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According to the website linked above:

Oral language (OL), sometimes called spoken language, includes speaking and listening—the ways that humans communicate with one another. OL skills provide the foundation for word reading and comprehension. They are at the heart of listening and reading comprehension, serving as a predictor for both. (Literacy How, 2020).

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What is it?

Oral language (OL), sometimes called spoken language, includes speaking and listening-the ways that humans communicate with one another. OL skills provide the foundation for word reading and comprehension. They are at the heart of listening and reading comprehension, serving as a predictor for both.

What is it?

Oral language (OL), sometimes called spoken language, includes speaking and listening-the ways that humans communicate with one another. OL skills provide the foundation for word reading and comprehension. They are at the heart of listening and reading comprehension, serving as a predictor for both.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why are oral language skills important to literacy?

Oral language is the foundation of written language

Reading is a language-based skill. The relationship between oral language and reading is reciprocal (Kamhi & Catts, 1989) with each influencing the other to varying degrees as children progress through school.

You must be able to understand language at an oral level in order to be expected to understand it at the text level.

It's difficult to learn to read words if you do not know what they mean

Children with weak oral language skills are at risk for learning to read and comprehend.

What is Academic Language and how do I teach my students to use it in my classroom?

Academic Language, also referred as Academic or Standard English, is the language of the classroom and text. Students must have a command of Academic English in order to achieve in school. Teachers should be attuned to their own spoken language and model Academic English by creating spaces and providing opportunities where they would expect their students to use Academic English in both written and oral forms. With younger children, begin with explicit teaching and modeling. Show and Tell, and Circle Time are great places to expand sentences and provide models with Academic English. And keep in mind that all children-whether native English speakers or English Language Learners-receive the same practice and correction. For older children, consider starting with writing because the students have time to think about academic language, as well as time to revise. Then, after giving time to rehearse, ask students to make an oral presentation.

Tips for teachers and administrators

Establish classroom routines for oral language practice by assigning "purposeful partners" as talking and working buddies. Think carefully about how to pair students to increase rigor and cognitive output. This may take up to three weeks of trial and error. Consider your students' behavior and cognition-e.g., will pairing two quiet students prompt each to speak up, while pairing chatty students help them be better listeners? Formally train partners to turn toward each other, to look each other in the eye, to each take a turn answering a prompt, and to be alert for a call back signal. Integrate a brief purposeful partner task into every activity to increase numbers of students participating and to develop an efficient, familiar routine.

Explicitly teach and practice "academic language," the language used in the classroom and workplace, the language of text and assessments, and the language of academic success and power. Try these academic phrases.

Use this formal frame activity to help students produce competent verbal or written responses. These begin as sentence starters, but add critical grammatical and lexical clarification and support.

Beware of a too quiet classroom! You should hear the hum and buzz of children talking to one another and engaging with the teacher throughout the day.

Read More to Learn more

Beck, I.L., & McKeown, M.G. (2001). Text talk: Capturing the benefits of read aloud experiences for young children. The Reading Teacher 55, 10-35.

Gatlin-Nash, B. (Summer 2020). Linguistic differences and learning to read for nonmainstream dialect speakers. Perspectives in Language and Literacy 46 (3), 28-32.

Goldenberg, C. (Summer 2013). Unlocking the research on English learners. What we know-and don't yet know-about effective instruction. American Educator 4-12, 38.

Hirsch, E.D., Jr. (Spring 2003). Reading comprehension requires knowledge-of words and the world. American Educator 27 (1), 10-22, 28-29, 44.

Komesidou, R., & Hogan, T.P. (Summer 2020). Preschool language precursors to later reading problems. Perspectives in Language and Literacy 46 (3), 37-41.

Spear-Swerling, L. (Summer 2016). Listening comprehension, the Cinderella skill. Giving the neglected stepchild her due. Perspectives on Language and Literacy 42 (3), 9-15.

Literacy How Professional Learning Series

The Literacy How Professional Learning Series translates the latest reading research into how-to instruction. The Knowledge to Practice book Series-Phonemic Awareness and Phonics, Syntax, Vocabulary, and Comprehension-is based on the current and comprehensive Literacy How reading model. It draws upon the authors' decades of expertise and experience working with thousands of general and special education teachers. The Series emphasizes Pre-K-3rd grade conceptual and skill development. Teachers of older emerging or struggling readers will also find these tools useful.

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Oral language (OL), sometimes called spoken language, includes speaking and listening-the ways that humans communicate with one another. OL skills provide the foundation for word reading and comprehension. They are at the heart of listening and reading comprehension, serving as a predictor for both.

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In the general classroom, there are many ways to support oral language development for all learners using explicit and multi-sensory instruction. In the article attached above, several instructional ideas for incorporating oral language are listed, some of my favorites are:

1. Presentations - when students collaborate with their peers or work individually to prepare and present an information, they are able to develop their oral language skills and connect with the learned information in a new way. To take this to the next level, students can give each other peer reviews on their presentations to engage their listening skills as well (Fisher, 2020).
2. Listening Stations - using technology, students can listen in groups to audio recordings of someone reading a text or presenting a topic and then debate comprehensive questions about the topic at the end with their peers (Fisher, 2020).
3. Reciprocal Teaching - students working in groups take turns reading a text to each other and then have scholarly conversations with each other by predicting, questioning, clarifying, and summarizing the text (Fisher, 2020).
4. Photo Narratives - students compile a variety of images to portray the story that they vocally narrate. This is a great way to combine technology with visual and auditory learning for a multi-sensory instruction approach (Fisher, 2020).

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There is no reading gene that is passed from one generation to the next. Each and every brain must be taught to read anew. Unlike hair or eye color, which are coded in DNA, reading is a complex, rule-based system that must be imposed on biological structures that were designed or evolved for other reasons (Wolf, 2007).

Although most children are born with the right structures, these structures don't inherently know how to read. They are hardwired to speak and listen; in other words, we were born to talk (Hulit, Howard, & Fahey, 2010). Reading and writing are optional accessories that are bolted onto a speaking and listening brain.

Listening and reading comprehension

Decades of research, not to mention personal experiences, confirm that listening comprehension outpaces reading comprehension from early childhood through at least middle school. Based on their review of research, Stricht and James (1984) analyzed the gap between listening and reading comprehension by age of learner (see Figure 1). What is obvious from this figure is the fact that access to complex ideas, for many years of the learner's life, requires oral rather than written input.

Simply stated, children can listen to and talk about much more complex ideas than they can read (and probably write) about. In addition to the research, anyone who has ever read a bedtime story to a preschooler knows that listening comprehension is more sophisticated than reading comprehension. The proof comes from nights when you're tired and you skip a page while reading a bedtime story. That 3-, 4-, or 5-year-old's eyes pop open. You are accused of skipping some of the story, and the punishment is that now you must start over. Yes, in fact, the child is listening, understanding, and comparing the text with his or her expectations.

What is less obvious from personal experience is the persistence of this gap. According to Stricht and James (1984), the gap extends well into middle school. This gap has implications for high-quality instruction across the learner's elementary and middle school experience, and oral language development should not be considered solely the role and responsibility of early childhood educators.

Figure 1. Listening and Reading Comprehension by Age (Stricht & James,1984)

Speaking and listening and text complexity

In this time of great interest of increasing text complexity, the data represented in Figure 1 raised several question for us. Is it possible that one way to ensure that students read at increasingly sophisticated levels is to focus on increasing students' listening comprehension? In other words, if we pushed listening comprehension higher than identified in the previous research, would reading comprehension follow? If we did so, would it take longer to close the gap, or would the gap size remain, although at a higher level?

