# data[].attributes.headline
Impact: Deforestation for agriculture, logging, and cattle ranching is causing habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity.

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Impact: Deforestation for agriculture, logging, and cattle ranching is causing habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity.

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Why It Matters: The Amazon is home to over 10% of the world's known species and plays a critical role in regulating Earth's climate through carbon storage.

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Impact: Coral bleaching due to rising ocean temperatures, pollution, and ocean acidification.

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Impact: Coral bleaching due to rising ocean temperatures, pollution, and ocean acidification.

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Why It Matters: This reef system is the largest in the world and supports thousands of marine species. Coral reefs protect coastlines from erosion and provide food and tourism revenue for millions of people.

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Impact: Melting permafrost and ice caps due to climate change, resulting in loss of habitat for animals like polar bears, caribou, and arctic foxes.

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Impact: Melting permafrost and ice caps due to climate change, resulting in loss of habitat for animals like polar bears, caribou, and arctic foxes.

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Why It Matters: The tundra plays a crucial role in regulating global climate, and the loss of ice accelerates climate change by reducing the Earth's albedo (reflectivity).

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Impact: Rising sea levels and increased salinity from climate change, as well as deforestation for agriculture and urbanization.

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Impact: Rising sea levels and increased salinity from climate change, as well as deforestation for agriculture and urbanization.

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Why It Matters: This mangrove forest provides critical protection against cyclones and storms for millions of people. It’s also home to the endangered Bengal tiger and many other species.

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Impact: Deforestation, illegal mining, and poaching are destroying vast areas of this tropical rainforest.

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Impact: Deforestation, illegal mining, and poaching are destroying vast areas of this tropical rainforest.

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Why It Matters: The Congo Basin is the second-largest rainforest in the world and is crucial for carbon storage and biodiversity. It’s home to endangered species like gorillas and forest elephants.

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Impact: Overfishing, coastal development, and rising sea temperatures threaten this biodiverse marine area.

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Impact: Overfishing, coastal development, and rising sea temperatures threaten this biodiverse marine area.

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Why It Matters: Known as the “Amazon of the seas,” the Coral Triangle supports the highest diversity of coral species in the world. It's vital for the livelihood of millions who depend on it for fishing.

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Impact: Increased wildfires and logging activities due to rising temperatures and human encroachment.

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Impact: Increased wildfires and logging activities due to rising temperatures and human encroachment.

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Why It Matters: The boreal forest is one of the largest carbon sinks on Earth and plays a critical role in regulating global carbon dioxide levels. It’s home to a range of species, including wolves, lynx, and moose.

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Impact: Agricultural runoff, urban development, and climate change are reducing water flow and affecting this unique ecosystem.

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Impact: Agricultural runoff, urban development, and climate change are reducing water flow and affecting this unique ecosystem.

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Why It Matters: The Everglades is a major water source for much of southern Florida and home to many endangered species, including the Florida panther and American crocodile.

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Impact: Overfishing, pollution (especially plastic waste), and rising sea temperatures are major issues in this ecosystem. Coastal development also threatens marine habitats.

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Impact: Overfishing, pollution (especially plastic waste), and rising sea temperatures are major issues in this ecosystem. Coastal development also threatens marine habitats.

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Why It Matters: The Mediterranean Sea is one of the most biodiverse marine regions in the world, with many species found nowhere else. It's also crucial for the economies of surrounding countries through fishing and tourism.

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Impact: Climate change is causing glaciers in the Himalayas to melt at an accelerated rate, threatening water supplies for millions of people and altering ecosystems in surrounding areas.

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Impact: Climate change is causing glaciers in the Himalayas to melt at an accelerated rate, threatening water supplies for millions of people and altering ecosystems in surrounding areas.

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Why It Matters: These glaciers feed major rivers, such as the Ganges, Yangtze, and Indus, providing water to nearly a billion people. The melting also affects mountain biodiversity and increases the risk of landslides and floods.

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Impact: Deforestation, agricultural expansion, and fires (both natural and human-induced) are degrading this unique wetland ecosystem.

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Impact: Deforestation, agricultural expansion, and fires (both natural and human-induced) are degrading this unique wetland ecosystem.

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Why It Matters: The Pantanal is the world’s largest tropical wetland and home to rich biodiversity, including jaguars, capybaras, and giant otters. It also plays a vital role in water filtration and carbon sequestration.

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Peat swamp forests are important for carbon storage and regulating water levels. However, they are threatened by drainage for agriculture (especially palm oil plantations) and fires, often caused by land clearing.

Research topics: peatland degradation, carbon emissions, and the role of these ecosystems in climate regulation

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Mangrove Forests (e.g., Matang Mangrove Forest): 

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Mangrove Forests (e.g., Matang Mangrove Forest): 

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Mangroves are critical for coastal protection and act as breeding grounds for many marine species. They are under threat from coastal development, pollution, and deforestation.

Research topics: the role of mangroves in flood prevention, their importance to marine life, and how pollution is affecting them.

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Taman Negara - one of the oldest rainforests in the world

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Taman Negara - one of the oldest rainforests in the world

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Malaysia is home to some of the oldest rainforests in the world, which are rich in biodiversity. Deforestation, logging, and agricultural expansion (such as palm oil plantations) have severely impacted these ecosystems.

Research topics: biodiversity loss, habitat destruction, and conservation efforts.

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Arctic Tundra Biome - The search for permafrost

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Increased generation of waste and improper waste management continue to threaten the land and waters around the Galápagos. These threats relate directly to a large number of inhabitants and tourists and to new consumption patterns and lifestyles. Galápagos' species later inspired his theory of evolution.

Overfishing and illegal industrial fishing are serious threats to the islands' delicate marine ecosystem. They deplete commercial fish, destroy marine environments, and harm local communities whose livelihoods and health depend on fish.

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Malaysia's last protected rainforest: Taman Negara 🇲🇾

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Saving Malaysia's Mangroves (English subtitles)

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Peat swamp forest in the central west of Peninsular Malaysia, 60 L

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Why the Amazon Rainforest is So Important - 5 Key Reasons

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Importance of conserving Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world

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Congo rainforest in peril: Logging endangers vital ecosystem

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The MOST BIODIVERSE Marine Ecosystem on Planet Earth / Coral Triangle in Timor-Leste, Southeast Asia

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Explore the BOREAL FOREST Biome 🌲 Nature Ecology & Environment

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Lesson Boosters - Kids Science and History Videos

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What are the Everglades? | Learn about the Biodiversity and Ecological Importance of the Everglade

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Mediterranean Sea shows climate change's impact in real time | Focus on Europe

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Himalayan glaciers may lose 80% of ice by 2100: Report | WION Climate Tracker

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Wildfires burn 700,000 hectares of Pantanal wetland | DW News

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Polar vortexes, increased heat waves, and unpredictability of weather caused by ice loss are already causing significant damage to crops on which global food systems depend. This instability will continue to mean higher prices for you and growing crises for the world's most vulnerable.

4. Shipping

As ice melts, new shipping routes open up in the Arctic. These routes will be tempting time-savers, but incredibly dangerous. Imagine more shipwrecks or oil spills like the Exxon-Valdez in areas that are inaccessible to rescue or clean-up crews.

5. Wildlife

When there's less sea ice, animals that depend on it for survival must adapt or perish. Loss of ice and melting permafrost spells trouble for polar bears, walruses, arctic foxes, snowy owls, reindeer, and many other species. As they are affected, so too are the other species that depend on them, in addition to people. Wildlife and people are coming into more frequent contact - and often conflict - as wildlife encroach on Arctic communities, looking for refuge as their sea ice habitat disappears.

6. Permafrost

Arctic ice and permafrost-ground that is permanently frozen-store large amounts of methane, a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change. When it thaws, that methane is released, increasing the rate of warming. This, in turn, causes more ice and permafrost to thaw or melt, releasing more methane, causing more melting. As we lose more ice more quickly and see more rapid permafrost melt, we will start seeing the worst climate change predictions come true.

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Six ways loss of Arctic ice impacts everyone | Pages | WWF

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Polar vortexes, increased heat waves, and unpredictability of weather caused by ice loss are already causing significant damage to crops on which global food systems depend. This instability will continue to mean higher prices for you and growing crises for the world's most vulnerable. As ice melts, new shipping routes open up in the Arctic.

