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Portion of the Tribute Frieze from Persepolis, Iran

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While administrative treasury at Susa was originally the site where tribute and tax would be delivered, after the construction of Persepolis this seemed to be slightly altered. Here, we see a portion of the “tribute frieze” at on the staircases at Persepolis, likely constructed on the behalf of Xerxes.  We see a total of twenty-three various delegations with a variety of gifts be brought to the king.  Peoples such as the Medes, Elamites, Babylonians, Assyrians, Scythians, Lydians, and Nubians are represented with gifts ranging from garments, weapons, vessels, chariots and animals such as horses, lions, camels, rams, and giraffes.  Kings from Darius on would reside in the palace during certain times of the year (most notably the Spring equinox) and at the apadana or audience hall would receive tribute from throughout the empire.  Visitors would enter through the “Gate of All Nations” and show veneration toward the king by performing the ritual greeting of proskynesis (forward kiss), something that Alexander would attempt to implement after conquering the Persians and Persepolis.  The “richest city under the sun” would be a ceremonial and symbolic capital of the Achaemenids and truly exemplified the quintessential pomp and circumstance of imperialism.  Like the DNb relief and inscription at Naqš-e Rustam, the  various representation of various ethnicities under the empire represent the unification and cohesion of the empire.

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.

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Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.

Cline, Eric H & Mark W. Graham. 2011. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press.

Herodotus. 2007. The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories. Edited by Robert B Strassler. New York: Pantheon Books.

Khatchadourian, Lori. 2016. Imperial Matter: Ancient Persia and the Archaeology of Empires. University of California Press.

Kuhrt, Amelie. 2009. “The Achaemenid Persian Empire: Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations” from Alcock et al.’s Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History. Cambridge University Press.

Sinopoli, Carla M. 1994. “The Archaeology of Empires.” Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 23, pp. 159-180.

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This documentary titled “Engineering an Empire: The Persians” is an excellent overview of the Achaemenid Empire.  It is from a time when the History Channel was much more than Ancient Aliens and Ice Road Truckers. The documentary incorporates a brief history of the empire and displays the greatness of Achaemenid rulers, innovation by way of waterways, bridges, and other infrastructure as well as the construction of their luxurious capitals.

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Engineering an Ancient Empire - The Persians

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Engineering feats of the Persian Empire.The rise and fall of the Persian Empire, 580 BC to 320 BC.

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This exhibit was an attempt to revitalize the contributions of the Achaemenids to the ancient world.  I believe it displays the greatness of their empire by way of expansion, imperial ideology, ingenious leadership, consolidation of power, centralization, and innovation that had not been seen beforehand.  Yes, they had the advantage of being the “first” to have such an expansive empire but with that being the case they were the forerunners of empire and laid the foundation for empires to come.  They had built an empire larger than anyone before, ruled with an iron yet tolerant fist, used divine rights to justify their claims, and unified many peoples under one banner.

The biggest takeaway from this exhibit should be the two key elements to their greatness, innovation and tolerance, which is clearly on display in this exhibit and were critical components to their success.  The infrastructure/road network, postal system, common currency, military/navy, multiple capitals, and taxation/tribute were either the first of its kind or standardized like never before.  Like the Romans, they were syncretic borrowers of their vast empire.  They did not simply conquer and rebuild on their own terms.  The Achaemenids conquered, utilized existing elements of the region and advanced them.  They took these elements and ideas from conquered cultures and developed them to the greatest extent to build one of the greatest empires the ancient world had ever seen.

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Susa: Administrative Capital and Treasury

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Susa: Administrative Capital and Treasury

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Imperial capitals are commonly strategically located centers of administration, economic, and ritual activity.  Capitals can be newly established or implemented at already existing centers, commonly built around a sacred locale.  The Achaemenids were unique with their empire, they never truly gave up their nomadism and would never remain in one location for long.  Their movement would rotate based on things such as ritual, war, and weather.  The Achaemenids would numerous capital throughout its history at sites such as Persepolis, Susa, Pasargadae, Ecbatana, and Babylon.  Susa was conquered under Cyrus the Great but would be a capital of the empire under Cambyses II. The site of Susa, located in the lower Zagros mountains, would serve as the administrative capital of the empire and serve as its treasury.  It would be the center of revenue collection for the Achaemenids and is exemplified with the Royal Road which spanned from Sardis to Susa.

Cline, Eric H & Mark W. Graham. 2011. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press.