If we want to ensure that students read increasingly complex informational texts, it seems logical that students should be talking during their content area learning (e.g., Nystrand & Gamoran, 1991). Although there is significant attention to the Common Core reading and writing standards, we believe that teachers should also attend to the increased demands of the Speaking and Listening domain, especially Anchor Standard 1, which states that students should

Prepare for and participate effectively in a range of conversations and collaborations with diverse partners, building on others' ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively. (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010, p. 22)

There is a lot to focus on in this standard. First, students should come prepared for the discussion and not simply be expected to work collaboratively with no preparation. Second, students are expected to interact effectively with a wide range of people, not just their friends and others they choose to interact with. Third, students are expected to build on each other's ideas, maintaining the conversation and continually building on the ideas of others in the discussion. And finally, they need to be able to do all of this while they express their ideas clearly and persuasively.

Anchor Standard 1 in the Speaking and Listening domain of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) represents increased expectations for students, especially students in the primary grades. Figure 2 contains grade-level expectations for this standard. We have bolded words and phrases that did not appear in the previous grade to highlight the instructional components of each grade. For example, students in third grade are expected to "stay on topic," which is not an expectation in second grade. Analyzing the differences by grade level, known as vertical alignment, is critical if teachers are going to develop teaching points aligned with the CCSS. In addition, teachers need to ensure that students have opportunities to engage in speaking and listening regularly, which may require changes to the instructional environment.

Figure 2. CCR Speaking & Listening Anchor Standard 1

8th Grade Students

SL.8.1
Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 8 topics, texts, and issues, building on others' ideas and expressing their own clearly.

Kindergarten Students
SL.K.1
Participate in collaborative conversations with diverse partners about kindergarten topics and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups.

SL.K.1A
Follow agreed-upon rules for discussions (e.g., listening to others and taking turns speaking about the topics and texts under discussion).

SL.K.1B
Continue a conversation through multiple exchanges.

Instructional ideas for speaking and listening

There are a number of ideas for ensuring that students across the grade span and in different content areas are able to practice their speaking and listening skills. Most importantly, teachers need to dedicate time every day for students to engage in collaborative conversations in which they use academic language with their peers. In fact, we recommend that about 50% of the instructional minutes devoted to content area learning be used for collaborative conversations with peers. This is based on the success that the students in Chula Vista, California, had when their teachers increased the amount of student-to-student interaction using academic language (Frey, Fisher, & Nelson, 2013). In addition to providing students an opportunity to expand their understanding of the content as they engage in peer-mediated instruction (e.g., Sperry, Neitzel, & Engelhardt-Wells, 2010), it provides teachers an excellent opportunity to work with small groups of students who need additional support to achieve their goals.

Some evidence-based speaking and listening instructional routines have been useful for students during content area instruction in the past:

Technology offers teachers new ways to engage students in speaking and listening tasks. Even very young children are learning to follow oral directions while using tablets. Some enhancing speaking and listening tasks can be used in elementary content area instruction:

Listening Gallery Walk in which students create a visual image, record themselves talking about the image, and then code it with a symbol that will allow others to access the digital file. One way to do this is with QR codes that can be printed and included in the image itself. Alternatively, students can use the Aurasma app. This is an augmented-reality application that allows users to create and post video to enhance a viewing experience. For example, some museums use Aurasma for their patrons to view additional content after pointing a smartphone or tablet at a display. In terms of classroom application, students can create their own videos and pair them with displayed work. For example, during their investigation of artists, students in Ms. Bledsoe's third-grade class narrated their original artwork that had been inspired by a specific artist. When a tablet enabled with Aurasma was pointed at one of the art pieces, the video that accompanied the art played. When students' parents visited for open house, they were able to see their children talking about their work and to learn more about the other students in the class.

Photo narratives in which students collect images and then record a narrative to accompany the images. For example, the first graders in Anthony Munoz's classroom planted seeds. Each day, they took a picture of the container in which their seed was planted. Mr. Munoz read aloud the text From Seed to Plant (Gibbons, 1993) several times as the plants grew. Mr. Munoz helped his students create a time lapse video using Quicktime, and the students recorded their narrative about the growth of the plant that accompanied the video.

Digital storytelling to create original narrative and informational pieces. The Storybird app provides access to thousands of illustrations and photographs to illustrate original pieces of writing. These are best when completed collaboratively in order to create lots of opportunities for students to engage in meaningful discussion with one another. The Voicethread website offers two-way communication between writers and readers. Like Storybird, students create a digital story using the Voicethread tools and their own illustrations. In addition, they dictate the text for each page. Subsequent listeners can either listen to the writer's own voice or read the dictated script. Importantly, readers can then pose questions and offer connections that are in turn viewed by other readers.

As part of their social studies curriculum, Davinia Thompson's second-grade students used Voicethread to develop a class digital book on people who make a difference in their community. Ms. Thompson compiled each student's contributions and uploaded them to the Voicethread website. Later in the centers, students viewed the class book and recorded their comments and questions. Ms. Thompson then had the entire class view the completed digital story, with their questions included, so the class could continue the conversation about the topic.

Talking in class

Regardless of the specific approach that a teacher takes, students simply must talk in class. We have to change the climate, expectations, and accountability for student-to-student interaction in classrooms everywhere. A day should not go by in which students silently try to learn content. Instead, there should be a hum of learning, with many voices engaged in discussions about the topics under investigation. Only then will we fully realize the literacy achievements of our students orally, digitally, and in print.

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Speaking and Listening in Content Area Learning

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Oral language development facilitates print literacy. In this article, we focus on the ways in which teachers can ensure students' speaking and listening skills are developed. We provide a review of effective classroom routines, including some that can be enhanced with technology.

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In the context of the music classroom, especially a chorus classroom, singing plays a vital role in the development of oral language. Especially when songs are taught by rote, students are learning how to listen to the text in order to repeat it back and speak/perform it for themselves. Music is a vital tool for helping children first learn how to speak when they are first learning how to make sounds in the pre-k and primary classrooms, and music continues to be a powerful tool to help students through secondary school improve their oral language skills in their primary language and in foreign languages that they may perform.

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Phonics is the relationship between the letters of a written language and the sounds of a spoken language (WETA Public Broadcasting, 2020). To quote the article above,

"The goal of phonics instruction is to help children learn the alphabetic principle — the idea that letters represent the sounds of spoken language — and that there is an organized, logical, and predictable relationship between written letters and spoken sounds" (WETA Public Broadcasting, 2020).

Phonics should be taught systematically (in an organized and logical sequence) and explicitly (precisely) (WETA Public Broadcasting, 2020).

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Phonics instruction teaches the relationships between the letters of written language and the sounds of spoken language. To read, children need to understand the alphabetic principle - the idea that letters represent the sounds of spoken language. Decoding is when we use letter-sound relationships to translate a printed word into speech.

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In the music classroom, we have the unique ability (and responsibility) to teach our students material in all languages and cultures. When it comes to oral language development, it is vital for music educators to give students from all backgrounds equal opportunity to speak and perform texts from a variety of cultures. The more that we help out students develop their oral language skills, the more that we provide them with the tools that they need to advocate for their rights and speak up for themselves in an effective and powerful way.