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The science of ice: investigating Arctic ice melt and its effect on marine life

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What melting sea ice means for life in the Arctic

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Arctic Tundra Biome - The search for permafrost

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Bangladesh: Living in the Sundarbans | SLICE

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heres a link to the Amazon rainforest.

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how do humans melt the Himalaya glaciers? 

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how do humans melt the Himalaya glaciers? 

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Glaciares, los grandes guardianes de la estabilidad del clima del planeta

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El derretimiento de los glaciares, fenómeno que se acentuó durante el siglo XX, nos está dejando un planeta sin hielo. La actividad humana es la mayor culpable con la emisión de dióxido de carbono y otros gases responsables del calentamiento terrestre.

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Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet

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A new NASA study shows that over the last 20 years, the atmosphere above the Amazon rainforest has been drying out, increasing the demand for water and leaving ecosystems vulnerable to fires and drought. It also shows that this increase in dryness is primarily the result of human activities.

Scientists at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, analyzed decades of ground and satellite data over the Amazon rainforest to track both how much moisture was in the atmosphere and how much moisture was needed to maintain the rainforest system.

"We observed that in the last two decades, there has been a significant increase in dryness in the atmosphere as well as in the atmospheric demand for water above the rainforest," said JPL's Armineh Barkhordarian, lead author of the study. "In comparing this trend to data from models that estimate climate variability over thousands of years, we determined that the change in atmospheric aridity is well beyond what would be expected from natural climate variability."

The image shows the decline of moisture in the air over the Amazon rainforest, particularly across the south and southeastern Amazon, during the dry season months - August through October - from 1987 to 2016. The measurements are shown in millibars. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech, NASA Earth Observatory
Larger view

So if it's not natural, what's causing it?

Barkhordarian said that elevated greenhouse gas levels are responsible for approximately half of the increased aridity. The rest is the result of ongoing human activity, most significantly, the burning of forests to clear land for agriculture and grazing. The combination of these activities is causing the Amazon's climate to warm.

When a forest burns, it releases particles called aerosols into the atmosphere - among them, black carbon, commonly referred to as soot. While bright-colored or translucent aerosols reflect radiation, darker aerosols absorb it. When the black carbon absorbs heat from the sun, it causes the atmosphere to warm; it can also interfere with cloud formation and, consequently, rainfall.

Why It Matters

The Amazon is the largest rainforest on Earth. When healthy, it absorbs billions of tons of carbon dioxide (CO ₂) a year through photosynthesis - the process plants use to convert CO ₂, energy and water into food. By removing CO ₂ from the atmosphere, the Amazon helps to keep temperatures down and regulate climate.

But it's a delicate system that's highly sensitive to drying and warming trends.

Trees and plants need water for photosynthesis and to cool themselves down when they get too warm. They pull in water from the soil through their roots and release water vapor through pores on their leaves into the atmosphere, where it cools the air and eventually rises to form clouds. The clouds produce rain that replenishes the water in the soil, allowing the cycle to continue. Rainforests generate as much as 80 percent of their own rain, especially during the dry season.

But when this cycle is disrupted by an increase in dry air, for instance, a new cycle is set into motion - one with significant implications, particularly in the southeastern Amazon, where trees can experience more than four to five months of dry season.

"It's a matter of supply and demand. With the increase in temperature and drying of the air above the trees, the trees need to transpire to cool themselves and to add more water vapor into the atmosphere. But the soil doesn't have extra water for the trees to pull in," said JPL's Sassan Saatchi, co-author of the study. "Our study shows that the demand is increasing, the supply is decreasing and if this continues, the forest may no longer be able to sustain itself."

Scientists observed that the most significant and systematic drying of the atmosphere is in the southeast region, where the bulk of deforestation and agricultural expansion is happening. But they also found episodic drying in the northwest Amazon, an area that typically has no dry season. Normally always wet, the northwest has suffered severe droughts over the past two decades, a further indication of the entire forest's vulnerability to increasing temperatures and dry air.

If this trend continues over the long term and the rainforest reaches the point where it can no longer function properly, many of the trees and the species that live within the rainforest ecosystem may not be able to survive. As the trees die, particularly the larger and older ones, they release CO ₂ into the atmosphere; and the fewer trees there are, the less CO ₂ the Amazon region would be able to absorb - meaning we'd essentially lose an important element of climate regulation.

The study, "A Recent Systematic Increase in Vapor Pressure Deficit Over Tropical South America," was published in October in Scientific Reports. The science team used data from NASA's Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) instrument aboard the Terra satellite.

More information on AIRS can be found here:

News Media Contact

Arielle Samuelson
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
818-354-0307
arielle.a.samuelson@jpl.nasa.gov

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
national aeronautics and space administration

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
By Esprit Smith,
NASA's Earth Science News Team

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Human Activities Are Drying Out the Amazon: NASA Study - Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A new NASA study shows that over the last 20 years, the atmosphere above the Amazon rainforest has been drying out, increasing the demand for water and leaving ecosystems vulnerable to fires and drought. It also shows that this increase in dryness is primarily the result of human activities.

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WWF Australia: Info about the Great Barrier Reef

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WWF Australia: Info about the Great Barrier Reef

# data[].attributes.body
This website has loads of information about the Great Barrier Reef, for example the human impact on the Great Barrier Reef

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A new NASA study shows that over the last 20 years, the atmosphere above the Amazon rainforest has been drying out, increasing the demand for water and leaving ecosystems vulnerable to fires and drought. It also shows that this increase in dryness is primarily the result of human activities.

Scientists at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, analyzed decades of ground and satellite data over the Amazon rainforest to track both how much moisture was in the atmosphere and how much moisture was needed to maintain the rainforest system.

"We observed that in the last two decades, there has been a significant increase in dryness in the atmosphere as well as in the atmospheric demand for water above the rainforest," said JPL's Armineh Barkhordarian, lead author of the study. "In comparing this trend to data from models that estimate climate variability over thousands of years, we determined that the change in atmospheric aridity is well beyond what would be expected from natural climate variability."

The image shows the decline of moisture in the air over the Amazon rainforest, particularly across the south and southeastern Amazon, during the dry season months - August through October - from 1987 to 2016. The measurements are shown in millibars. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech, NASA Earth Observatory
Larger view

So if it's not natural, what's causing it?

Barkhordarian said that elevated greenhouse gas levels are responsible for approximately half of the increased aridity. The rest is the result of ongoing human activity, most significantly, the burning of forests to clear land for agriculture and grazing. The combination of these activities is causing the Amazon's climate to warm.

When a forest burns, it releases particles called aerosols into the atmosphere - among them, black carbon, commonly referred to as soot. While bright-colored or translucent aerosols reflect radiation, darker aerosols absorb it. When the black carbon absorbs heat from the sun, it causes the atmosphere to warm; it can also interfere with cloud formation and, consequently, rainfall.

Why It Matters

The Amazon is the largest rainforest on Earth. When healthy, it absorbs billions of tons of carbon dioxide (CO ₂) a year through photosynthesis - the process plants use to convert CO ₂, energy and water into food. By removing CO ₂ from the atmosphere, the Amazon helps to keep temperatures down and regulate climate.

But it's a delicate system that's highly sensitive to drying and warming trends.

Trees and plants need water for photosynthesis and to cool themselves down when they get too warm. They pull in water from the soil through their roots and release water vapor through pores on their leaves into the atmosphere, where it cools the air and eventually rises to form clouds. The clouds produce rain that replenishes the water in the soil, allowing the cycle to continue. Rainforests generate as much as 80 percent of their own rain, especially during the dry season.

But when this cycle is disrupted by an increase in dry air, for instance, a new cycle is set into motion - one with significant implications, particularly in the southeastern Amazon, where trees can experience more than four to five months of dry season.

"It's a matter of supply and demand. With the increase in temperature and drying of the air above the trees, the trees need to transpire to cool themselves and to add more water vapor into the atmosphere. But the soil doesn't have extra water for the trees to pull in," said JPL's Sassan Saatchi, co-author of the study. "Our study shows that the demand is increasing, the supply is decreasing and if this continues, the forest may no longer be able to sustain itself."