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Imperial Infrastructure & Innovation: The Postal System, "Chapar Khaneh"

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Imperial Infrastructure & Innovation: The Postal System, "Chapar Khaneh"

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Here, we see the site of an ancient Chapar Kheneh which has now been converted into a reconstructed way-station and museum in Meybod, Iran.  Chapar Kheneh were relay stations every 20 or so miles primarily used to relay royal decrees and messages. This postal system guarantees the acquisition of a fresh horse for each courier.  The system operated with one courier delivering a message to the next along the sophsticated road network. A rider would naturally not be tired, but the horse certainly would be. A fresh horse at each relay station can be utilized again and again for the entire duration journey.  It can be argued that this courier system is the precursor to the USPS. Herodotus states,

“Nothing mortal travels so fast as these Persian messengers. The entire plan is a Persian invention... neither snow nor rain nor heat nor dark of night keeps them from completing their appointed course as swiftly as possible.  The first courier passes on the instructions to the second, the second to the third…”- Herodotus, The Histories, 8.98.

Chapar Kheneh were also used as garrison patrol stations where Persian soldiers would secure the road system.  These beneficial buildings on networks of communication displays how highly the Achaemenids deemed interconnectivity throughout the largest empire of its time.

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.

Herodotus. 2007. The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories. Edited by Robert B Strassler. New York: Pantheon Books.

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Road System (alternative image): The Royal Road

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Road System (alternative image): The Royal Road

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In having a such a vast, multiethnic, pan-regional empire, interconnectivity is key.  This holds true with the Achaemenids and their ability to establish communication and trade by way of road construction. The revitalization of previous Babylonian road networks under Darius was revolutionary and would later be utilized by the Romans. The Romans would also borrow the waystations along the road system from the Achaemenids which they referred to as mutations. The mutations would be used to exchange tires horses for fresh ones. This imperial infrastructure would also allow taxation and other economic activity to thrive but also allow the central authority to make its presence in subjected territory.  The ancient authors were fascinated by the Persian road system which ended to the far corners of the empire and were deemed extremely safe, especially for antiquity standards. Concerning the road system Herodotus states,

“Now the nature of the road on which one makes the journey is as follows.  There are royal stations and the most beautiful guesthouses along the entire length of the road, which passes through inhabited country and is safe for travel.” - Hdt. The Histories. 5.52

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Map of the Achaemenid Satrapies c. 500 BCE

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The Achaemenid Empire established a bureaucratic administration system by dividing the Empire into satrapies, province like territories. An elite Persian (sometimes foreigners like Themistocles) was appointed ruler of a satrapy and was known as the satrap, who governed in the king’s name.  The tolerant nature of the Persians remained and is demonstrated in the pre-existing cultures thoroughly imbedded into each respective satrapy. The satrap had various tasks and roles and are not entirely known but one thing is certain that they held immense responsibility and power.  Herodotus states how one satrap, Mithrobates, fell out of favor for not having been able to, “add the island of Samos to the domains of the king.” This concept is exceptionally imperial with the duties of the satrap not only being to maintain order but expanding the empire’s grasp to foreign territory.  Each satrapy was also responsible for regularized taxation at a level that had not existed until the Persians.  Some brought silver, gold, or textiles, whatever each respective region obtained as resources.  This act of tax/tribute doubles as imperial ideology with it being the request of Ahuramazda.

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.

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The Achaemenid Empire’s original monetary unit was a currency of unminted weighed silver.  Cyrus the Great would introduce minted coinage after defeating King Croesus and conquest of Lydia.  The Lydian stater was one of the first minted coins of history and the first in the Mediterranean world. It was Darius who introduced the Achaemenid currency known as a Daric. Here, we have an example of Achaemenid coinage with the Daric, the first gold coin in history, “What happened was that after Darius refined a quantity of gold to its highest possible purity and struck the most valuable coins from this metal.” – Hdt. The Histories. 4.166.  The Daric would include a Persian king as an archer, holding a bow in his left hand and either arrows or a spear in the right.  Coinage is an important component of “empire” because of their ease to become circulated due to their convenient size and allow trade, tax, tribute, and connectivity to thrive.  Coinage is also utilized as a way to exert imperial ideology as seen with the glorification of the king as hunter/warrior.

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324243

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.

Herodotus. 2007. The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories. Edited by Robert B Strassler. New York: Pantheon Books.