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Summarization from the information in the video above:

Phonological awareness is an awareness that the words that we speak can be taken apart. It’s something that we learn auditorily from listening to words and sentences and it essentially breaks language into chunks. There are several phases of phonological awareness: recognizing sentences are broken into individual words, then that individual words are broken into syllables, and eventually breaking down syllables into phonemes. Other skills grouped into phonological awareness are the ability to recognize rhymes and alliterations (Understood for All, 2019).

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What Is Phonological Awareness?

If playback doesn't begin shortly, try restarting your device.

Phonological awareness is an awareness that the words that we speak can be taken apart and

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In the general classroom, it is vital to support the development of phonological awareness in students because it is the foundation to learn to read and is the precursor to phonics. To quote the article listed above:

Blending, segmenting, and manipulating sounds will help students quickly decode, which means reading the words on a page, and encode, which refers to the spelling of words (Starke, 2020).

The article goes on to provide multiple multi-sensory activities to help cultivate the development of phonological awareness in students within daily literacy instruction:

1. Sorting Pictures: Students can work individually, in groups, or as a whole class to sort picture cards by beginning or ending sounds, syllables, or rhyme (Starke, 2020).
2. Poetry, Nursery Rhymes, and Traditional Songs: During or after the recitation of any of these, the teacher can have the students clap the number of words they hear in a line or the number of syllables they hear in a word (Starke 2020).
3. Segmenting words with the body: Students can map out the beginning, middle, and end sounds of a one syllable word such as mat by using the joints in their arm as a physical connection. For example, the shoulder would be the m sound, the arm would be the a sound, and the wrist would be the t sound (Starke, 2020).

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Phonological Awareness in the Classroom - TeachHUB

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Phonological awareness is a vital part of learning to read, so fostering it in your class is essential. Learn about phonological awareness in the classroom.

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In the music classroom, the instruction of rhythms and phonological awareness go hand in hand. The relationship between how words are broken up and how beats of rhythms are broken up are intertwined in music curriculum starting at the primary level. As the student progresses through secondary education, despite how complicated the text of a piece may get in terms of literacy, basic rhythms are still broken down in alignment with the syllables of a word. Because of this relationship, music teachers have a vital role to play in the development of phonological awareness because we are able to combine visual, auditory, and kinesthetic tactile learning experiences for our students while they are singing, clapping, or dancing that help them to understand how sounds are broken up and blended together.

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In order to cultivate a safe space for students of all backgrounds to continue to develop their phonological awareness, it's important for educators to celebrate the different cultures and backgrounds that our students bring to the classroom and encourage worldly conversations about our differences. Especially when engaging young students in rhythmic (phonological awareness) exercises through poems, nursery rhymes, or folk songs, we have a responsibility to ensure that the material we are teaching comes from all around the world and represents various cultures and ethnicities.

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Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition From Novice to Expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1529100618772271

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2020, July 16). Speaking and listening in content area learning. Reading Rockets. Retrieved June 28, 2022, from https://www.readingrockets.org/article/speaking-and-listening-content-area-learning

Literacy How. (2020, September 30). Oral Language. Literacy How. Retrieved June 28, 2022, from https://www.literacyhow.org/oral-language/

National Reading Panel. (2000, April). Phonics Instruction. Reading Rockets. Retrieved July 5, 2022, from https://www.readingrockets.org/article/phonics-instruction

Pflaum, J. (2012, June 6). Building Reading and Writing Skills with Music. Edutopia. Retrieved July 6, 2022. https://www.edutopia.org/blog/reading-skills-music-writing-jeffrey-pflaum

Rosenthal, S. (2021, October 1). Facing the Shadows, Moving Toward Grade: Best Practices for Equity in Writing Instruction. Collaborative Classroom. Retrieved July 6, 2022.https://www.collaborativeclassroom.org/blog/best-practices-for-equity-in-writing-instruction/

Ryan, E. (2020, October 29). Timothy Rasinski on Fluency and Equity in Reading Instruction. NWEA. other. Retrieved June 30, 2022, from https://www.nwea.org/blog/2020/timothy-rasinski-on-fluency-and-equity-in-reading-instruction/

Starke, K. (2020, July 24). Phonological Awareness in the Classroom. TeachHUB. Retrieved June 28, 2022, from https://www.teachhub.com/teaching-strategies/2020/07/phonological-awareness-in-the-classroom/

Understood for All. (2019). What Is Phonological Awareness? YouTube. Retrieved June 28, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0G6teawxls&t=4s.

WETA Public Broadcasting. (2020, October 16). Fluency. Reading Rockets. Retrieved June 30, 2022, from https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading-basics/fluency

WETA Public Broadcasting. (2020, October 16). Literacy Apps: Vocabulary. Reading Rockets. Retrieved July 1, 2022, from https://www.readingrockets.org/literacyapps/vocabulary

WETA Public Broadcasting. (n.d.). Literacy Apps: Writing. Reading Rockets. Retrieved July 6, 2022. https://www.readingrockets.org/literacyapps/writing

WETA Public Broadcasting. (2020, October 31). Phonics and Decoding. Reading Rockets. Retrieved June 28, 2022, from https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading-basics/phonics

WETA Public Broadcasting. (2021, June 1).  Phonics: In Practice. Reading Rockets. Retrieved June 30, 2022, from https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading-basics/phonics-practice

WETA Public Broadcasting. 2020, October 16). Vocabulary.  Reading Rockets. Retrieved June 30, 2022, from https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading-basics/vocabulary

WETA Public Broadcasting. 2020, October 16). Writing.  Reading Rockets. Retrieved July 6, 2022, from https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading-basics/writing

Winston, Christopher. (2017, November 15). Why Do Lyrics Matter? NRG Recording Studios. Retrieved July 1, 2022, from https://www.nrgrecording.com/post/why-do-lyrics-matter

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In the general classroom, it is essential to emphasize the importance of phonics as the relationship between letters and sounds.
According to the article above:

"Being able to decode words effortlessly (convert spelling into speech sounds) means children are able to focus their attention on comprehending what they read" (WETA Public Broadcasting, 2021).

It is recommended that a teacher, regardless of the grade being taught, should start each lesson with consonant letter sounds that are easy to pronounce. For example, the letters t and d sound similar, but t is used more often in the English language, so a teacher should first make sure that students are comfortable with the phonics of the letter t before moving on to d.

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In the music classroom, students will learn how to annunciate their words to be understood clearly. Without phonics, this would be impossible. The songs mentioned in the article above are intended to help students master letter sounds to build stronger reading and speaking skills.

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Mastering letter sounds is a major step toward building strong reading and speaking skills. While it's easy enough to lead your class through a round of phonics, the repetitiveness can get boring-for you and your students. Spice things up by bringing some fun music into your lessons! Don't have time to go searching for videos and resources? No problem! We've put together this list of engaging phonics songs for kids to help them build a strong foundation.

Alphabet Song

Miss Patty combines letter sounds with American sign language in her alphabet song!

The ABC Song for Kids

The Kiboomers teach kids the alphabet with this ABC song featuring a picture for each letter.

Alphabet PE Exercise Song

Learn the alphabet while keeping fit with Miss Linky!

CVC Phonics Song

This video is designed to teach how to read CVC (consonant vowel consonant) words.

ABC Phonics Song

This animated phonics song was developed with speech therapists to form each letter sound correctly.

Alphabet Boogie Song

"Come on all you letters from A to Z." What a fun way to learn phonics!

The Big Pig Song

This singalong song is from Hooked on Phonics Learn to Read. "You laugh, you'll cry. You'll learn words that have the letter i."

