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Indigenous boy before and after Residential School. The deconstruction of culture through language, dress and education is prevalent through this image.

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Canadian Indigenous Experience of Language Assimilation

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Canadian Indigenous Experience of Language Assimilation

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An example of how colonizing entities used language to force Indigenous and ethnic groups into a Eurocentric mold, can be seen in Canada with our residential school system. Indigenous children, who were still impressionable and malleable in their perception of both the world and language, were extracted from the places in which they learned about their personal culture. They were placed in schools that immersed and forced European, white culture onto them, where children were punished for allowing any “indigenous culture” to come through. One of the methods used to suppress Indigenous tradition was to stick children’s tongues with needles when languages other than English were being spoken. Residential school leaders took away the child’s ability to communicate with their community, and imposed English perceptions onto them. Now, when they did interact with another Indigenous person, they were unable to experience the same perception of life. They no longer understood the nuances in the language, or metaphors, or descriptive words that separated Canadian Indigenous culture from all other people in the world.

This example explains why understanding the impact linguistic relativity has on the world is so significant. Having the knowledge that all people who speak different languages, dialects, situational dialects and many more are experiencing their own variation of reality, creates a holistic and rich international culture. When language is used as a mechanism of control and forced nationalism, the entire essence of a culture is taken away. The ability to communicate is the basis of all cultures and is the predominantly shared experience that separates one group from another.

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Language As a Means of Cultural Genocide 

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Language As a Means of Cultural Genocide 

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One of the most effective methods of culture genocide was to forbid groups from using their mother tongue to communicate, eventually creating a removal from culture and subsequently phasing out a traditional cultural language (Shakib, 2011). As groups become further removed from their common ways of communication, their culture is unconsciously diluting and being mixed with the colonizing culture and traditions. This experience can explain the widespread use of the English language internationally, and why so many groups of people who are geographically and physically far removed from any English speaking countries, are able to communicate in the language. As previously stated, when they were colonized by British explorers, tis language was forced upon them.

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Interestingly, Whorf’s studies at Yale involved working with Native American dialects including Hopi. There are major differences between Hopi and English languages. For instance, the Hopi language uses one word to describe 3 different things - the same word applies to an insect, an aviator, and an airplane. There is no such word in English however, so an English speaker would describe it using 3 different words, while a Hopi speaker would use the same word 3 times.

This illustrates how colonialism and the forced assimilation of many Native American tribes such as the Hopi, the distinct perceptions of concepts like time, space, and matter, specifically for the Hopi, would be lost. The concept of time portrayed in English using tenses and specific measurements of time like days, would lead to an objectified view of time among Native Americans, and we thereby lose nuances in subjective views of time.

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So, how can we handle this family of issues that prevent us from easily resolving interpersonal conflicts?

Well, there are a few solutions, some being much more feasible than others.

For starters, the next time you're in an argument or called to mediate one, think of the role language could play in the miscommunication or the differing perceptions of both parties, as a means to finding compromise. Avoid the temptation to jump to conclusions, and always ask for clarification when you don't really understand what's being said.

Another avenue to explore could be to use online translators or, if possible, ask a friend who speaks the language to help translate for you and avoid possible misunderstandings with others that could escalate conflict. This also applies to understanding social norms from different cultures in a more comprehensive way, as a friend who understands the corresponding language is much more likely to understand the attached social norms as well, assuming they are a part of a similar culture to that of the person with which you wish to converse.

Above all others, though, the best method would of course be to simply attempt to learn the languages of others yourself. Granted, this is much easier said than done, as the the "receptors" which make it so easy for children to absorb new languages cease to function at around age 15 for most people. However, understanding more languages open up a whole host of new possibilities, as not only will you understand said languages to converse with others more easily, you will also gain a glimpse of their culture and social norms, as oftentimes many unique traits of a culture can be found in its corresponding language (or specific dialects). At the very least, you will find your perspective and worldview widened, becoming more receptive to new ideas and social norms. In turn, you will be much less prone to being dragged into interpersonal conflicts caused by a culture gap, since, by learning new languages, you are effectively bridging this gap!

As an added bonus, becoming multilingual also improves memory, cognitive control/ability, and might even give you the edge career-wise. Icing on the cake!