Scientists observed that the most significant and systematic drying of the atmosphere is in the southeast region, where the bulk of deforestation and agricultural expansion is happening. But they also found episodic drying in the northwest Amazon, an area that typically has no dry season. Normally always wet, the northwest has suffered severe droughts over the past two decades, a further indication of the entire forest's vulnerability to increasing temperatures and dry air.

If this trend continues over the long term and the rainforest reaches the point where it can no longer function properly, many of the trees and the species that live within the rainforest ecosystem may not be able to survive. As the trees die, particularly the larger and older ones, they release CO ₂ into the atmosphere; and the fewer trees there are, the less CO ₂ the Amazon region would be able to absorb - meaning we'd essentially lose an important element of climate regulation.

The study, "A Recent Systematic Increase in Vapor Pressure Deficit Over Tropical South America," was published in October in Scientific Reports. The science team used data from NASA's Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) instrument aboard the Terra satellite.

More information on AIRS can be found here:

News Media Contact

Arielle Samuelson
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
818-354-0307
arielle.a.samuelson@jpl.nasa.gov

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
national aeronautics and space administration

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
By Esprit Smith,
NASA's Earth Science News Team

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Human Activities Are Drying Out the Amazon: NASA Study - Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A new NASA study shows that over the last 20 years, the atmosphere above the Amazon rainforest has been drying out, increasing the demand for water and leaving ecosystems vulnerable to fires and drought. It also shows that this increase in dryness is primarily the result of human activities.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Antarctica is the highest, whitest, driest, coldest and windiest continent on Earth. It's so cold that creatures often retreat to the sea to warm up. Add 24 hours of darkness during the winter months, and it's a wonder anything lives there. Yet, Antarctica has thriving ecosystems on land and in the water.

An ecosystem is an interacting system made up of animals, plants, microorganisms and the physical and chemical environment they live in. Antarctica has marine ecosystems and terrestrial (land-based) ecosystems. Ecosystems rely on food webs - where energy and nutrients are passed from one living thing to another.

New Zealand ecosystem research

Two of the three research themes supported by Antarctica New Zealand involve protection, conservation and management of Antarctic ecosystems. Scientists study large marine creatures like Adélie penguins and Weddell seals, but they are also interested in really small benthic marine organisms.

Knowledge of megafauna like seals is crucial for understanding the ecosystem for its own sake and for understanding climate change. The top predators are like the gauge on the petrol tank.
Dr Regina Eisert

Scientists also research what lives on the land. Antarctica is a polar desert. Terrestrial life is limited to the very small. There are no trees or shrubs, so vegetation is mainly mosses, lichens and algae. Springtails are one of the largest living terrestrial organisms - however, these invertebrates are only 1-3 mm in length! Mites and microscopic organisms like nematodes and bacteria live in the soil.

Adaptations for life in the freezer

Animals and plants that live in Antarctica have special adaptations that allow them to survive in the extreme conditions.

Penguins have thick, windproof and waterproof feathers. Penguins, whales and seals have thick layers of fat called blubber. Blubber acts as an insulator, helping to keep the animals warm. Antarctic animals often have small extremities (flippers and feet) to reduce heat loss.

Nature of science

Plants are small and close to the ground to help protect them from fierce winds and dehydration. Algae can live in spaces between sandstone rocks where moisture and light are available. Lichens can carry out photosynthesis at very, very low temperatures and can survive dry periods by becoming dormant. Some invertebrates intentionally dehydrate to avoid damage caused by freezing.

Humans, ecosystems and adaptations

People living in Antarctica become part of the ecosystem. In the past, we weren't too worried by this. Adventurers took pack animals to carry goods. Rubbish, huts and fuel spills were left behind when boats arrived to take explorers off the continent and back home. It's very different today. People living in Antarctica do their best to minimise their impact on the environment.

Nigel walks along the tracks made by others while he crosses the Dry Valleys and carries a special bottle to store his urine to ensure he leaves nothing behind.

One way Nigel and those living at Scott Base cannot avoid changing the landscape is with the buildings and transportation. Unlike the native plants and animals, humans have precious few adaptations for extreme weather living and travel! As an introduced species, we depend on well insulated clothing, buildings and vehicles to survive and navigate the icy continent.

Activity idea

Activity idea

Citizen science projects

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Antarctica is the highest, whitest, driest, coldest and windiest continent on Earth. It's so cold that creatures often retreat to the sea to warm up. Add 24 hours of darkness during the winter months, and it's a wonder anything lives there. Yet, Antarctica has thriving ecosystems on land and in the water.

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Arctic tundra is located in the northern hemisphere, encircling the north pole and extending south to the coniferous forests of the taiga. The arctic is known for its cold, desert-like conditions. The growing season ranges from 50 to 60 days.

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Arctic tundra is located in the northern hemisphere, encircling the north pole and extending south to the coniferous forests of the taiga. The arctic is known for its cold, desert-like conditions. The growing season ranges from 50 to 60 days.

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International Boreal Forest Research Association (IBFRA)

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About Boreal Forests — International Boreal Forest Research Association (IBFRA)

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Boreal forest ecosystems have evolved under the constraints imposed by a short growing season and severe winters during which snow cover may last for several months. About one-third of their extent is underlain by permafrost. As noted above, most boreal landscapes are characterized by a low diversity of tree species, of which gymnosperms such as Abies, Larix, Pinus, and Picea species usually dominate, with varying proportions of angiosperm Populus, Betula, and Alnus species. This low tree diversity belies the thousands of species of living organisms that thrive within boreal stands.

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The Curious Ecosystems of Antarctica | Continent 7: Antarctica

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Learn about the Eastern Himalayas region, as well as the threats it faces, what WWF is doing, and how you can help.

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vhttps://wwf.org.au/what-we-do/oceans/great-barrier-reef

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< Return to campaign The Mediterranean is currently the most overfished from all the Europe’s seas. Overfishing in this region began around the ’70s, when fishing effort increased considerably thanks to technological developments that allowed fleets to fish farther, deeper and find catches more easi…

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Skip to main content

1. UNECE

2. Forests

Boreal Forests

Boreal Forests in the UNECE region

Boreal forests, also known as Taiga, circle the Northern Hemisphere to form a ring around the North Pole. They are part of the largest terrestrial biome, accounting for 27% of the world’s total forest area. The Russian Federation, Canada, and the United States account for the majority (93%) of the global boreal forest area.

Although boreal forests grow more slowly on average than their temperate and tropical counterparts, together with their soils and peatlands, they form the largest terrestrial carbon storehouse on earth. Boreal forests shelter a distinctive biodiversity system including iconic wildlife species such as wild forest reindeer, wolverine, lynx, beaver, brown bear and the Siberian tiger. They also provide essential products and services and secure the livelihoods of many rural and indigenous communities.

In short: they are crucial for sustainable development in the entire boreal region and beyond.

UNECE/FAO unite scientists and policymakers through a dedicated Team of Specialists on Boreal Forests. Find out more information about their work here.

Events on boreal forests:

The science and policy of wildfires in the boreal biome, International Boreal Forest Research Association (IBFRA) Conference, 20 August 2021.

Snapshot on Boreal forests' contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals, Regional Forum on Sustainable Development in the UNECE region, 15 March 2021. Watch the recording in English and Russian.

Resources

Infographic on Boreal Forests and Climate Change

Communications note "Why boreal forests matter - the role of boreal forests in sustainable development"

News release "Living with fire in the boreal biome", 23 August 2021

International Boreal Forest Research Association

Mission

Executive Secretary

Organizational Structure

Vacancies

Internship Programme

Statistical Database

Evaluations

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Boreal forests, also known as Taiga, circle the Northern Hemisphere to form a ring around the North Pole. They are part of the largest terrestrial biome, accounting for 27% of the world’s total forest area. The Russian Federation, Canada, and the United States account for the majority (93%) of the g…

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Much of the ocean around Antarctica is ice-covered for half the year, and near freezing temperature all year. Yet the sea here is full of life, from microscopic algae to shrimplike krill to large predators that depend on them. This is one of the most abundant oceans on earth, and its cycle of production is tied to the change in seasons.