Crazy Phonics Song

This super version of the "Chit Chat Chicken" song created by Kids vs Phonics just gets faster and faster!

Phonics Song with TWO Words

This phonics song gives kids two word examples for each letter.

Alphabet Phonics Song

"A says a, a, apple and alligator." This catchy song will have kids singing along!

Jolly Phonics Song

The entire set of 42 letter sounds is visually shown along with songs to practice learning.

Phonics Songs for Kids

Mother Goose Club uses music and fun graphics to teach kids phonics.

Learning Letter Sounds

This phonics song teaches children the alphabet and the beginning letter sounds.

The Alphabet Song

This song by Jack Hartmann is great for teaching and learning the alphabet and phonics.

Meet the Phonics

This 41-minute video will help students learn the different sounds that letters make.

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Phonics Songs for Kids to Learn Letter Sounds The Fun Way!

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Mastering letter sounds is a major step toward building strong reading and speaking skills. While it's easy enough to lead your class through a round of phonics, the repetitiveness can get boring-for you and your students. Spice things up by bringing some fun music into your lessons!

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There is a considerable link between adults who lack basic literacy skills and unemployment. Phonics is an important step in Decoding, which according to the Simple View of Reading, is one of the two crucial skills needed for reading comprehension. (Castles, Rastle, & Nation, 2018). There are opposing views over how to teach decoding, with some believing that  decoding should be taught as a means of increasing reading comprehension, while others believe comprehension should be taught first and the skill of decoding will follow. Despite the debate, both sides agree that without a basic understanding of phonics, it will be difficult for students to succeed in most future endeavors. Based on this information, phonics education is a major tool for fighting inequality, as increasing all students' reading comprehension through phonics will help to close the literacy gap in the employment market.

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According to the article above:

"Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately, quickly, and with expression. Reading fluency is important because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension" (WETA Public Broadcasting, 2020).

Fluency increases the speed by which a student gains meaning from what they read. Fluent readers are past the stage of decoding and have moved on to comprehension by making connections between what they have read and their background knowledge.

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Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately, quickly, and with expression.Fluent reading builds stamina for reading lengthy or complex texts. Reading fluency serves as a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.

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In the general classroom, students will need fluency to feel confident in their reading skills, as students without fluency are often choppy or awkward in their reading.

The article above suggests that some ways to improve fluency in reading are:

Having students track the words with their finger as a parent or teacher reads a passage aloud. Then the student reads it.

Have a parent or teacher read aloud to the student. Then, have the student match their voice to their guide's.

Have students read their favorite books and poems over and over again, then practice getting smoother and reading with expression.

The article also provides suggestions for teachers, some of which are:

Assess the student to make sure that word decoding or word recognition is not the source of the difficulty (if decoding is the source of the problem, decoding will need to be addressed in addition to reading speed and phrasing).

Give the student independent level texts that he or she can practice again and again. Time the student and calculate words-correct-per-minute regularly. The student can chart his or her own improvement.

Have the student practice reading a passage with a certain emotion, such as sadness or excitement, to emphasize expression and intonation.

Incorporate timed repeated readings into your instructional repertoire.

(WETA Public Broadcasting, 2020)

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Fluency is defined as the ability to read with accuracy, good speed, and appropriate expression. In order to understand what they read, children must be able to read fluently whether they are reading aloud or silently. When reading aloud, fluent readers read in phrases and add intonation appropriately. Their reading is smooth and has expression.

Children who do not read with fluency sound choppy and awkward. Those students may have difficulty with decoding skills or they may just need more practice with speed and smoothness in reading. Fluency is also important for motivation; children who find reading laborious tend not to want read! As readers head into upper elementary grades, fluency becomes increasingly important. The volume of reading required in the upper elementary years escalates dramatically. Students whose reading is slow or labored will have trouble meeting the reading demands of their grade level.

What the problem looks like

A kid's perspective: What this feels like to me

Children will usually express their frustration and difficulties in a general way, with statements like "I hate reading!" or "This is stupid!". But if they could, this is how kids might describe how fluency difficulties in particular affect their reading:

I just seem to get stuck when I try to read a lot of the words in this chapter.

It takes me so long to read something.

Reading through this book takes so much of my energy, I can't even think about what it means.

A parent's perspective: What I see at home

Here are some clues for parents that a child may have problems with fluency:

He knows how to read words but seems to take a long time to read a short book or passage silently.

She reads a book with no expression.

He stumbles a lot and loses his place when reading something aloud.

She reads aloud very slowly.

She moves her mouth when reading silently (subvocalizing).

A teacher's perspective: What I see in the classroom

Here are some clues for teachers that a student may have problems with fluency:

Her results on words-correct-per-minute assessments are below grade level or targeted benchmark.

She has difficulty and grows frustrated when reading aloud, either because of speed or accuracy.

He does not read aloud with expression; that is, he does not change his tone where appropriate.

She does not "chunk" words into meaningful units.

When reading, he doesn't pause at meaningful breaks within sentences or paragraphs.

How to help

With the help of parents and teachers, kids can learn strategies to cope with fluency issues that affect his or her reading. Below are some tips and specific things to do.

What kids can do to help themselves

Track the words with your finger as a parent or teacher reads a passage aloud. Then you read it.

Have a parent or teacher read aloud to you. Then, match your voice to theirs.

Read your favorite books and poems over and over again. Practice getting smoother and reading with expression.

What parents can do to help at home

Support and encourage your child. Realize that he or she is likely frustrated by reading.

Check with your child's teachers to find out their assessment of your child's word decoding skills.

If your child can decode words well, help him or her build speed and accuracy by:

Reading aloud and having your child match his voice to yours

Having your child practice reading the same list of words, phrase, or short passages several times

Reminding your child to pause between sentences and phrases

Read aloud to your child to provide an example of how fluent reading sounds.

Give your child books with predictable vocabulary and clear rhythmic patterns so the child can "hear" the sound of fluent reading as he or she reads the book aloud.

Use books on tapes; have the child follow along in the print copy.

What teachers can do to help at school

Assess the student to make sure that word decoding or word recognition is not the source of the difficulty (if decoding is the source of the problem, decoding will need to be addressed in addition to reading speed and phrasing).

Give the student independent level texts that he or she can practice again and again. Time the student and calculate words-correct-per-minute regularly. The student can chart his or her own improvement.

Ask the student to match his or her voice to yours when reading aloud or to a tape recorded reading.

Read a short passage and then have the student immediately read it back to you.

Have the student practice reading a passage with a certain emotion, such as sadness or excitement, to emphasize expression and intonation.

Incorporate timed repeated readings into your instructional repertoire.

Plan lessons that explicitly teach students how to pay attention to clues in the text (for example, punctuation marks) that provide information about how that text should be read.

Browse our fluency library

Learn more about how to build children's fluency skills through our articles, tips for parents, video, FAQs, and research briefs. Visit our Fluency section

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Fluency is defined as the ability to read with accuracy, good speed, and appropriate expression. In order to understand what they read, children must be able to read fluently whether they are reading aloud or silently. When reading aloud, fluent readers read in phrases and add intonation appropriately.

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Songs are often repetitive, which is a great strategy for increasing fluency among learners of any language. By incorporating fluency skills in the music classroom, teachers will encourage students to not only improve their reading comprehension, but their vocal expression too.