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            Linguistic Relativity and Determinism

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            Linguistic Relativity and Determinism

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Culture Gap equals Interpersonal Conflict

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Culture Gap equals Interpersonal Conflict

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Many interpersonal conflicts can be traced back to the fact that there are many vastly different cultures in our world, each with their own unique plethora of customs.

Oftentimes, it's impossible to avoid contradictions between our cultures, as certain gestures are bound to symbolize different expressions across different cultures. A particularly relevant example comes in the form of false friendly words (as discussed lower on this poster), but there are many other ways in which the implications of our distinct languages can lead to conflict.

For example, communication styles differ wildly among those who speak different languages, and sometimes, even among those who speak the same language. Many White Americans associate raising one's voice and speaking loudly to indicate an escalating conflict, while Jewish Americans, Black Americans, and Italian Americans, it usually signifies passion and excitement in the conversation. Even simply saying "yes" in English can mean anything from "possibly, I might" to "definitely so". It's quite clear how these particular differences in language use can cause problems in some situations.

Another relevant example is the philosophy different cultures possess in regards to the "most appropriate" way to handle conflict. In many Western countries, it's commonly accepted that interpersonal conflicts are something to be resolved with a proper, face-to-face meeting, or otherwise in a similarly direct manner. Conversely, in many Eastern countries, it's seen as rude or demeaning to attempt to clear up such interpersonal issues out in the open, and they are treated as something to solve discreetly, such as through writing. Thus, it's possible for misunderstandings to arise when a conflict occurs between a person familiar with the former culture and one familiar with the latter culture. The latter might be offended or shocked that the former would suggest a face-to-face meeting when they're currently embroiled in conflict, and this may only further exacerbate the existing problem.

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Noam Chomsky noticed that the grammar used by children who are learning their native language is more complicated than the grammar that they would be able to learn if they were only copying what they overheard from other speakers. He hypothesized that some parts of grammar, such as the existence of nouns and verbs, are biological.

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False friends: words that sound or look the exact same as a word in another language, yet mean completely different things.

Depending on what language your mother tongue is, you might have some existing biases towards what certain sounds or words mean. These biases might convince you to think that some words spoken or written in other languages have a similar or identical meaning to the corresponding word in your native language.

Unfortunately, this also means it's quite easy to have misunderstandings arise when attempting to converse with someone who isn't especially proficient with any of the languages you know. It's hard to not instinctively think of a certain meaning when someone says or writes a word that exists in your language, and potential conflict can arise as a result of such misunderstandings, especially if it occurs with the other parties in the conversation as well.

The quiz above has a few examples of English words which are false friends in other languages. Try it and see what kinds of biases you have towards the meanings of certain words!

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Ideally, everyone would have the tenacity and determination to learn more languages and reduce the risk of culture gap-related interpersonal conflicts. What would result is a  multilingual society, where people speak more than one language, with several advantages from the perspective of linguistic relativity. In a multilingual society, the ability to speak multiple languages can allow individuals to access a wider range of thoughts, perceptions, and experiences, and to better understand and communicate with people from different language backgrounds.

One advantage of a multilingual society is that it can promote greater cultural understanding and appreciation. By being able to speak multiple languages, individuals can gain insights into the thoughts, beliefs, and values of people from different language backgrounds, and can learn to appreciate the diversity of human experience. This can foster greater tolerance and understanding among people from different cultural backgrounds, and can help to promote peaceful coexistence and collaboration.

Overall, the advantages of a multilingual society from the perspective of linguistic relativity include promoting cultural understanding, fostering tolerance and collaboration, and spurring economic growth.

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Due to the interconnectedness of language and culture, perception, and societal values, colonizers often impose their language on the subjugated people. One example of this is the widespread use of English as a lingua franca in many parts of the world that were once British colonies.

In these places, English became the dominant language, often replacing the native languages of the colonized people. This not only suppressed the cultural and linguistic diversity of these places, but it also gave the colonizers a significant advantage in terms of communication and trade.