Each winter in Antarctica, as the sun disappears and temperatures plunge, ice forms on the sea and extends outward from the continent to cover large areas of ocean. The ice is important to the ecosystem, because microscopic, single-celled algae-the same kinds that drift in the open water as phytoplankton-are trapped inside the ice as it forms and also grow on the ice's underside. Young krill congregate under the ice all winter, and the algae provides critical food for them when there is not enough light to produce food in the open water. Instead of being a hardship, winter ice lets the krill survive until spring.

In spring, the sea ice melts, releasing the trapped algae into the water. The algae-now living freely as phytoplankton-find all that they need to grow: open water, lots of nutrients (compounds like plant fertilizer, stirred up from deeper water by wind and ocean circulation), and intense sunshine.

What happens next is a bloom, or population explosion, of phytoplankton in the water. Animals, especially krill, consume this abundant food supply, and multiply to astounding levels. Some scientists have estimated that the krill in the ocean around Antarctica weigh more than the entire world's human population. The krill, rich in protein and fat, are food for large numbers of animals at the top of the food chain, including penguins, seals, and whales.

Scientists studying the Antarctic marine ecosystem now know that its high productivity is confined to the edge of the sea ice and a few other areas, rather than everywhere in the Southern Ocean. And that its high productivity may be changing, as the Antarctic climate warms and there is less and less sea ice.

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Antarctic animals all make their living in the ocean, because the land is too cold, dry, and dark for plants and animals. Antarctica's coastal seas are especially important because they shelter an abundant ecosystem, supporting large predators such as penguins, seals and whales.

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Storming Antarctica (Full Episode) | Continent 7: Antarctica

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Have a look in our small lexicon, and discover which animals and plants are found in the Pantanal. Altogether 650 bird species and 156 mammals as well as 98 reptile species live here.

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One of the most significant threats to reefs is pollution. Land-based runoff and pollutant discharges can result from dredging, coastal development, agricultural and deforestation activities, and sewage treatment plant operations. This runoff may contain sediments, nutrients, chemicals, insecticides, oil, and debris.

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Canada's boreal forest is central to the country's natural environment, history, culture and economy. Canada respects and looks after its boreal forest in many ways, including by setting aside legally protected areas, conducting scientific research and monitoring the state of the forests.

Learn about laws and practices that ensure sustainable forest management in Canada's boreal forest, current research into the health of the boreal forest and why our boreal forest is vital to Canada and the world.

Canada's laws protect the boreal forest and ensure its sustainability

About 94% of Canada's forests are on publicly owned land, which enables the government to regulate harvesting practices and apply land-use planning through legislation and other policies.

Sustainable forest management ensures that Canada's forests are healthy, safe and thriving. It is a way of managing forests with the goal of balancing the environmental, social and economic benefits they provide over time.

Parks and protected areas maintain boreal forest landscapes, safeguard their biodiversity and provide key information for scientific research.

Harvesting in Canada's boreal and other forests is done sustainably

Many harvesting practices in the boreal forest now imitate natural disturbances. These practices, which are based on scientific research, are meant to better mimic the effect of natural forces - such as fire and insect outbreaks - that help the forest renew itself. Such harvesting practices also address other forest management goals.

Provincial laws require that all areas harvested on public land be either replanted or allowed to naturally grow back to set standards.

Harvesting trees does not cause deforestation: harvested areas regrow. An area with very young trees is still a forest. The term "deforestation" refers to land that has been cleared of trees and permanently converted to another use.

Canada's deforestation rate is one of the lowest in the world and has been declining for 20 years.

Scientific research on the boreal forest informs maps, management planning and policies

A large-scale review of scientific literature about the boreal zone was recently completed by Canadian Forest Service researchers (link to new boreal synthesis papers) Decision-makers can use this and other research to inform policy and planning.

A map of the boreal zone in North America was recently created by Canadian Forest Service researchers using the most current information available, consistent criteria and well-defined terms. This map, and its related statistics, is the first update of the boreal zone in nearly 40 years. The map gives scientists, governments and others a common tool for discussing the boreal region, and serves as a scientific baseline for defining the boreal zone in North America.

The boreal forest is important to Canada and the planet

Canada's boreal forest (270 million hectares) stores carbon, purifies the air and water, and regulates the climate. Because a large portion of the world's boreal zone lies in Canada (28% or 552 million hectares), this country's boreal forest affects the health of the environment worldwide. Careful management of these forests therefore benefits both Canada and the world.

Canada's boreal forest creates jobs for Canadians, and communities in the boreal zone rely heavily on the forest sector for economic stability.

Boreal forests are culturally and economically significant to Canada's Aboriginal peoples. 70% of Aboriginal communities in the country are located in forested regions.

Canada's boreal forest, and more broadly the boreal zone, is crucial to the national economy because of the available timber and non-timber products, mineral and energy resources, and hydroelectric potential of regional rivers. The boreal forest provides food and renewable raw materials to Canadians.

Canada's boreal forest offers unique tourism and recreational opportunities, which contribute to the local and national economies.

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Canada's boreal forest is central to the country's natural environment, history, culture and economy. Canada respects and looks after its boreal forest in many ways, including by setting aside legally protected areas, conducting scientific research and monitoring the state of the forests.

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The Shrinking of Himalayan Glaciers - World Water Atlas

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A Platform for Action, sharing all your compelling narratives on water.

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What's below the tip of the iceberg? - Camille Seaman

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The Mediterranean is the top tourism destination worldwide. Sunbathers and swimmers flock to the sea during summer holidays.

Idyllic though it may seem, all is not well. The Mediterranean is the world's most overfished sea, with the highest percentage of unsustainably harvested fish populations, according to a recent report from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Increasing human activity makes Mediterranean marine ecosystems some of the most imperiled in the world.

Of all the human threats to the Mediterranean, overfishing, bottom trawling and ocean plastic pollution are the most destructive. They are the worst offenders, trashing the world's most popular sea.

Overfishing in the Mediterranean Sea began around the 1970s with the development of technology that allowed fleets to fish farther, deeper and with greater intensity. As a result, 90 percent of Mediterranean fish populations are now harvested in excess of science-based recommendations. The most commercially important species, including European hake, red mullet and anglerfish, are exploited 10 times over suggested limits.

MedReAct, an environmental organization protecting Mediterranean marine biodiversity, blames political inaction, inadequate control measures and weak enforcement for the critical state of fishing. Oceana holds the European Union accountable for this dire situation. Taken together, the Mediterranean EU member states catch the most fish in the region, and have the biggest and most powerful fleet.

In the face of this crisis, fisheries ministers from most Mediterranean countries gathered in 2017 in Malta, where they signed the MedFish4Ever Declaration, a 10-year strategy for cooperative management of the region's fisheries.

"I hope that this declaration will come to be seen as a turning point - for a bright future for fishermen, coastal communities and fishing resources alike," said Karmenu Vella, Commissioner for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, in a press release from the European Commission.

Bottom trawling is another widespread problem in the Mediterranean. Large, heavy nets are towed along the seafloor, acting like ocean bulldozers that can wipe out everything in their way.

"Trawling affects a lot of species like a Hoover and this has an impact on us, small-scale fishers," a 34-year old fisher from Malta told Oceana. "I see a lot of difference in the past 10 years," he said, "and I think there needs to be something done before it's too late."

Trawling can cause irreversible damage to sensitive habitats like deep-sea coral reefs, gorgonian gardens and sponge grounds. It rips up coral and sponge bed habitats that fish and shellfish depend on for breeding, spawning and nurseries. This can significantly hamper the recovery of depleted fish stocks.

Trawling is also wasteful. Scientists estimate that it generates as much as half of all discarded fish and marine life globally. Most unwanted catches are juveniles that die in nets and are tossed overboard. Undersized hake and red mullet, which live and feed near the bottom, can make up 60 percent of bycatch for Mediterranean trawlers. These fish will never have a chance to grow and reproduce, risking damage to the population.

Industrial trawlers also cause habitat loss. Corals, sponges and seagrasses are particularly vulnerable. Some Mediterranean seagrass beds, which act as nursery grounds for many fish species, have already disappeared.