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Daric with king | Achaemenid | Achaemenid | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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Imperial ideology is undoubtedly one of the most important tools of an empire, especially in ancient times.  It is used for motivating action such as territorial expansion but also to provide legitimation and explanation to subjected peoples.  This justification and motivation can be done through art, legend, grand architecture, and altering “real” facts to support a certain narrative.  When it comes to the Achaemenids we see this utilized early on with Cyrus justifying the conquest of Babylon through Marduk but would eventually change to Ahuramazda.  It was Darius who adopted the new faith of Zoroastrianism, establishing it as his central religious ideology.  Zoroastrianism is argued to have been founded in the 6thcentury by the prophet Zoroaster or Zarathustra but may have much earlier origins.  Ahuramazda is the high deity of Zoroastrianism and Darius uses his name on most of his royal reliefs and inscriptions such as at Behistun.  Zoroastrians believed in a concept known as “Arta” which came from Ahuramazda and was comparable to cosmic order and truth.  Darius used the concept of the Achaemenid king as a world leader, chosen by Ahuramazda, with “Arta” being granted to the followers of the empire.  Here, we have a relief from the great hall at Persepolis where an image of Ahuramazda would lie above the Persian throne displaying the divine legitimacy of Achaemenid rule.

https://harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/291721

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.

Cline, Eric H & Mark W. Graham. 2011. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press.

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Gallery Text

The God with Clipped Wings

A great god is Ahuramazda, who created this earth, who created heaven, who created man, who created happiness for man, who made Xerxes king, one king of many kings . . .

This relief fragment of the god Ahuramazda in a winged disk was originally located high inside a doorway to a great hall at Persepolis, a capital of the Achaemenid Persian empire in Iran. Echoing the above inscriptions of King Xerxes I (r. 486-465 BCE), Ahuramazda hovered above an image of the enthroned king, who was supported by representatives of the empire's subject peoples, lending divine legitimacy to Achaemenid rule.

Most of the doorway remains at Persepolis. The story of this fragment is told by its edges: smooth at top and bottom, where the original block joined others, and ragged on the sides, where it was trimmed to create a collector's item. By restoring some sense of Ahuramazda's soaring power, this installation acknowl-edges the damage and loss of context resulting from the often clandestine removal of antiquities from Middle Eastern sites that have ended up in western museums. More fragments from Persepolis are displayed in the gallery next door (3440).

Identification and Creation

Object Number

1943.1062

Title

Relief Fragment: Ahuramazda in the Winged Disk

Classification

Sculpture

Work Type

sculpture

Date

reigns of Xerxes I and Artaxerxes I, 486-460 BCE

Places

Creation Place: Ancient & Byzantine World, Asia, Persepolis (Persia)

Period

Achaemenid period

Culture

Achaemenid

Persistent Link

https://hvrd.art/o/291721

Location

Level 3, Room 3460, Ancient Mediterranean and Middle Eastern Art, Art of the Ancient Mediterranean and Middle East
View this object's location on our interactive map

Physical Descriptions

Medium

Limestone, traces of blue, green, and red paint

Technique

Relief

Dimensions

73 cm h x 44.3 cm w x 10 cm d (28 3/4 x 17 7/16 x 3 15/16 in.)

Provenance

From the Hall of 100 Columns (west side of southeast doorway), Persepolis (Iran). [E. Sassoon, Paris,(by 1931)], sold; to [Brummer Gallery, Inc, New York, (1931-1932)], sold; to Grenville L. Winthrop, New York, NY, (1932-1943), bequest; to Fogg Art Museum, 1943.

Acquisition and Rights

Credit Line

Harvard Art Museums/Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Bequest of Grenville L. Winthrop

Accession Year

1943

Object Number

1943.1062

Division

Asian and Mediterranean Art

Contact

am_asianmediterranean@harvard.edu

THIS WORK MAY NOT BE LENT BY THE TERMS OF ITS ACQUISITION TO THE HARVARD ART MUSEUMS.

The Harvard Art Museums encourage the use of images found on this website for personal, noncommercial use, including educational and scholarly purposes. To request a higher resolution file of this image, please submit an online request.

Publication History

Eric Schroeder, "Relief Sculptures from Persepolis", Bulletin of the Fogg Art Museum (1943), Vol. 10, No. 2, 44-45, p. 44-45, fig. 3.

Arthur Upham Pope and Phyllis Ackerman, A Survey of Persian Art From Prehistoric Times to the Present, Oxford University Press (NY) and Oxford University Press (UK) (London, England and New York, NY, 1967), Vol. I, p. 333; Vol. VII, pl. 96c.

Dorothy W. Gillerman, ed., Grenville L. Winthrop: Retrospective for a Collector, exh. cat., Fogg Art Museum (Cambridge, 1969), p. 256 (checklist).