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According to Timothy Rasinski, students who can decode words, have good vocabularies, and are able to comprehend oral presentation of reading material can still struggle with fluency. In this interview, Rasinski describes a lack of fluency as a detrimental snowball affect that will stagnate the learning process:

"If students are having difficulty reading material at their own grade level, they’re going to miss out on a lot of content... And we know that much of comprehension depends upon knowledge. If you can’t read the material that builds your knowledge... you’re going to have trouble understanding [other content] because you won’t have the background knowledge to support it. So it just becomes this whole snowball effect where one thing leads to another and, all of a sudden, children are significantly behind and unmotivated... (Ryan, 2020)."

Fluency is  a key stepping stone for students when acquiring language and reading skills and increased attention on fluency in the classroom will provide students with a more level playing field.

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The above article states that comprehension is:

"...the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not understand or connect to what they are reading, they are not really reading. Good readers are both purposeful and active, and have the skills to absorb what they read, analyze it, make sense of it, and make it their own (WETA Public Broadcasting, 2020)."

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Comprehension is the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not understand or connect to what they are reading, they are not really reading. Good readers are both purposeful and active, and have the skills to absorb what they read, analyze it, make sense of it, and make it their own.

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In the general classroom, comprehension is arguably the most important step in the reading process. It confirms that the student fully understands the meaning of the word(s) they have read.

To asses reading comprehension, teachers can have students:

Identify main ideas orally or in writing

Connect the main or central ideas orally or in writing

Learn to weed out unnecessary information

Remember what they have read

Proficiency in comprehension means that students are ready to utilize their readings skills in a more complex setting with detailed activities.

(WETA Public Broadcasting, 2020).

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Comprehension is the understanding and interpretation of what is read. To be able to accurately understand written material, children need to be able to (1) decode what they read; (2) make connections between what they read and what they already know; and (3) think deeply about what they have read.

One big part of comprehension is having a sufficient vocabulary, or knowing the meanings of enough words. Readers who have strong comprehension are able to draw conclusions about what they read - what is important, what is a fact, what caused an event to happen, which characters are funny. Thus comprehension involves combining reading with thinking and reasoning.

Target the Problem: Comprehension

What the problem looks like

A kid's perspective: What this feels like to me

Children will usually express their frustration and difficulties in a general way, with statements like "I hate reading!" or "This is stupid!". But if they could, this is how kids might describe how comprehension difficulties in particular affect their reading:

It takes me so long to read something. It's hard to follow along with everything going on.

I didn't really get what that book was about.

Why did that character do that? I just don't get it!

I'm not sure what the most important parts of the book were.

I couldn't really create an image in my head of what was going on.

A parent's perspective: What I see at home

Here are some clues for parents that a child may have problems with comprehension:

She's not able to summarize a passage or a book.

He might be able to tell you what happened in a story, but can't explain why events went the way they did.

She can't explain what a character's thoughts or feelings might have been.

He doesn't link events in a book to similar events from another book or from real life.

A teacher's perspective: What I see in the classroom

Here are some clues for teachers that a student may have problems with comprehension:

He seems to focus on the "wrong" aspect of a passage; for example, he concentrates so much on the details that the main idea is lost.

She can tell the outcome of a story, but cannot explain why things turned out that way.

He does not go behind what is presented in a book to think about what might happen next or why characters took the action they did.

She brings up irrelevant information when trying to relate a passage to something in her own life.

He seems to have a weak vocabulary.

She cannot tell the clear, logical sequence of events in a story.

He does not pick out the key facts from informational text.

He cannot give you a "picture" of what's going on in a written passage; for example, what the characters look like or details of where the story takes place.

How to help

With the help of parents and teachers, kids can learn strategies to cope with comprehension problems that affect his or her reading. Below are some tips and specific things to do.

What kids can do to help themselves

Use outlines, maps, and notes when you read.

Make flash cards of key terms you might want to remember.

Read stories or passages in short sections and make sure you know what happened before you continue reading.

Ask yourself, "Does this make sense?" If it doesn't, reread the part that didn't make sense.

Read with a buddy. Stop every page or so and take turns summarizing what you've read.

Ask a parent or teacher to preview a book with you before you read it on your own.

As you read, try to form mental pictures or images that match the story.

What parents can do to help at home

Hold a conversation and discuss what your child has read. Ask your child probing questions about the book and connect the events to his or her own life. For example, say "I wonder why that girl did that?" or "How do you think he felt? Why?" and "So, what lesson can we learn here?".

Help your child make connections between what he or she reads and similar experiences he has felt, saw in a movie, or read in another book.

Help your child monitor his or her understanding. Teach her to continually ask herself whether she understands what she's reading.

Help your child go back to the text to support his or her answers.

Discuss the meanings of unknown words, both those he reads and those he hears.

Read material in short sections, making sure your child understands each step of the way.

Discuss what your child has learned from reading informational text such as a science or social studies book.

What teachers can do to help at school

As students read, ask them open-ended questions such as "Why did things happen that way?" or "What is the author trying to do here?" and "Why is this somewhat confusing?".

Teach students the structure of different types of reading material. For instance, narrative texts usually have a problem, a highpoint of action, and a resolution to the problem. Informational texts may describe, compare and contrast, or present a sequence of events.

Discuss the meaning of words as you go through the text. Target a few words for deeper teaching, really probing what those words mean and how they can be used.

Teach note-taking skills and summarizing strategies.

Use graphic organizers that help students break information down and keep tack of what they read.

Encourage students to use and revisit targeted vocabulary words.

Teach students to monitor their own understanding. Show them how, for example, to ask themselves "What's unclear here?" or "What information am I missing?" and "What else should the author be telling me?".

Teach children how to make predictions and how to summarize.

More information

Find out more about comprehension issues with these resources from Reading Rockets, The Access Center, and LD OnLine:

Other recommended links:

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Comprehension is the understanding and interpretation of what is read. To be able to accurately understand written material, children need to be able to (1) decode what they read; (2) make connections between what they read and what they already know; and (3) think deeply about what they have read.

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When asking someone about their favorite song, they will often explain that they connect to the music or the lyrics in some way.

According to the article above:

"Lyrics matter because they have the influence to bring a change and impact someone’s life negatively or positively" (Winston, 2017).

Without comprehension skills, lyrics would not have the same affect on listeners because they would not understand the meaning of those words. Comprehension in the music classroom allows students to expand upon their own interpretations of words and phrases in a meaningful and effective way.

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Can you truly relate to lyrics without knowing their meaning? So often, we can fall in love with songs without understanding the lyrics. Music listeners only enjoy a song because of a catchy beat or hook. Music allows the songwriter to connect with the listener, affecting a person's mood, vibe, or spiritual energy. So as a consumer of music, you may want to be aware of the meaning or purpose of the song.

I appreciate the value of a well-written song because it allows you to truly connect with the lyrics. Have you ever loved a song by an artist today and think how did this become popular? The lyrics that songwriters produce now have changed throughout the years losing its essence. Lyrics used to make you feel connected to the words, make you think about life or even empower you. Lyrics matter because they have the influence to bring a change and impact someone's life negatively or positively. A great songwriter aims to make music about personal experiences that will touch millions of people. Songwriters of today have been able to do this like Miguel, Drake, Jhené Aiko, The Internet, and dvsn. They all have the ability to write songs that will make you feel, think, and take you on a journey. So let's break down exactly why lyrics matter.