In 2016, Oceana successfully contributed to banning bottom trawling in the Strait of Sicily, between Malta, Italy and Tunisia, and in another region between Mallorca and Menorca in the Balearic Islands. The Western Mediterranean Sea should be next. Oceana in Europe is now calling on fisheries ministers in Spain, France and Italy to ban bottom trawling to at least 100 meters deep, and all year-round to protect fish recovery and vulnerable marine life.

Between 1,000 and 3,000 metric tons of plastic are floating in the Mediterranean Sea, according to a 2015 study by researchers from the University of Cádiz in Spain. That's comparable to the level of plastic swirling in the subtropical ocean gyres, according to the study, where debris accumulates at the center of spinning currents of water.

"The Mediterranean shows one of the highest levels of plastic pollution in the world," Andrés Cózar, the leader of the study, told Dive Magazine.

Densely populated coasts, a high influx of tourists and increasing maritime traffic are responsible for most of the floating plastic. Plastic accounts for up to 95 percent of the trash collected on shorelines, the ocean surface and sea floor, according to the United Nations Environment Program.

Oceana has found plastics in the deepest and darkest areas of the sea. On one research expedition, Oceana scientists found single-use plastic products at 1,000 meters - their underwater robot's maximum depth.

Marine litter was the primary focus at the international Our Ocean conference, held in Malta in 2017. Governments made a number of pledges to reduce the negative impacts of plastic waste. The conference also mobilized the business community.

Coca-Cola, the largest beverage company in the world, announced that its consumer packaging will be entirely recyclable in the next seven years. Sky, a European media giant, launched the Sky Ocean Rescue campaign, with the aim of educating the public about ocean plastic pollution. These and other ambitious solutions presented in Malta generated 437 commitments, €7.2 billion in financial promises and pledges to protect an extra 2.5 million square kilometers of marine habitats. Time will tell if these promises are met.

The Mediterranean, once healthy and thriving, is better known today as the world's most overfished sea. Overfishing, bottom trawling and plastic pollution won't disappear in a single day. Even enthusiastic solutions take time.

"We know the situation, we have the solutions," said Lasse Gustavsson, the executive director Oceana in Europe. "All we're missing is political action."

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Overfishing and pollution have trashed the Mediterranean

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The Mediterranean is the top tourism destination worldwide. Sunbathers and swimmers flock to the sea during summer holidays. Idyllic though it may seem, all is not well. The Mediterranean is the world's most overfished sea, with the highest percentage of unsustainably harvested fish populations, according to a recent report from the United Nations Food and Agriculture ...

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Overview

Boreal forest is a conifer or conifer-hardwood forest type occurring on moist to dry sites characterized by species dominant in the Canadian boreal forest. It typically occupies upland sites along shores of the Great Lakes, on islands in the Great Lakes, and locally inland. The community occurs north of the climatic tension zone primarily on sand dunes, glacial lakeplains, and thin soil over bedrock or cobble. Soils of sand and sandy loam are typically moderately acid to neutral, but heavier soils and more acid conditions are common. Proximity to the Great Lakes results in high levels of windthrow and climatic conditions characterized by low summer temperatures and high levels of humidity, snowfall, and summer fog and mist. Additional important forms of natural disturbance include fire and insect epidemics.

Rank

Global Rank: GU - Unrankable

State Rank: S3 - Vulnerable

County Distribution Map

Landscape Context

Boreal forest typically occupies upland sites, often containing local wet depressions, along shores of the Great Lakes, on islands in the Great Lakes (e.g., Isle Royale, Drummond Island, and Beaver Island), and locally inland (e.g., areas within the Negaunee-Michigamme Highlands of the western Upper Peninsula). Coastal boreal forests occur primarily on sand dunes, in glacial lakeplains, and on thin soil over bedrock and cobble of both alkaline and acidic rock types. Farther inland, moderately to poorly drained lakeplain and outwash deposits occasionally support these forests. Within lakeplain, boreal forest is often found in areas with poorly expressed dune and swale topography. Along shorelines, boreal forest often shares an abrupt boundary with coastal communities such as sand and gravel beach, limestone cobble shore, volcanic cobble shore, sandstone cobble shore, limestone bedrock lakeshore, volcanic bedrock lakeshore, sandstone bedrock lakeshore, granite bedrock lakeshore, Great Lakes marsh, open dunes, and Great Lakes barrens. Farther inland boreal forest gradually grades to mesic northern forest, dry-mesic northern forest, or less frequently, rich conifer swamp, granite bedrock glade, limestone bedrock glade, volcanic bedrock glade, or alvar. Coastal boreal forests on the mainland often form narrow, linear bands along the shoreline while archipelagic boreal forests more frequently occupy broader areas of variable shape along island shorelines, especially along the southwestern portions of islands. Nearshore boreal forests occupy peninsulas, former embayments, and coves. Topography of boreal forests ranges widely from gently sloping on lakeplain systems to steep topography on high dune fields, especially where aeolian features have been deposited on moraines.

Soils

Sand, loamy sand, and sandy loam soils are typically moderately acid to neutral, but heavier soils (e.g., silty loam and clay loams) and more acid and alkaline conditions are also found. Boreal forests that occur over bedrock or cobble are often characterized by shallow organic soils or mor humus. Where conifers dominate the canopy, the litter layer is typically more acidic than the underlying organic and mineral soils. Water-retaining capacity of the soils is variable with sandy soils typically being well-drained and soils with heavier texture, such as loams, ranging from moderately drained to poorly drained. Inland boreal forest systems usually occur on moderately to poorly drained lakeplain or outwash.

Natural Processes

Proximity to the Great Lakes results in the moderation of the microclimate of boreal forests with higher humidity, greater snowfall, lower summer temperatures, warmer winter temperatures, and greater summer fog and mist compared to the adjacent inland areas. Natural disturbance regimes are characterized by frequent windthrow, less frequent insect epidemics, and infrequent catastrophic fire. Because boreal forest frequently occurs near the Great Lakes shoreline and thin soils over rock prevent trees from rooting deeply, windthrow and snap-off rates are high; balsam fir is especially susceptible to windthrow and breakage. Spruce budworm ( Choristoneura fumiferana) defoliates both spruce ( Picea glauca and P. mariana) and balsam fir ( Abies balsamea) but tends to be more detrimental to the latter. Interactions of blowdowns, insects, and climate (i.e., droughts) influence fire regimes of boreal forests. Infrequent catastrophic fires are an important disturbance factor, especially in inland boreal forests. Estimations for fire return interval for Canadian and Minnesotan boreal forests range from 50 to 150 years. Given the prevailing landscape position of most Great Lakes boreal forests (e.g., along the shoreline), the fire return interval for these systems was probably greater than 500 years, with fire cycles slightly shorter for inland sites. Large-scale disturbance events in boreal forests can lead to the development of even-aged stands, while small-scale disturbance factors can lead to uneven-aged systems.