Judith Lerner, The Achaemenid Relief of Ahura Mazda in the Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Bulletin of the Asia Institute (Shiraz, 1971), no. 2, pp. 19-35, pp. 19-35

Judith Lerner, "A Painted Relief from Persepolis", Archaeology, Archaeological Institute of America (New York, April 1973), vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 116-22, pp. 116-22, ill.

George M. A. Hanfmann and David Gordon Mitten, "The Art of Classical Antiquity", Apollo (May 1978), vol. 107, no. 195, pp. 362-369, fig. 3.

Kristin A. Mortimer and William G. Klingelhofer, Harvard University Art Museums: A Guide to the Collections, Harvard University Art Museums and Abbeville Press (Cambridge and New York, 1986), p. 97, no. 107, ill.

Exhibition History

Gods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity, Harvard University Art Museums, Cambridge, 09/22/2007 - 01/20/2008

32Q: 3460 East Arcade, Harvard Art Museums, Cambridge, 09/04/2021 - 01/01/2050

32Q: 3440 Middle East, Harvard Art Museums, 11/16/2014 - 01/01/2050

Subjects and Contexts

Google Art Project

Collection Highlights

This record has been reviewed by the curatorial staff but may be incomplete. Our records are frequently revised and enhanced. For more information please contact the Division of Asian and Mediterranean Art at am_asianmediterranean@harvard.edu

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From the Harvard Art Museums' collections Relief Fragment: Ahuramazda in the Winged Disk

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Gallery Text The God with Clipped Wings A great god is Ahuramazda, who created this earth, who created heaven, who created man, who created happiness for man, who made Xerxes king, one king of many kings . . .

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DNb Inscription from the Tomb of Darius at Naqš-e Rustam

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Military: DNb Inscription from the Tomb of Darius

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Military: DNb Inscription from the Tomb of Darius

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The ability to generate a large military is another essential component to imperial success.  Technology, resources, organization, and number is key for not only imperial conquest and expansion but safety through intimidation.  The Achaemenid army was a pillar of the empire and was used to acquire new territory and maintain order of its vast kingdom.  The size of the army went from small tribal units early under Cyrus to the largest in the world under Xerxes. While the numbers are likely exaggerated, Herodotus proclaims the number of Persian soldiers to be more than five million while the likely number is in the hundreds of thousands (Hdt. The Histories. 7.186).  The Persians would also establish a royal guard of ten thousand highly trained infantry soldiers known as “The Immortals.”  Under Darius, the Achaemenids would also be the first empire to deploy an imperial navy. Here, we have the DNb inscription from the tomb of Darius at naqš-e Rustam.  It doubles as a theological moral ideology displaying the ideal king but also described the skills of Persian soldiers through Ahuramazda, “I am skilled both in hands and in feet.  As a horseman, I am a good horseman.  As a bowman, I am a good bowman, both on foot and on horseback.  As a spearman, I am a good spearman, both on foot and on horseback” (DNb inscription 8h).  While Ahuramazda was the Achaemenid moral and ethical compass, Ahuramazda and Zoroastrianism also urged education by way of warfare as essential to the Persian way of life and is seen with the DNb inscription.

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DNe Inscription from the Tomb of Darius at Naqš-e Rustam

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Ethnicities of the Empire, "Many as ONE"

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Ethnicities of the Empire, "Many as ONE"

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With expansion being a primary component of “empire,” imperial geography is often vast, diverse, and multiethnic with ends of the empire being a great distance from the imperial center.  This is why analyzing the core as well as periphery is essential when exploring an empire.  Some regions, provinces, or territories may be strategically advantageous, and others may be economically significant. On the DNe inscription from the Tomb of Darius at Naqš-e Rustam we see the various ethnicities and geographies that had come together under the Achaemenid Empire.  It would seem that the Achaemenids had reveled in the concept of a unified world and the Persians enjoyed utilizing different foreign customs as they saw fit as well,

“Of all men, the Persians especially tend to adopt foreign customs.  For example, they wear the fashions of the Medes in the belief that the Medes’ clothing is more beautiful than their own, and they wear Egyptian breastplates when they go to war.” -Hdt. The Histories. 1.135

This piece is included in the exhibit because it is a reminder of religious and cultural tolerance and the unification and cohesion of the empire.  While the empire was clearly seen as united, it must be reminded that members of the empire could not “become Persian” as someone could become Roman and the members of the empire were all beneath “the king of the world.”

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.

Herodotus. 2007. The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories. Edited by Robert B Strassler. New York: Pantheon Books.

Khatchadourian, Lori. 2016. Imperial Matter: Ancient Persia and the Archaeology of Empires. University of California Press.