Lyrical Content

Lyrics that a songwriter puts into their music are forms of expression. The sole purpose is to get what's on their mind or heart onto paper. Together it creates something beautiful that the artist can share and change people's thinking. This allows the listener to see things from their perspective. If the songwriter's lyrics are relatable they will resonate with you and become therapeutic. If written powerfully the lyrics can refresh the memory of the past and will tell a story of the songwriters' thoughts. Lyrics take you back to a certain time when you were happy or sad while opening up your senses to be vulnerable. Songwriters like Sam Smith write lyrics that will make you reminisce about the past while being in the present moment of time. Music on its own carries a certain amount of emotional weight but the lyrical content of any song should surround you with emotional details.

The lyrics written today lack the weight that it used to carry. Songwriters in the past would open their life by telling a story about love, struggle, and you could feel the emotion behind the lyrics. Solange, who wrote "Cranes In the Sky", talks about avoiding painful feelings and having your defense up. The lyrics are an amazing example of how to verbalize what you go through when experiencing an existential crisis. Originality in songwriters is dying out, the lyrics written today talk about the same content. Songs that were written back in the 80s still hold power because of the social issues the artists wanted to address. Janet Jackson who has written countless hits addressing racism, addiction, and poverty in songs like "State Of The World" and "The Knowledge". A songwriter's' lyrics speak to the artist's intelligence, artists like 2Pac, Notorious B.I.G, Kendrick Lamar, The Doors, Pink Floyd, and No Doubt have all written lyrics that still today have impacted so many lives.

Lyrical Influences

Songwriters have written songs that have become successful and the lyrical content does not have any meaning. Hanson who released "MmmBop" in 1997 was phenomenally a worldwide hit for a debut single by a band. It reached number one in 27 countries including the United States, United Kingdom, and Mexico. The song went on to sell over 10 million copies with its debut. The beat and chorus are undeniably catchy and still remains their most successful single. Rihanna in 2016 released "Work" feat Drake another example that some songs are written simply for catchy beats and hooks. The song reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming Rihanna's fourteenth number-one single and making her the fourth artist with the most number one songs on the charts.

So would you rather have music from artists that just make you dance or have music with lyrics that make you think or feel the words? A few artists' that I personally listen to on the daily and appreciate their lyrical expression are Jhene Aiko, H.E.R., and J.Cole. "Every Kind of Way" written by H.E.R. speaks about the levels of loving someone and giving him or her your all. The simplicity of the lyrics speaks volumes because I'm someone who loves unconditionally. Jhene's "New Balance" takes my soul on a lyrical journey with the metaphors and airy vocals, this song connects because the possibility of new relationships come and give you a breath of fresh air. J.Cole wrote, "Love Yourz" which talks about being grateful for the important things in life, such as love, family, and happiness. I can relate to this because it reminds me to always be humble and never forget my small beginnings. Great songwriters will write songs that can bring you into their world for a short period of time; this is what makes their music personal.

Lyrical Expression

Music works as the canvas for creativityand the songwriter completes the song by bringing the lyrics to life. Songwriters have the power to write music that can save people's lives. If they write lyrics with pure authenticity this allows people to connect instantly. As a songwriter you can write about life, personal struggles, or social issues and the lyrics can inspire people. The lyrical expression of a song can reveal a songwriters truth, allowing people to relate even more to the lyrics. So many people have gone through similar situations and to hear that in music from someone else is liberating. The songwriters' sole purpose of creating music is to reach the masses while spreading powerful messages.

The lyrics that songwriters write are arguably the most important part of the song. The most challenging aspect of songwriting is developing the lyrics, especially if the songwriter lacks creativity. Ask any true songwriter and they will tell you that writing lyrics usually come from personal life experiences. The most successful songs were written about personal experiences. Michael Jackson wrote: "Billie Jean" based on his experiences with women that would claim to be pregnant with his children. The song became an instant hit becoming one of the best-selling singles worldwide. Songwriters who pull inspiration from real life events and experiences can create songs that will last forever. The lyrics in a song help the songwriter release their own personal issues freeing the thoughts from their mind.

Can you truly relate to a song without knowing its meaning? Listening to music without knowing what the lyrics mean is like putting something together without using the instructions. If you are a lover of music, take the time to fully understand the songwriter's point of view. It's so easy to fall in love with a song and not know all of the words. Lyrics matter, and without them you may not truly understand the purpose or meaning of the song. Music allows the artist to connect with the listener, affecting their mood, vibe, or spiritual energy. So as a consumer of music it should feed your soul.

Stay connected here with NRG for the latest on all things music and sound.

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Why Do Lyrics Matter? - NRG Recording Studios

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Can you truly relate to lyrics without knowing their meaning? So often, we can fall in love with songs without understanding the lyrics. Music listeners only enjoy a song because of a catchy beat or hook. Music allows the songwriter to connect with the listener, affecting a person's mood, vibe, or spiritual energy.

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Comprehension requires a combination of previously acquired reading skills and background knowledge, though the knowledge that students enter the classroom with will differ based on their experiences outside of the classroom. This creates an issue of equity in comprehension because one student may find meaning in a word, while another student may find a different meaning in that same word, but both could be correct depending on the context. In this scenario, however, it is possible that only one student is correct.

It is necessary to enforce equitable comprehension in the classroom to give students the same opportunities for acquiring more knowledge and expanding upon a wider context than what they know from their lives at home.

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The article from Reading Rockets states the following regarding vocabulary:

"Vocabulary refers to the words we must understand to communicate effectively" (WETA Public Broadcasting, 2020).

The four types of vocabulary most frequently used by teachers are:

Listening

Speaking

Reading

Writing

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More resources: Vocabulary: self-paced course Target the Problem: Vocabulary Vocabulary Apps Topics A-Z: Vocabulary Vocabulary refers to the words we must understand to communicate effectively. Educators often consider four types of vocabulary: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Listening vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we hear.

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There are plenty of ways to apply vocabulary in the general classroom, the most common of which is through drilling and repetition. While these methods are the most familiar, there are more effective ways for students to grow their vocabularies.

Indirect vocabulary learning is the most common way that children learn the meanings of words. This  occurs in three ways:

They engage daily in oral language

They listen to adults read to them

They read extensively on their own

Direct vocabulary learning is taught intentionally by a parent or teacher and includes words that are not used in the students' everyday vernacular. This includes:

Providing students with instruction in specific words that are important to students’ content learning or understanding of a particular text

Teaching students more general word-learning strategies that they can apply to a variety of words, such as analyzing parts of words (e.g., root words)

There are also some great apps that students can use in the classroom and at home. Some of the apps recommended by Reading Rockets are:

Bluster!

Mad Libs

Montessori Crosswords

Word Dynamo

(WETA Public Broadcasting, 2021).

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A child's vocabulary can be expanded through repeated exposure to new words and by thinking about word meanings. We've found apps that engage young children in crossword and Scrabble type games. Other apps focus on specific word meaning skills by highlighting word opposites, synonyms, and homophones. Many of the games can be played together or side-by-side. Have fun and encourage new words!

Many of the reviews we link to are from Common Sense Education, a trusted resource for learning about apps and other edtech tools.

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A child's vocabulary can be expanded through repeated exposure to new words and by thinking about word meanings. We've found apps that engage young children in crossword and Scrabble type games. Other apps focus on specific word meaning skills by highlighting word opposites, synonyms, and homophones.

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In a music classroom there are plenty of vocabulary words that students will need to learn, the most basic of which are the names of instruments. From there, students will begin to understand terms such as "soprano" and "alto" to describe sounds and "crescendo" and "decrescendo" to describe techniques.

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In conversation, there often comes a time when one participant uses a word that the other does not know. The person who does not recognize the word can typically use context clues to assess the meaning, but this is a skill developed through reading and practice.