Vegetation

The boreal forest flora is circumboreal in distribution with a high degree of floristic homogeneity from site to site. Most species within boreal forests bloom in early spring or summer. The canopy of boreal forests is characterized by a prevalence of conical-shaped evergreens, which often form a closed canopy. The dense tree coverage often results in a scattered understory and sparse ground cover due to the low levels of light transmitted through the canopy and dense sod formed by the extensive network of the shallowly rooted trees. The canopy is dominated by balsam fir ( Abies balsamea), white spruce ( Picea glauca), and northern white-cedar ( Thuja occidentalis), often with lesser amounts of paper birch ( Betula papyrifera) and quaking aspen ( Populus tremuloides). Dominance shifts toward birch and aspen following fires, large blowdowns, and/or spruce budworm outbreaks, and back toward conifers in the absence of such disturbances. Northern white-cedar dominance is most prevalent in sand dunes and on thin soils over neutral to alkaline bedrock or glacial deposits, such as in the Straits of Mackinac. White spruce is more prevalent on drier sites while balsam fir and cedar are more common on wetter sites; all three of these conifer species increase in importance with time since fire, especially cedar. Additional canopy associates include white pine ( Pinus strobus), balsam poplar ( Populus balsamifera), and hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis), and less frequently black spruce ( Picea mariana), red pine ( Pinus resinosa), jack pine ( Pinus banksiana), and red maple ( Acer rubrum). Inland boreal forests are often characterized by an increased canopy component of white pine, hemlock, and deciduous species. Mountain maple ( Acer spicatum), striped maple ( A. pensylvanicum), American mountain ash ( Sorbus americana), and mountain ash ( S. decora) are characteristic of the subcanopy and understory. Where aspen and/or birch dominate the canopy, conifers are prevalent in the subcanopy and understory. Additional understory or tall shrub species include round-leaved dogwood ( Cornus rugosa), tag alder ( Alnus incana), and soapberry ( Shepherdia canadensis). Characteristic low shrubs include American fly honeysuckle ( Lonicera canadensis), bearberry ( Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), Canadian yew ( Taxus canadensis), prickly gooseberry ( Ribes cynosbati), Canada blueberry ( Vaccinium myrtilloides), bush honeysuckle ( Diervilla lonicera), common juniper ( Juniperus communis), thimbleberry ( Rubus parviflorus), and dwarf raspberry ( R. pubescens). Ground flora includes species from both mesic northern forest and northern swamp communities such as red baneberry ( Actaea rubra), wild sarsaparilla ( Aralia nudicaulis), sedges ( Carex deweyana and C. eburnea), bluebead lily ( Clintonia borealis), goldthread ( Coptis trifolia), bunchberry ( Cornus canadensis), woodfern ( Dryopteris spp.), large-leaved aster ( Eurybia macrophylla), fragrant bedstraw ( Galium triflorum), Menzies' rattlesnake plantain ( Goodyera oblongifolia), creeping rattlesnake plantain ( G. repens), wintergreen ( Gaultheria procumbens), twinflower ( Linnaea borealis), Canada mayflower ( Maianthemum canadense), false mayflower ( M. trifolium), naked miterwort ( Mitella nuda), partridge berry ( Mitchella repens), northern wood sorrel ( Oxalis acetosella), bracken fern ( Pteridium aquilinum), gay wings ( Polygala paucifolia), rose twisted stalk ( Streptopus lanceolatus), starflower ( Trientalis borealis), and violets ( Viola spp.). Ram's head lady's-slipper ( Cypripedium arietinum, state special concern) and dwarf lake iris ( Iris lacustris, federal/state threatened) are uncommon, but characteristic. Mosses and usnea lichens are often abundant due to favorable, moist conditions. Clubmosses, such as stiff clubmoss ( Spinulum annotinum), running ground pine ( Lycopodium clavatum), and ground pine ( Dendrolycopodium obscurum), are often locally abundant, with ground pine more common following fire. Mosses, liverworts, usnea lichens, and saprophytic fungi often are common due to favorable, moist conditions.

For information about plant species, visit the Michigan Flora website.

Plant Lists

Graminoids

sedges (Carex deweyana and C. eburnea)

blue wild-rye (Elymus glaucus)

false melic (Schizachne purpurascens)

Forbs

Ferns

wood ferns (Dryopteris spp.)

oak fern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris)

bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum)

Fern Allies

ground-pines (Dendrolycopodium dendroideum and D. obscurum)

shining clubmoss (Huperzia lucidula)

running ground-pine (Lycopodium clavatum)

stiff clubmoss (Spinulum annotinum)

Lichens

usnea lichens (Usnea spp.)

Mosses

Shrubs

Trees

Noteworthy Animals

Selective browsing by moose in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan can result in the alteration of species composition, community structure, and ultimately forest successional patterns of boreal forests. On sites with spruce and balsam fir, moose preferentially browse on balsam fir, retarding fir vertical growth, limiting fir abundance, and imparting a competitive advantage to spruce. As a predominantly coastal system, Michigan boreal forest and associated communities provide critical feeding, roosting, and perching habitat for migrating shorebirds, waterfowl, and songbirds in the spring. The majority of shrubs found within boreal forest have fleshy fruit, an important food source for birds such as grosbeak, crossbill, warblers, and white-throated sparrow. Paleontologists believe that mastodons ( Mammut americanum, extinct) were associated with spruce-dominated forests and that spruce was a dietary staple.

Rare Plants

Calypso bulbosa (calypso orchid, state threatened)

Carex concinna (beauty sedge, state special concern)

Cypripedium arietinum (ram's head lady's-slipper, state special concern)

Disporum trachycarpum (northern fairy bells, state threatened)

Iris lacustris (dwarf lake iris, federal/state threatened)

Luzula parviflora (small-flowered woodrush, state threatened)

Phacelia franklinii (Franklin's phacelia, state threatened)

Piperia unalascensis (Alaska orchid, state special concern)

Pterospora andromedea (pine-drops, state threatened)

Viburnum edule (squashberry or mooseberry, state threatened)

Viola epipsila (northern palustrine violet or marsh violet, state threatened)

Rare Animals

Accipiter gentilis (northern goshawk, state special concern)

Alces alces (moose, state threatened)

Canis lupus (gray wolf, state threatened)

Falcipennis canadensis (spruce grouse, state special concern)

Falco columbarius (merlin, state threatened)

Haliaeetus leucocephalus (bald eagle, state threatened)

Lynx canadensis (lynx, state endangered)

Pandion haliaetus (osprey, state threatened)

Picoides arcticus (black-backed woodpecker, state special concern)

Polygonia gracilis (hoary comma, state special concern)

Proserpinus flavofasciata (yellow-banded day-sphinx, state special concern)

Pseudacris triseriata maculata (boreal chorus frog, state special concern)

Sistrurus c. catenatus (eastern massasauga, federal candidate species and state special concern)

Sorex fumeus (smoky shrew, state special concern)

Vallonia gracilicosta albula (land snail, state special concern)

Biodiversity Management Considerations

As a predominantly coastal system, boreal forest and associated communities provide critical feeding, roosting, and perching habitat for migrating shorebirds, waterfowl, and songbirds in the spring. Numerous rare and unique species are associated with boreal forest. When the primary conservation objective is to maintain biodiversity in boreal forests, the best management is to leave large tracts unharvested and allow natural processes (e.g., windthrow, insect defoliation, and fire) to operate unhindered and stochastically generate a range of successional stages. It is crucial to allow dead and dying wood to remain within these systems to become snags, stumps, and fallen logs. Within areas managed solely for biodiversity, resource practitioners should refrain from salvage harvesting following fire, wind, and insect disturbance. Salvage logging, especially following fire, can severely diminish nutrient pools and site productivity in addition to reducing structural heterogeneity.

Chronically high deer densities over the last half-century (or more) have altered tree recruitment, community structure, and floristic composition of Great Lakes forests. Woody plant species unpalatable to deer or tolerant of browsing (e.g., aspens, balsam fir, and red maple) have increased, while species intolerant of deer browsing have decreased (e.g., cedar, hemlock, white pine, yellow birch, and Canadian yew). Reducing deer browse pressure on cedar is a special concern in the Straits of Mackinac, where cedar serves as a canopy dominant.

Currently, logging, shoreline development, and excessive browsing by deer are the primary threats to boreal forests. Few invasive species are presently established in boreal forest but instead pose a potential future threat. Monitoring and control efforts to detect and remove invasive species before they become well established is critical to the long-term viability of the community. Particularly aggressive invasive species that may threaten boreal forest diversity and structure include garlic mustard ( Alliaria petiolata), glossy buckthorn ( Frangula alnus), Dame's rocket ( Hesperis matronalis), common buckthorn ( Rhamnus cathartica), multiflora rose ( Rosa multiflora), autumn olive ( Elaeagnus umbellata), Eurasian honeysuckles ( Lonicera morrowii, L. tatarica, and L. x bella), multiflora rose ( Rosa multiflora), and Norway maple ( Acer platanoides).

Variation

Following disturbance, boreal forests are characterized by an increased canopy component of early-successional species such as aspen and paper birch. Inland boreal forests typically have more white pine, hemlock, and deciduous species in the canopy compared to coastal boreal forests. Dominance by northern white-cedar is most prevalent on sand dunes and thin soils over neutral to alkaline bedrock or glacial deposits. Coastal boreal forests occurring along the mainland often form narrow, linear bands while archipelagic boreal forests often occupy broader areas of variable shape along island shorelines.