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Map of the height of the Achaemenid Empire's territorial expansion through 500 BCE.

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Expansion: Map of Expansion from Cyrus to Darius 

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Expansion: Map of Expansion from Cyrus to Darius 

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Territorial expansion is undeniably one of the most essential elements of “empire.”  The primary method of expansion seems to be the by way of conquest but can also result from diplomacy and other modes of incorporation. The process of expansion typically occurs opportunistically when kingdoms and regions become disintegrated and weak.  Motivation for territorial growth can be for reasons such as the acquisition of resources, ideological reasoning, and the creating of a shielded “buffer” zone for imperial safety.

The Achaemenids had begun as one of the various Indo-European language peoples who migrating into modern Iran c. 11th century BCE.  Their humble beginnings of a local kingdom of Anshan, subjects of the Medes, would not last long.  Following the defeat of the Median Astyages c.550 BCE, Cyrus launched the beginning of empire by strengthening his dominant kingdom.  The Achaemenid empire would expand to become the largest empire of its time under the control of Cyrus, Cambyses II, and Darius and would encompass more land than even the Roman Empire.  At the height of their territorial control the empire stretched west from modern Libya, east to Pakistan, and south from Egypt to its northern height of the Russian Steppes.  If expansion and size is a factor concerning “empire,” then the Achaemenids certainly fill the bill.

Cline, Eric H & Mark W. Graham. 2011. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press.

Sinopoli, Carla M. 1994. “The Archaeology of Empires.” Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 23, pp. 159-180.

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Here we have “The Cyrus cylinder.” This Babylonian cuneiform cylinder tells of the first Persian king, Cyrus, describing his takeover of Babylon. We see imperial ideology’s justification of conquest utilized very uniquely.  Nabonidus, the would-be final king of the Neo-Babylonians had primarily worshipped the moon god Sin to such an extent he was labeled a “heretic king.”  The depreciation of the high deity Marduk and the rest of the pantheon couples with the sole adoration of Sin was to such great an extent it should be considered henotheism.  This break in reverence of Marduk led to immense turmoil among the elites, many who were priests of the primary god.  The record of Nabonidus’ immoral ways is documented on this Babylonian cylinder.  The gods deserted Babylon and found a new champion in Cyrus.  The cylinder records Marduk’s orders to Cyrus to expand his kingship over the tribes of Iran and march on Babylon which he did without a fight.  While most sources agree that the transition was peaceful it should be noted that this is a propagandistic text of imperial ideology supposedly from the mouth of the Persian king himself.  The overthrowing of Nabonidus was seen as “legitimate” because he had been a heretic king and a new, righteous guardian and worshipper of Marduk was here to restore the temples and religious cults that Nabonidus had belittled.  This marked the true beginning of the Achaemenid empire and exemplifies expansion justified by ideology and the opportunistic conquest of a kingdom weakened by internal conflict.

https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1880-0617-1941

Cline, Eric H & Mark W. Graham. 2011. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press.

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Description

The Cyrus cylinder: clay cylinder; a Babylonian account of the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus in 539 BC, of his restoration to various temples of statues removed by Nabonidus, the previous king of Babylon, and of his own work at Babylon. The cylindrical form is typical of royal inscriptions of the Late Babylonian period, and the text shows that the cylinder was written to be buried in the foundations of the city wall of Babylon. It was deposited there after the capture of the city by Cyrus in 539 BC, and presumably written on his orders. The text is incomplete. It is written in Babylonian script and language and records that Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon (555-539 BC), had perverted the cults of the Babylonian gods, including Marduk, the city-god of Babylon, and had imposed labour-service on its free population, who complained to the gods. The gods responded by deserting Babylon, but Marduk looked around for a champion to restore the old ways. He chose Cyrus, King of Anshan (Persia), and declared him king of the world. First Cyrus expanded his kingship over the tribes of Iran (described as Gutians and Ummanmanda), ruling them justly. Then Marduk ordered Cyrus to march on Babylon, which he entered without a fight. Nabonidus was delivered into his hands and the people of Babylon joyfully accepted the kingship of Cyrus. From this point on, the document is written as if Cyrus himself is speaking: 'I, Cyrus, king of the world ...'.He presents himself as a worshipper of Marduk who strove for peace in Babylon and abolished the labour-service of its population. The people of neighbouring countries brought tribute to Babylon, and Cyrus claims to have restored their temples and religious cults, and to have returned their previously deported gods and people. The text ends with a note of additional food offerings in the temples of Babylon and an account of the rebuilding of Imgur-Enlil, the city wall of Babylon, during the course of which an earlier building inscription of Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria (668-627 BC), was found.