As previously mentioned, students come into a classroom with previous background knowledge that they then apply to what they are learning; vocabulary is no different. Some students may live in a home where their parents use a range of vocabulary words that they have gathered context clues for, while other students may only experience the most fundamental of words. This gap in vocabulary acquisition may not be too damaging during childhood, but as the students get older, the student with a wider vocabulary will have more opportunities presented to them both in school, the workforce, and in their personal lives.

To eliminate this inequity, it is essential for students to be given equal opportunity at understanding the meanings of words through vocabulary learning.

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Writing can simply be defined as:

"...the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation and spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form" (Benwell, n.d.)

While this is the most basic definition of writing available, the above article suggests that there is much more to be gained from writing that the communication of thoughts and ideas in a readable form, stating that:

"Writing is a complex process that requires a wide range of skills — a strong vocabulary; an understanding of genre, text structure, and voice; basic mechanical skills (grammar and punctuation); organizational skills; and higher order thinking" (WETA Public Broadcasting, 2020).

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More resources: Writing and Spelling (PBS Launching Young Readers series) Growing Writers (PBS Launching Young Readers series) Looking at Writing Writing: Course Module Writing Apps Topics A-Z: Writing A child's writing development parallels the child's development as a reader.

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Writing is one of the most effective ways to gauge student understanding while also incorporating engaging activities. Most classes can incorporate writing into the curriculum, even math.

The basic skills required for writing competency are:

Basic writing skills: spelling, capitalization, punctuation, handwriting/keyboarding, and sentence structure.

Text generation: translating one’s thoughts into language, with word choice (vocabulary), elaboration of detail, and clarity of expression.

Writing processes: planning, revising, and editing one’s work. These processes are extremely important to success in writing, and increasingly so as students advance into the middle and secondary grades.

Writing knowledge: an understanding of discourse and genre and writing for an audience.

The above article from Reading Rockets suggests apps to improve writing, including:

Book Creator

Grammaropolis

iWriteWords

(WETA Public Broadcasting, 2021).

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Writing is a complex process that includes everything from handwriting skill to sentence construction to planning and drafting a story. We've found apps that help young children along all of the steps of the writing process, including the final stages - publishing and sharing your writing with others. Several apps can turn your iPad into a handwriting tablet for practice. See also: Apps for Storytelling.

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Writing is a complex process that includes everything from handwriting skill to sentence construction to planning and drafting a story. We've found apps that help young children along all of the steps of the writing process, including the final stages - publishing and sharing your writing with others.

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Writing can be incorporated into the music classroom through a variety of methods. One of the more popular methods is currently Jeffrey Pflaum's "The Music Writing Project," which involves having students listen to music and relax without any other activity for 10 minutes. He claims that this is highly effective because:

"They begin to visualize mind-pictures, feel feelings, conjure up thoughts and learn to translate them into words. Students contemplate, write about and discuss those experiences with classmates, creating more openness, honesty and sensitivity to themselves, others and the world" (Pflaum, 2012).

This is most important because students will use those visualization-reflection-contemplation processes to learn and generate new ideas.

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According to the article above, we must make sure to give students equal opportunities to use their imagination, express themselves, and explore their identities.

"One way we can foreground voice and choice is by encouraging students to select their own topics and develop their own characters. Another is to provide opportunities to write in a variety of genres. Each genre stretches budding writers in a different way" (Rosenthal, 2021).

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A Place at the Table

I had a dream recently in which I was editing a paragraph. I wanted to trim every extra word-but made sure to preserve the phrase shadow and grace .

I'll skip an exploration of all that the phrase holds at this particular juncture in human history, and simply ask: Who wrote it? In the dream, it was by an unknown author. On waking, I realized it recalled similar phrases I've heard and read. So was the phrase mine? Yes ... and no.

Words belong to everyone and no one. When we write, we're taking a seat at the communal table-sharing a poem, arguing a point, telling a story, laughing and weeping, responding vociferously or reflecting on others' contributions.

Everyone deserves a place at the table.

Words belong to everyone and no one. When we write, we're taking a seat at the communal table-sharing a poem, arguing a point, telling a story, laughing and weeping, responding vociferously or reflecting on others' contributions. Everyone deserves a place at the table.

And as writers, we practice showing up in a way that commands attention. We apprentice ourselves, hone our craft. Gradually we develop the patience and the determination to wrangle sentences to say something new, true, and important. We come to love the process itself.

This love, and the belief that we can make a contribution to the larger discourse, are necessary to sustain us through the hard parts.

Shadow and Grace

I'm counting more grace than shadows. The odds are working in our favor, so let's dive in and discuss practical ways to improve equity in writing instruction.

#1: Use Facilitation Techniques and Cooperative Structures

"If we all have stories to tell, then we must also stop and listen to the stories others have to share with us. It has to be a two-way communication, which means really listening to the other person too."

If we want of our students to put themselves on the line, literally and figuratively, we need to create an atmosphere of trust and mutual support. Zaretta Hammond writes, "Relationships are the cornerstone of culturally responsive teaching."

Facilitative techniques such as asking open-ended questions and using wait-time, coupled with cooperative structures, help build a true writing community in which all students know that they and their ideas matter. This is a necessary precondition for students to take risks with their writing and produce original work.

During whole-class discussions, open-ended questions help ensure that students dig deeper with their thinking, while wait-time encourages more than a handful of students to enter the discussion.

To use the cooperative structure "Turn to Your Partner," the teacher asks a question; then students turn to face a partner and take turns sharing their ideas. Now is getting a chance to express themselves verbally-a highly effective way to prime the writing pump. With "Think, Pair, Share," students have a few moments to reflect before turning and talking. And with "Think, Pair, Write," students funnel the ideas, language, and energy they've just generated through partner conversations directly onto the page.

Facilitation techniques and cooperative structures are invaluable during writing lessons. Better yet, using these approaches throughout the school day helps all students develop as confident speakers and thoughtful listeners who are more likely to approach writing time as a welcome opportunity to connect with themselves and others.

#2: Establish a Predictable Lesson Structure

"I'm often writing something almost every day. I keep journals: one on the computer, one for dreams, one for general observations and overheard things, and one for learning jazz standards....[I write best] when the airwaves are clear, either really early-like 6 a.m., 7 a.m., before anything is said-or really late." -Joy Harjo, U.S. Poet Laureate

Humans have always known that rituals help generate invention and vision-and at the most basic level simply help us get stuff done. When we know how things happen, we feel less jangled and better able to connect with the task at hand.

Harjo has created a daily practice crucial for continuing to accrue and weave together the multiple strands of her creative work in the midst of a busy life. Similarly, when designing writing instruction it's important to establish a reliable container where students feel safe taking creative and intellectual risks.

In "Principles and Practices for Integrating Social, Emotional, and Academic Learning into Daily Instruction," Peter Brunn recommends a simple, four-part process: preparation for the work; whole-class instruction; individual and small-group work; and lesson reflection. Implementing a durable framework like this can help students settle into their writing and ultimately gain independence and confidence .

And the more they can do that, the more the writing process itself will engage them. It's a positive spiral.

#3: Foreground Voice and Choice

"I regret being scared. I regret wasting time thinking I wasn't good enough, that I didn't deserve a seat at the table.

You do belong and your voice is worthy. Say it to yourself in the mirror every morning if you have to, but don't ever forget it." -Jenna Wortham, Staff Editor, New York Times Magazine

I don't know whether Wortham's words are more heartbreaking or inspiring. I do know we writing teachers have the means to help ensure that more young people don't waste time doubting the worthiness of their voices.