Places to Visit

Cap's Cabin and Waugoshance Point, Wilderness State Park, Emmet Co.

Isle Royale National Park, Keweenaw Co.

Keweenaw Point, Baraga State Forest Management Unit, Keweenaw Co.

Lighthouse Point Boreal Forest (Bois Blanc Island), Gaylord State Forest Management Unit, Mackinac Co.

Point Betsie, The Nature Conservancy (Zetterberg Preserve at Point Betsie), Benzie Co.

Relevant Literature

Bergeron, Y., S. Gauthier, V. Kafka, P. Lefort, and D. Lesieur. 2001. Natural fire frequency for the eastern Canadian boreal forest: Consequences for sustainable forestry. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 31: 384-391.

Cohen, J.G. 2007. Natural community abstract for boreal forest. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Lansing, MI. 22 pp.

Darlington, H.T. 1940. Some vegetational aspects of Beaver Island, Lake Michigan. Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters 25: 31-37.

Flakne, R. 2003. The Holocene vegetation history of Isle Royale National Park, Michigan, USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33: 1144-1166.

Frelich, L.E., and P.B. Reich. 1995. Spatial patterns and succession in a Minnesota southern boreal forest. Ecological Monographs 65(3): 325-346.

Greene, D.F., J.C. Zasada, L. Sirois, D. Kneeshaw, H. Morin, I. Charron, and M.-J. Simard. 1999. A review of the regeneration dynamics of North American boreal forest tree species. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 29: 824-839.

Harman, J.R., and J. Plough. 1986. Asymmetric distribution of coniferous trees on northern Lake Michigan Islands. East Lakes Geographer 21: 24-33.

Hix, D., B.V. Barnes, A.N. Lynch, and J.A. Witter. 1987. Relationship between spruce budworm damage and site factors in spruce-fir-dominated ecosystems of western Upper Michigan. Forest Ecology and Management 21: 129-140.

Johnson, E.A. 1992. Fire and vegetation dynamics: Studies from the North American boreal forest. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. 129 pp.

Johnstone, J.F., and F.S. Chapin. 2006. Effects of soil burn severity on post-fire tree recruitment in boreal forest. Ecosystems 9: 14-31.

Kneeshaw, D., and Y. Bergeron. 1998. Canopy gap characteristics and tree replacement in the southeastern boreal forest. Ecology 79(3): 783-794.

Kneeshaw, D., and S. Gauthier. 2003. Old growth in the boreal forest: A dynamic perspective at the stand and landscape level. Environmental Review 11(1): 99-114.

Maycock, P.F., and J.T. Curtis. 1960. The phytosociology of boreal conifers - Hardwood forests of the Great Lakes region. Ecological Monographs 30: 1-35.

McCarthy, J., and G. Weetman. 2006. Age and size structure of gap dynamic old-growth boreal forest stands in Newfoundland. Silva Fennica 40(2): 209-230.

McCullough, D.G., R.A. Werner, and D. Neumann. 1998. Fire and insects in northern and boreal forest ecosystems of North America. Annual Review of Entomology 43:107-127.

Pastor, J., B. Dewey, R.J. Naimain, P. McInnes, and Y. Cohen. 1993. Moose browsing and soil fertility in the boreal forests of Isle Royale National Park. Ecology 74(2): 467-480.

Risenhoover, K.L., and S.A. Maass. 1987. The influence of moose on composition and structure of Isle Royale forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 17: 357-364.

Rowe, J.S., and G.W. Scotter. 1973. Fire in the boreal forest. Quaternary Research 3: 444-464.

Rutkowski, D.R., and R. Stottlemyer. 1993. Composition, biomass, and nutrient distribution in mature northern hardwood and boreal forest stands, Michigan. American Midland Naturalist 130(1): 13-30.

For a full list of references used to create this description, please refer to the natural community abstract for Boreal Forest.

Citation

Cohen, J.G., M.A. Kost, B.S. Slaughter, D.A. Albert, J.M. Lincoln, A.P. Kortenhoven, C.M. Wilton, H.D. Enander, and K.M. Korroch. 2020. Michigan Natural Community Classification [web application]. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Michigan State University Extension, Lansing, Michigan. Available https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/communities/classification. (Accessed: December 21, 2023).

Kost, M.A., D.A. Albert, J.G. Cohen, B.S. Slaughter, R.K. Schillo, C.R. Weber, and K.A. Chapman. 2007. Natural Communities of Michigan: Classification and Description. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Report No. 2007-21, Lansing, MI.

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Boreal forest is a conifer or conifer-hardwood forest type occurring on moist to dry sites characterized by species dominant in the Canadian boreal forest. It typically occupies upland sites along shores of the Great Lakes, on islands in the Great Lakes, and locally inland.

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Life in Antarctica - Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition

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Antarctica is best known for its charismatic penguins, seals and whales. However, these are only the most visible members of a thriving Antarctic ecosystem, much of which remains largely unseen. Under the water and beneath the ice, a vibrant community of animals found only in Antarctica thrives in cold, oxygen-rich waters. From glass sponges and colossal squid to notothenioidei (a group of fish with antifreeze proteins in their blood) and enormous sea spiders the size of dinner plates, Antarctica and the Southern Ocean support an incredible diversity of unique life, each species uniquely adapted to the conditions of the South.

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Our Planet | Frozen Worlds | FULL EPISODE | Netflix

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More than 20 times the size of the Everglades, the 68,000-square mile Pantanal in South America is the world’s largest freshwater wetland.

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Low biotic diversity.

Simple vegetation structure.

Limitation of drainage.

Short season of growth and reproduction.

Energy and nutrients in the form of dead organic material.

Large population oscillations.

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Canada’s Boreal Forest: Why It’s So Important

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Protecting the boreal is not only about saving trees and wildlife, says NRDC’s Jennifer Skene. It’s also about the people who’ve been living on the land for millennia and the urgent fight against climate change.…

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History of the Exploration of the Amazon Rainforest

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The Pantanal is the world’s most extensive tropical wetland, but it is threatened by agribusiness and global heating. EJF is working to protect this biome.

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Crisis in the Med: Record Heat and Mass Die-Offs Threaten Marine Life

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The Mediterranean Sea, already the most overfished body of water in the world, is experiencing a worsening crisis. This summer, rising sea temperatures reached record highs, leading to catastrophic fish die-offs in Italy and Greece. As climate change intensifies, these rising temperatures are exacerbating existing threats to marine life and leading to devastating consequences for the region.

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The boreal forest is the world's largest land-based biome.﻿﻿ Spreading over continents and covering many countries, the boreal plays a significant role in the planet's biodiversity and even its climate.﻿﻿﻿ Here are 30 facts you want to know about this incredible space.

Origin of the Name

1. The boreal forest is named after Boreas, the Greek god of the Northwind.

2. The biome is known as boreal in Canada, but is also known as taiga, a Russian word. Taiga is most commonly used to refer to the biome's more barren northern locations while boreal is used for the more temperate, southern area (we're just using boreal for ease).

World Distribution

The boreal covers most of inland Canada and Alaska, most of Sweden, Finland, and inland Norway, much of Russia, and the northern parts of Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and Japan.4. The boreal represents approximately 30% of the world's forest cover.﻿﻿

5. Canada contains 9% of the world's forests. 77% of Canadian forests are in the boreal zone.﻿﻿

6. The largest area of wetlands in any ecosystem of the world is found in the Canadian boreal region, containing more lakes and rivers than any similarly sized landmass on earth!﻿﻿﻿﻿

7. There are two major types of boreal forest -- the closed canopy forest in the South which has the longest, warmest growing season of the biome, and the high boreal forest with farther-spaced trees and lichen groundcover.

8. There is little rainfall in the boreal biome. Precipitation comes in the form of fog and snow, with a little rain during the summer months.

9. While typically low on biodiversity, the boreal around the globe supports a range of animals. Canada's boreal forest is home to 85 species of mammals, 130 species of fish, some 32,000 species of insects, and 300 species of birds.﻿﻿﻿

10. In the spring, as many as 3 million birds migrate north to the boreal forest to breed.﻿﻿

11. Threatened and endangered wildlife within the Canadian boreal forest includes such iconic species as the woodland caribou, grizzly bear, and wolverine.﻿﻿﻿ Habitat loss from logging is a primary reason for the decline of these species.