Curator's comments

Condition of the Cyrus Cylinder The object was found in several fragments in the 19th century and even after restoration is incomplete. The core is made of clay containing unusually large grey stone inclusions and was formed by initially making a cone shape, building up the cylinder form with additional clay and finally adding a much finer surface slip of clay over the surfaces prior to writing the inscription. It was then fired. This sequence of stages suggests that it was mass-produced but the coarse matrix of the core contributed to its later instability and explains why it broke into several pieces in antiquity. It was refired in 1961 as part of its museum conservation and a limited amount of plaster filling added in the 1970s before and after the addition of another fragment from the Yale Babylonian Collection and the moulding of the object for the purposes of making a type cast. An additional fragment, NBC 2504 on loan from the Yale Babylonian Collection, restores part of the text of lines 36-45 (giving details of the building operations at Babylon and describing Cyrus' discovery of an earlier foundation inscription of Ashurbanipal) is joined to the back of the Cylinder. The identification of this fragment in Yale was reported by Barnett to the Trustees on 7 January 1972, and its loan agreed by the Trustees, 22 January 1972. In 2007 the plaster was removed in order to enhance the appearance of the object and better show how it had been made.

Interpretation of the Cyrus Cylinder The whole document is written from a purely Babylonian point of view in traditional Babylonian terms, and it has been suggested that its author took the Ashurbanipal inscription as his literary model. There is no acknowledgement that Cyrus himself worshipped the Iranian god Ahuramazda. He is the tool of Marduk, just as in the biblical book of Ezra he is presented as the servant of the god of Israel who is instructed to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem and allow the Jews deported by Nebuchadnezzar II to return home. Because of its references to just and peaceful rule, and to the restoration of deported peoples and their gods the cylinder has in recent years been referred to in some quarters as a kind of 'charter of human rights'. Such a concept would have been quite alien to Cyrus's contemporaries, and indeed the cylinder says nothing of human rights; but the return of the Jews and of other deported peoples was a significant reversal of the policies of earlier Assyrian and Babylonian kings. The publication of this object as an example of Achaemenid rather than Babylonian propaganda dates from the 1970s onwards. See for example Wiesehofer (1996, pl. XIb), who captions his illustration as "The so-called 'Cyrus Cylinder' from Babylon, written on clay in cuneiform script, was an Achaemenid propaganda document intended to legitimize and glorify Cyrus' rule in Babylonia". There is an extensive and growing literature on the significance of this object in this connection, including R.J. van der Spek, "Did Cyrus the Great introduce a new policy towards subdued nations?" in: 'Persica' 10 (1982), pp. 278-83.

Displaying the Cyrus cylinder This object has been more or less continually displayed in the British Museum since its discovery in 1879. The style of display has changed according to which gallery or case it was displayed. In 1971 it was loaned for the first time to Iran. This followed an official request by the Iranian Government through the ambassador in London for the temporary loan of this object to Tehran to mark the opening celebrations of the 2,500 anniversary of kingship in Iran. This was reported to the Trustees by R.D. Barnett, then Keeper of the Department of Western Asiatic Antiquities (in which department it was held) to the Trustees on 9 July 1971 (Trustees File, PG 3054). This object was taken to Iran from 7-22 October 1971 by R.D. Barnett at the expense of the Iranian government (recorded in the WAA Transfers book, entry dated 7.x.71). The object was "selected ... in spite of its damaged state and somewhat slight aesthetic appeal, as the national symbol of the entire celebrations and illustrated ... as prominently as possible on every instrument of publicity, including a postage stamp" and placed on temporary display "as the central piece of a select exhibition in a newly built monument, near Mehrabad airport, called the Shahyad Monument, which contains in its basement a small but well laid out museum of selected exhibits" (Trustees File, PG3291, report by Barnett read to the Board of Trustees 30 October 1971, including reference to the considerable press attention in Iran, and the safe return of the object). A photograph purporting to be of this object at Persepolis placed on top of a column base is published in b/w by R.M. Ghias Abadi ("Cylinder of Cyrus", Tehran 2001, third edition, pp. 20-21); this presumably reflects the fact that a massive ceremony to celebrate the 2500 anniversary was enacted at this site on 15 October 1971 but the object in this photograph was actually a copy rather than the original. This copy (a plaster cast) was taken to Persepolis on this occasion by the Reverend Norman Sharp and presented by him to Mr Ali Sami of the Persepolis Museum. The loan of the original was sanctioned by the Trustees, 24 July 1971; report by Barnett read at the Trustees meeting, 30 October 1971, after which it was concluded that "Despite a press campaign for its transfer to Iranian ownership, Dr. Barnett was able to bring the cylinder back to London without difficulty on 22 October. He believed that the Iranian Government might wish to make an application for a fresh loan of the object at the conclusion of the Trustees' exhibition, "Royal Persia", perhaps for the remainder of the Cyrus Year, ending in March 1972. While reaffirming their view that it had been right to lend the Cylinder for the opening ceremonies of the anniversary celebrations, the Board decided that it would be undesirable to make a further loan of the Cylinder to Iran".