Other examples where colonizers imposed their language on the subjugated are Prussians imposing German on French speaking Alsace and Lorraine after winning the Franco-Prussian War. Another example is the way that the Spanish colonizers in Latin America imposed the Spanish language on the indigenous people they encountered. This involved the widespread use of missionaries and schools to teach the Spanish language and culture to the indigenous people, often at the expense of their own native languages and traditions.

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“AMPU Guide: Common Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, https://www.pbs.org/ampu/crosscult.html#COMMUN.

“Benefits of Multilingualism.” ELAC, East Los Angeles College, https://www.elac.edu/Student-Services/Student-Resources/Language-Lab/Benefits-of-Multilingualism#:~:text=Learning%20a%20new%20language%20expands,you%20an%20advantage%20career%2Dwise.

Frothingham, M.B. (2022, Jan 14). Sapir–Whorf hypothesis. Simply Psychology.

Koerner, E. F. Konrad. “The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: A Preliminary History and a Bibliographical Essay.” Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, vol. 2, no. 2, 1992, pp. 173–98. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43102168. Accessed 5 Dec. 2022.

Lucy, J.A. "Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioural Sciences. pp 13486 - 13490. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/03042-4.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767030424). Accessed 5 Dec. 2022.

McAfee, Christina. “The Linguistic Relativity Theory and Benjamin Lee Whorf.” (2004).

Mlblevins. (2014, November 19). Understanding linguistic relativity hypothesis with examples. Science Struck. Retrieved December 4, 2022, from https://sciencestruck.com/linguistic-relativity-hypothesis

Shakib, Mohammad Khosravi. "The position of language in development of colonization". Journal of Languages and Culture Vol. 2(7), pp. 117-123, July 2011. Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JLC

Thierry, Guillaume, et al. “Unconscious Effects of Language-Specific Terminology on Preattentive Color Perception.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 106, no. 11, 2009, pp. 4567–4570., https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0811155106.

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Does time work differently in different languages? - Hopi Time

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Brown and Lenneberg (Combined Hypothesis)

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Brown and Lenneberg (Combined Hypothesis)

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In 1954, Brown and Lenneberg through an experiment called Colour Language and Colour Cognition discovered that they could divide Sapir and Whorf's hypothesis into two parts; the strong and the weak. They divided it into the strong hypothesis and the weak hypothesis.

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One of the most famous studies on exploring the importance of language on our perception of the world was the color perception study [Thierry, et al, 2009]. It was observed that native Greek speakers were much better and faster at perceptually discriminating light and dark blue than native English speakers. This skill can be attributed to the Greek language containing 2 words for colors - ghalazio and ble - meaning light and dark blue.

For English participants, the visual mismatch negativity, an index of automatic and preattentive change detection, was similar for blue and green stimuli. But the index was significantly larger for blue than green stimuli for native Greek participants.

Based on this study and the results, we can conclude that language plays a key part in our perception of the world.

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Language is essential to culture, and based on the hypothesis of linguistic influence, differentiates one culture's experience from another. Language is powerful, and when that ability to communicate is taken away, cultural groups are left in precarious positions. Colonialism is a well known experience across the world, and is at fault for significant loss of cultural groups around the world. When colonization began in the late 16th century, British explorers were sailing to lay claim on new lands, and inherit what they believed to be rightfully theirs. As land was discovered, and Indigenous groups were identified, the efforts to eradicate these people or assimilate them into British culture was the expectation, as British believed European, Western culture was right and true.

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Linguistic Relativity theory was first introduced by Edward Sapir in 1929. Benjamin Whorf, Sapir's student at Yale, assisted him in developing the theory (Koerner, 1992). It became more popular in the 50s when the posthumous writings of Benjamin Whorf were published.

The hypothesis claims that a language's structure affects the worldview of its speakers (Lucy, 2001). The structure of a language shapes how ideas are expressed. It states that people's perceptions are relative to their spoken language (Lucy, 2001).

There are two versions of the hypothesis. The strong version, also known as linguistic determinism, claims that language ultimately determines a person's worldview. The weak version, also known as linguistic relativity, claims that language influences a person's worldview. Although the strong version has been largely debunked, the weak version is still supported.

Although it was once popular, the strong version of the hypothesis has been discredited by notable linguists such as Noam Chomsky: one of the most persistent critics of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.