We can make sure our writing curriculum gives all students equal opportunities to exercise their imaginations, express themselves, and explore their identities. (Their plural identities. We all have several, and many students face inequality based on more than one of their identities -for example, racial class gender identities.) Let's not treat these opportunities as rewards to be deferred until our writers master the technical aspects of craft.

As Dr. Marisa Ramirez Stukey and National Writing Project Executive Director Elyse Eidman-Aadahl point out in "Writing for Life: The Evidence Base for Powerful Writing Instruction," "Celebrating and amplifying student voice in writing is an essential aspect of quality writing instruction and is a way to cultivate the unique gifts and talents of each student."

One way we can foreground voice and choice is by encouraging students to select their own topics and develop their own characters. Another is to provide opportunities to write in a variety of genres. Each genre stretches budding writers in a different way.

Through persuasive writing, they learn to present cogent arguments for their points of view. Through nonfiction they learn the importance and practice of backing up ideas with facts.

Personal narrative invites them to share their unique experiences. Fiction opens doors to imaginary worlds while also at times providing a scrim behind which hard truths can be shared safely. Poetry operates as a permissive zone where rules can be freely broken and words become raw material for creative expression, much like paint or modeling clay.

Down the road, having a panoply of genres at their disposal will allow our students to gravitate toward the ones that match their purposes and preferences while also enabling them to approach each piece with more versatility and skill.

#4: Teach the Writing Process

"I never have a problem finding enough words; I have to cut pieces down. That is usually the hard part. What goes? What stays?"

Mochizuki grapples with trimming his drafts; other authors struggle to generate enough language. Each of us brings to the page our own assortment of strengths and weaknesses. But in the writing process we find a structure that helps us work through our individual quirks to produce a piece of solid work.

The writing process is an indispensable tool in our equity toolkit. As Hammond makes clear, we must disrupt the historical tendency to underestimate what our disadvantaged students are capable of intellectually.

Culturally responsive teaching includes helping every student move toward independence. Teaching our students a tried-and-true series of steps that can be internalized over time does just that. I've written about Collaborative Classroom's use of the writing process , but here I'll just note that it includes generating ideas and inspiration through mentor texts, discussion, and quick-writes; writing first drafts; revising; proofreading; and sharing with an audience-with plenty of teacher support and peer input along the way.

#5: Create Authentic Purposes

"Stories can save lives and it's never been truer than in my case, where I am determined to stay alive by pushing back at everything that says people like me are expendable and not worth saving." -Alice Wong, Author, Year of the Tiger (forthcoming 2022)

Disability rights advocate Alice Wong writes with a burning purpose. Not every piece of writing needs to have this level of urgency, but like any of us, students write better and more eagerly when they know their work will have an impact-one more meaningful than demonstrating compliance by turning in assigned work.

Students can present finished pieces to their peers from the Author's Chair, a powerful demonstration that every voice in the class matters. This celebrates the students' hard work throughout the writing process, while providing practice in skills such as oral presentation, listening, and responding in thoughtful, kind ways.

Besides the Author's Chair, other purposes can be established for different types of writing. Students might share persuasive pieces on a classroom or school blog, inviting responses by others in the community, or send them to elected officials. Fiction pieces or personal narratives might be bound together in a book to be featured in the classroom or school library.

Expository nonfiction writing might be done in the form of exhibit materials for a student-created "museum" addressing a particular topic or theme, replete with artifacts created or collected. Poems might be incorporated into a school mural. The sky (a.k.a. your imagination) is the limit.

#6: Provide Diverse Mentor Texts

"Chicana Falsa: And Other Stories of Death, Identity, and Oxnard [by Michele Serros] marks the moment on my timeline when I discovered that I had a voice, and that that voice was bilingual and it was just as valid as any other voice. It was truly an awakening. Bilingual people wrote stories, poems, and books that were taught in colleges? And even used SPANGLISH?!"

Carefully chosen mentor texts do heavy lifting when it comes to both inspiring young writers and teaching them craft. And students need mentor texts that reflect their own identities as well as give them access to others' identities and experiences.

I'm guessing you're familiar with Dr. Rudine Sims Bishop's oft-quoted language about the importance of providing our students with windows, mirrors, and sliding glass doors via multicultural literature. There's a reason we've heard this metaphor a lot-it's profoundly true, and nowhere more so than in the context of writing lessons.

Quintero's quote speaks to the earth-shattering impact that multicultural, #OwnVoices texts (texts by diverse individuals based on their own experiences) can have on students. Thanks to the impetus provided by movements such as #MeToo, #BlackLivesMatter, and #WeNeedMoreDiverseBooks, more and more Own Voices texts are being published .

If we want all of our students to light up and lean forward into read-alouds and writing prompts, getting these texts into our classrooms and libraries is a necessary step.

#7: Write

"...for the first 8 years of my teaching career I never once completed a writing task that I assigned my students. It wasn't until Holden in my 1st period 5 years ago, asked, "So, what is your poem going to be about, Mr. Briseño?" ... Entirely unaware, Holden was inviting me into 1st period's community of practice. I was on the outside, or more accurately, I was at the top of the pyramid and community was scarce." -Stephen Briseño, Educator

Writing alongside our students is a profoundly supportive act. We don't need to be accomplished authors by any means. But we can demonstrate that we view writing as truly important, and gain a profound understanding of our students' writing challenges and breakthroughs, by putting pencil to paper alongside them.

As Dr. Ibram X. Kendi has said, part of the teacher's role is to serve as a " model of vulnerability, of self-criticism ." When students see us check a fact or wrestle with the cadence of a sentence, they gain motivation for chipping away at the craft of writing. When we draft our own stories about the birth of a sibling or the loss of a treasured friend, we build an atmosphere of vulnerability that elicits writing with much more at stake than a grade.

#8: Assess for Individual Growth

"...a real writer is always shifting and changing and searching. The world has many labels for him, of which the most treacherous is the label of Success."
-James Baldwin, Author, Nobody Knows My Name

As teachers it is so difficult to maintain an SEL-healthy approach to students' academic development. We join the larger culture in pushing students toward standardized measures of achievement. Isn't a higher score better? Doesn't "best" mean something?

These measures are what we have, and it is our job to use them. But it's worth stepping off the wheel entirely for a moment and listening to one of our greatest writers.

Baldwin resisted the treachery of labels on every front-even the label of success. As a great writer he knew that every time you pick up your pen you must be ready to write the truth as it comes to you now, here, in this form. And that being told what you are-even being told that you are a success-dampens this readiness to discover and learn.

It's as American as apple pie to strive for success. But an even yummier and more nutritious version of the pie is this: each of our voices is unique and important and constantly evolving. If we believe in serving nourishing pastry for all at the communal table, we need to help our students fall in love with bringing their best , not being the best . That translates into lots of supportive formative assessment during the writing process and across writing projects, avoiding student-to-student comparisons, and holding standardized testing lightly.

Shadow and Grace, Redux

We can give it to our young writers ... and we can give it to ourselves. These are a few of the ways I understand the phrase shadow and grace in the context of equitable writing instruction. How about you?

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Facing the Shadows, Moving Toward Grace: Best Practices for Equity in Writing Instruction - Center for the Collaborative Classroom

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Words belong to everyone and no one. When we write, we're taking a seat at the communal table-sharing a poem, arguing a point, telling a story, laughing and weeping, responding vociferously or reflecting on others' contributions. Everyone deserves a place at the table.