Press history Press items specifically dealing with this object and its loan history include: Martin Bailey: "How Britain tried to use a Persian antiquity for political gain", 'The Art Newspaper', no. 150, September 2004, p.18 [making use particularly of declassified Foreign Office files at the Public Record Office]. Louise Jury: "2,500-year-old charter of rights to revisit Iran", 'The Independent', Saturday 11 September 2004, p.9. Matthew Norman: "We've lost the authority to lecture Iran", 'The Independent', Friday 30 March 2007, p. 51, following the Iranian seizure of British military personnel in the Persian Gulf, and beginning with a mis-quotation about this object and its popular title as "the First Charter of Human Rights", thus: "I announce that I will respect the traditions, customs and religions of the nations of my empire ... While I am the King of Iran, Babylon and the nations of the four directions, I will never let anyone oppress any others, and if it occurs I will ... penalise the oppressor. I will never let anyone take possession of movable and landed properties of the others by force ..."

Moulds and casts of the Cyrus Cylinder The object was first moulded in 1962 following a request for a cast from the Minister of the Imperial Court of the Shah of Iran in 1961 in preparation for the 2500 jubilee originally planned for this period. A second cast was made from the same mould in August/September 1971 following a separate request from the Reverend Norman Sharp who took this cast with him when he attended the 2,500 year celebrations in October 1971: he presented it to his friend Mr Ali Sami, then director of the Persepolis museum. A further request was received via Mr Shapurian, the press attache of the Iranian embassy in London, in 1971 who was informed that it "would take about two weeks to make" (letter dated 2 November 1971). Secondary casts re-moulded from one of these which had been sent to Tehran were distributed by the Shah of Iran, including one which is displayed in the fort museum of Umm al-Qaiwain (UAE). They have also been sold commercially by the British Museum, National Museum in Tehran and assorted companies since that period. Those sold by the BM were marketed as part of their "Biblical Archaeology" series (1992 Casts catalogue). On 14 October, Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, the sister of the Shah, presented a cast to the United Nations Secretary General, Sithu U Thant. The display was made by the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the text translated into the six official languages of the UN. A modified cast was made after the join of the Yale fragment when the object was sent for moulding by Mr A.G. Prescott between 7 May and 13 August 1975.

Exhibition history

2013-2014 Dec-Mar, CSMVS, Mumbai, 'Cyrus Cylinder' 2013 27 Sept-early Dec, Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum, 'Cyrus Cylinder' 2013 9 Aug-20 Sept, San Francisco, Asian Arts Museum, 'Cyrus Cylinder' 2013 21 June-2 Aug, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 'Cyrus Cylinder' 2013 3 May-14 June, Houston, Museum of Fine Arts, 'Cyrus Cylinder' 2013 15 Mar-26 Apr, Washington, Freer Sackler Gallery, 'Cyrus Cylinder' 2010-2011 12 Sept-12 Jan, Tehran, National Museum of Iran, 'The Cyrus Cylinder'. 2008-2009 13 Nov-15 Mar, BM, G35, 'Babylon: Myth and Reality' 2007 - 15 Jun, BM, G52/Iran/4 2006-2007 9 Aug-2 Apr, BM, G2/The Changing Museum, wall-case 76 2006 7 Mar-11 Jun, Barcelona, Fundacion La Caixa, 'L'imperi Oblidat' 2005-2006 Sept-Jan, BM, 'Forgotten Empire' 1995-2005 17 Nov-Aug, BM, G52/IRAN/6/7 1994 16 Jun-23 Dec, BM, G49/IRAN/6/9 1975-1990 6 Jul-end, BM, Iranian Room [IR] case 9/6 1971-1972 29 Oct-30 Jan, BM, 'Royal Persia: a commemoration of Cyrus the Great and his successors on the occasion of the 2500th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire' 1971 12-19 Oct, Tehran, Shahyad Monument, opening ceremonies of the 2,500 anniversary celebration of the Kingship in Iran 1930s BM, Persian Room, wall-case [WC] 15, top shelf 1900-1922 (at least) BM, Babylonian Room, table-case G, no.67

Condition

Incomplete; refired 28 August 1961.

