Bath with the Bath Dolphins, a local swimming club, contracted meningitis and died, leading to the closure of the bath for several years. Tests showed Naegleria fowleri, a deadly pathogen, in the water. The newly constructed Thermae Bath Spa nearby, and the refurbished Cross Bath, allow modern-day bathers to experience the waters via a series of more recently drilled boreholes.

Archaeological evidence indicates that the site of the baths may have been a centre of worship used by Celts; the springs were dedicated to the goddess Sulis, whom the Romans identified with Minerva. Geoffrey of Monmouth in his largely fictional Historia Regum Britanniae describes how the spring was discovered by the pre-Roman British king Bladud who built the baths there. Early in the 18th century Geoffrey's obscure legend was given great prominence as a royal endorsement of the waters' qualities, with the embellishment that the spring had cured Bladud and his herd of pigs of leprosy through wallowing in the warm mud.

Roman Britain

The name Suliis continued to be used after the Roman invasion, leading to the town's Roman name of Aquae Sulis ("the waters of Sulis"). The temple was constructed in 60-70 AD and the bathing complex was gradually built up over the next 300 years. During the Roman occupation of Britain, and possibly on the instructions of Emperor Claudius, engineers drove oak piles to provide a stable foundation into the mud and surrounded the spring with an irregular stone chamber lined with lead. In the 2nd century it was enclosed within a wooden barrel-vaulted building, and included the caldarium (hot bath), tepidarium (lukewarm bath), and frigidarium (cold bath). After the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the first decade of the 5th century, these fell into disrepair and were eventually lost due to silting up, and flooding. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle suggests the original Roman baths were destroyed in the 6th century.

About 130 curse tablets have been found. Many of the curses are related to thefts of clothes whilst the victim was bathing.

Post-Roman use

The baths have been modified on several occasions, including the 12th century, when John of Tours built a curative bath over the King's Spring reservoir, and the 16th century, when the city corporation built a new bath (Queen's Bath) to the south of the spring. The court physician Théodore de Mayerne bathed Anne of Denmark in the King's Bath on 19 May 1613. She returned in August 1615. Anne of Denmark was surprised by a flame caused by natural gas in King's Bath, and thereafter used the New Bath or Queen's Bath where a column with a crown and the inscription "Anna Regnum Sacrum" was added in her honour.

The spring is now housed in 18th-century buildings, designed by architects John Wood, the Elder and John Wood, the Younger, father and son. Visitors drank the waters in the Grand Pump Room, a neo-classical salon which remains in use, both for taking the waters and for social functions. Victorian expansion of the baths complex followed the neo-classical tradition established by the Woods. In 1810 the hot springs failed and William Smith opened up the Hot Bath Spring to the bottom, where he found that the spring had not failed but had flowed into a new channel. Smith restored the water to its original course.

The visitor entrance is via an 1897 concert hall by J. M. Brydon. It is an eastward continuation of the Grand Pump Room, with a glass-domed centre and single-storey radiused corner. The Grand Pump Room was begun in 1789 by Thomas Baldwin. He resigned in 1791 and John Palmer continued the scheme through to completion in 1799. The elevation on to Abbey Church Yard has a centre piece of four engaged Corinthian columns with entablatures and pediment. It has been designated by Historic England as a grade I listed building. The north colonnade was also designed by Thomas Baldwin. The south colonnade is similar but had an upper floor added in the late 19th century. The museum and Queen's Bath including the "Bridge" spanning York Street to the City Laundry were by Charles Edward Davis in 1889. It comprises a southward extension to the Grand Pump Room, within which some parts of the 17th-century Queen's Bath remain.

The museum houses artefacts from the Roman period including objects that were thrown into the Sacred Spring, presumably as offerings to the goddess. These include more than 12,000 Denari coins, which is the largest collective votive deposit known from Britain. A gilt bronze head of the goddess Sulis Minerva, which was discovered nearby in 1727, is displayed. An audio guide is available in 12 languages.

The Bath Roman Temple stood on a podium more than two metres above the surrounding courtyard, approached by a flight of steps. On the approach there were four large, fluted Corinthian columns supporting a frieze and decorated pediment above. The pediment, parts of which are displayed in the museum, is the triangular ornamental section, 26 feet (7.9 m) wide and 8 feet (2.4 m) from the apex to the bottom, above the pillars on the front of the building. It featured the powerful central image of a possible " Gorgon" head glowering down from a height of 15 metres (49 ft) on all who approached the temple. The great head itself has snakes entwined within its beard, wings above its ears, beetling brows and a heavy moustache although there is some controversy about what this really represents, as Gorgons are usually female. An alternative interpretation sees the central head as the image of a water god such as Oceanus, and yet another as a Celtic sun god. In early 2010 various stones on the pediment were conserved and rearranged.

Also on display are the remains of the elaborate hypocaust heating system, which served the sweat rooms.

In 2016 planning permission was received for a new learning centre aimed at schoolchildren and linked to the baths by a tunnel. Funding is being sought from the Heritage Lottery Fund and, if successful, it is hoped the centre will open in 2019.

The late 19th century carvings of Roman Emperors and Governors of Roman Britain on the terrace overlooking the Great Bath are particularly susceptible to the effect of acid rain and are protected with a wash of a sacrificial shelter coat every few years. Exhibits within the temple precincts are susceptible to warm air which had the effect of drawing corrosive salts out of the Roman stonework. To help reduce this, a new ventilation system was installed in 2006.

In 2009 a grant of £90,000 was made to Bath and North East Somerset Council to contribute towards the cost of re-developing displays and improving access to the Roman Baths, by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport/Wolfson Fund, which was established to promote improvements in Museums and Galleries in England. Subsequent grants have funded further work on the exhibition design and layout by London-based specialist firm, Event Communications.

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The Roman Baths are a well-preserved in the city of Bath, Somerset, England. A temple was constructed on the site between 60-70CE in the first few decades of Roman Britain. Its presence led to the development of the small Roman urban settlement known as Aquae Sulis around the site.

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The Roman Domus - World History Encyclopedia

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Roman house - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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From Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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would you rather take  a tour  of the roman Aqueducts or the national water place 

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would you rather live in a roman house or a millennial house 