Registration number

1880,0617.1941

Additional IDs

Miscellaneous number: BM.12049 (previously)

Miscellaneous number: L1166

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The Cyrus cylinder: clay cylinder; a Babylonian account of the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus in 539 BC, of his restoration to various temples of statues removed by Nabonidus, the previous king of Babylon, and of his own work at Babylon.

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Behistun Inscription, relief and text, cliff face in Kermanshah Province, Western Iran.

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 Imperial Ideology: Darius' Behistun Inscription

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 Imperial Ideology: Darius' Behistun Inscription

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The Behistun inscription is one of the most essential pieces of art and text regarding the Achaemenid empire.  It is a relief accompanied by a tri-lingual inscription consisting of Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian located 330ft up a cliff face in Western Iran. It describes how the supreme god Ahuramazda chose the charismatic Darius to rise to power and ascend the Achaemenid throne.  It is believed that Darius had overthrown the legitimate king, Bardiya.  The inscription records Darius’ restoration of order against rival satraps who attempted to overthrow the Persian king c. 520 BCE.  In the relief, Darius is depicted pressing the chest of the primary usurper named Gaumata, likely Bardiya himself.  All of the rivals are facing Darius preparing to be executed.  Above the human figures is a faravahar which is the primary symbol of Zoroastrianism.  This is another primary example of imperial ideology with Darius proclaiming his legitimacy very clearly and informing all that his authority is derived from his ancestors and “the lord or wisdom” himself, Ahuramazda.  The tri-lingual inscription is also considered immensely important because it allowed insight into cuneiform scripts and is dubbed, “the cuneiform Rosetta stone.”

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.

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This documentary titled “Lost Worlds: Persepolis. It is an in-depth analysis of the ceremonial capital of Persepolis.  It focuses on the art and archaeology of the capital such as the apadana, gate of all nations, and hall of one-hundred columns.

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The Mysteries Of Persepolis: Ancient City Of Gold | Lost World | Timeline

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This BBC “In Our Time” podcast provides plentiful insight on Persepolis with discussion between three leading Achaemenid scholars, Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones (Cardiff University), Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis (The British Museum), and Lindsey Allen (King’s College London).

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In Our Time: S20/36 Persepolis (June 7 2018)

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Achaemenid Soldier Relief from Susa, The Louvre, Paris

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My exhibit is titled “The Achaemenid Empire: The Greatest Empire the World Had Ever Seen.”  I believe that the Achaemenid Empire is the greatest empire the world had ever seen up until its demise c.330 BCE.  I also believe that it can be argued that at the time of its crystallization (c.500 BCE), that being when it was at its most perfect and definite form, it was the greatest ancient empire overall. The Achaemenids exemplified “empire” with essential imperial components such as vast territorial expansion, imperial ideology, infrastructure, coinage, innovation, centralized government, and a single authoritative figure.

Much of my personal intrigue concerning the Persians is due to their almost enigmatic nature. Much of what is known through literary sources is from the Hellenes, the (sometimes) enemies of the Achaemenids, victors of the Greco-Persian wars, and eventual conquerors in Alexander the Great.  The western lens of the Achaemenids coupled with the stigma towards Iran and modern Arabic regions has undoubtedly undervalued and arguably forgotten their contributions toward humanity in comparison to other ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians.  This exhibit attempts to revitalize its contribution to antiquity.

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The Gate of All Nations, Persepolis, Iran

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 Imperial Building projects/Monumental Architecture: The Gate of All Nations

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 Imperial Building projects/Monumental Architecture: The Gate of All Nations

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Here we see the "Gate of All Nations", the entrance to the complex of Persepolis where human headed bulls announced to its visitors they were entering the heart of Persian power.  Darius began the construction of the Persian ceremonial center at Persepolis c. 518 BCE.  For almost two centuries this was considered the richest place on Earth. The site was the home of a massive palatial complex inspired from Mesopotamian design. While Darius began the complex, his son Xerxes I and grandson Artaxerxes expanded the already impressive site.  Persepolis would eventually become the center of the empire, but its original intent was for spectacular receptions, to hold festivals, and for the subjected to pay respect to the king.  The “Gate of All Nations” is a prime example of monumental architecture used ideologically for legitimization to proclaim Xerxes as the king of kings and of all countries on Earth and to invite all to witness him.

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.