12. Many animal and plant species inhabit both Asia's and North America's boreal forest, thanks to the Bering land bridge that once connected the two continents.

13. While some of the iconic animals living in boreal forests are very familiar, including wolves, bears, Arctic fox, and muskox, it might be surprising to remember that the Siberian Tiger also calls the Taiga home.

14. The great gray owl, North America's largest owl, is a year-round resident of Canada's boreal. What would a cold, coniferous forest be without a big, grey owl?

Weather and Climate Change

15. The boreal is cold. The lowest recorded temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere were recorded in the boreal (or taiga) of northeastern Russia. The town of Oimyakon has reached temperature as low as nearly -70°C in the northern areas during winter.﻿﻿﻿

16. There is little rainfall in the boreal biome. Precipitation comes mostly in the form of snow, with a little rain during the summer months.

17. The zone of latitude occupied by the boreal forest has seen some of the most dramatic temperature increases, especially in winter and especially during the last quarter of the 20th century.

18, The warming trend threatens to transform the boreal forest area into grassland, parkland, or temperate forest, introducing a significant shift in species of both plants and animals.

19. Outbreaks of forest-destroying plagues have come in the form of spruce-bark beetles, aspen-leaf miners, larch sawflies, spruce budworms, and spruce cone worms -- all of which have been worsening in recent years due in large part to the warming of the average temperature.

20. The boreal forest stores enormous quantities of carbon, possibly more than the temperate and tropical forests combined, much of it in peatland.

21. The Canadian boreal emerged with the end of the last Ice Age about 12,000 years ago, with coniferous tree species migrating north.﻿﻿﻿ The forest as we know it today in terms of biodiversity took shape only a few thousand years ago -- a very short time ago in geological time scale.

22. Wildfires are an important part of the reproductive cycle for some species.﻿﻿﻿﻿﻿

23. The trees of the boreal forest tend to have shallow roots, due to the thin soils.﻿﻿﻿﻿﻿

24. The soils of the boreal forest are often acidic, due to falling pine needles, and low on nutrients since the cold temperatures do not allow much foliage to rot and turn into dirt.﻿﻿﻿﻿﻿

25. To date, only 12% of the boreal forest is protected around the globe -- and over 30% has already been designated for logging, energy and other development.﻿﻿﻿﻿

26. Logging has played its role in the boreal forest, with large swaths of Siberia's taiga harvested for lumber after the fall of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, in Canada, logging companies are under constraints, yet many still practice clearcutting, a strategy that in some cases is harsh on the forest ecosystem.﻿﻿﻿﻿

27. Most companies harvesting timber in Canada are certified by third parties, such as the Forest Stewardship Council or Sustainable Forestry Initiative.﻿﻿﻿﻿ You will often see "FSC" or "SFI" certified on products made from sustainably harvested wood.

28. In 2010, an historic agreement among 20 major timber companies and 9 environmental groups brought about a plan to protect 170 million acres of boreal forest in Canada.﻿﻿﻿﻿ It was named the Canadian Boreal Forest Agreement.

Aurora Borealis

29. The word "boreal" might be most familiar because of the phenomenon aurora borealis, or Northern Lights, which is a natural light display seen in high latitudes.

The aurora borealis was named after the Roman goddess of dawn, Aurora, and the Greek name for the north wind, Boreas, by Pierre Gassendi in 1621. However, the Cree call this phenomenon the "Dance of the Spirits".

30. While the aurora borealis can cause changes in temperature and wind inside and near the aurora, none of these disturbances reach down to where the weather takes place and so it does not impact any of the boreal, or taiga, over which it occurs.﻿﻿

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30 Fascinating Facts About the Boreal Forest

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The boreal forest is the world's largest land-based biome.﻿﻿ Spreading over continents and covering many countries, the boreal plays a significant role in the planet's biodiversity and even its climate.﻿﻿﻿ Here are 30 facts you want to know about this incredible space. 1. The boreal forest is named after Boreas, the Greek god of the Northwind.

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Antarctic animals all make their living in the ocean, because the land is too cold, dry, and dark for plants and animals. Antarctica’s coastal seas are especially important because they shelter an abundant ecosystem, supporting large predators such as penguins, seals and whales.

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Threats to the Boreal
Industrial Development
Although significant expanses of Canada's northern boreal regions remain relatively pristine and unspoiled, major portions of the southern boreal have experienced heavy industrial disturbances and fragmentation. Logging has had the largest impact in terms of net area, however hydroelectric development, mining and oil and gas extraction have wielded significant and in some cases irreversible damage to the boreal forest. Boreal forests are particularly sensitive to disturbances due to shorter growing seasons and, in many places, fragile soils that limit vegetative growth.

Approximately 41 percent of the primarily-treed boreal has already witnessed anthropogenic disturbances ¹ and around 23 percent of the boreal overall has been degraded or damaged. ² More than 30 percent of Canada's boreal forest has been slated for some form of industrial development. ³

Logging and forest product extraction remains the largest impact in terms of size. Eighty-five percent of the more heavily-wooded southern boreal is allocated to forest product industries and at least 100 million acres of boreal are slated for commercial logging in the coming decades. ⁴

However, other resource and energy industries are yielding widespread impacts as well. Oil and gas extraction has spread considerably within the past few decades, particularly in the west. More than 155,000 active and 117,000 abandoned gas wells exist in the boreal, and 10,000 new wells were drilled per year over the past decade. ⁵ The oil extraction activities in the oil sands, a large region in Alberta where bitumen is extracted from below ground and upgraded in refineries, is particularly damaging to the boreal. Not only are large areas of forest removed and surface mined for the oil underneath, but considerable amounts of water and energy are required to refine the thick bitumen. There are also serious concerns about toxins and pollutants being leaked into nearby watersheds. ⁶

More traditional forms of mining-for metals, composites and gems-are also widespread throughout the boreal. There are more than 7,000 abandoned and 105 active mines in the boreal of various types and scales. ⁷ Access roads often fragment pristine blocks of forest in more remote areas, and mines have been found to leak contaminants into nearby waterways, affecting far more than just the direct land being mined. ⁸

Hydropower has also taken a considerable toll on the boreal. Canada annually diverts more water through dams than any other country on earth, ⁹ with around 40 percent of Canada's total output produced on rivers originating in or flowing through the boreal. ¹⁰ Although hydroelectricity has lower emission rates than other energy sources such as coal, significant amounts of greenhouse gases from decomposition of organic materials are released upon flooding. The inundated region removes habitat for a variety of wildlife and the dams themselves often block migratory fish from reaching their spawning grounds.

As demand for resources grows and technology provides cheaper ways to access and extract from remote regions, industrial development will continue to push north into the heart of this pristine wilderness unless action is taken soon. While the boreal forest remains an important source of income for many communities, developing the boreal in a responsible way while setting aside large portions of intact forest is imperative to creating a more sustainable and balanced economy.
Climate Change
Like everywhere else in the world, climate change is expected to create considerable changes to the boreal forest. Rising temperatures and more unpredictable weather patterns are expected to dramatically alter boreal landscapes in numerous ways. ¹¹ Forest covers are likely to be pushed further north into ranges currently dominated by wetlands and tundra. The density of specific trees and plants is likely to change within microenvironments, creating difficulty for wildlife species relying on particular types of habitat. Warmer temperatures and a higher proportion of droughts increase the frequency of forest fires beyond traditional levels and amplify the ability of pests such as the pine beetle to expand into previously untouched forest ecosystems.

The boreal is particularly vulnerable to climate change. Not only are the majority of trees found in the boreal slower growing than in other parts of the world, climate change is expected to affect northern ecosystems at a higher rate than equatorial ecosystems. Many parts of the boreal forest have already witnessed higher increases in temperature over the past century than the global average. ¹² If unaddressed, climate change could present catastrophic consequences for Canada's boreal forest.

¹ Analysis produced by Global Forest Watch Canada, 2008.

² Analysis produced by Global Forest Watch Canada, 2012.

³ Forest Ethics. 2004. Bringing Down the Boreal. San Francisco, California.

⁴ Nature Conservancy. Sustainable Forestry in Canada's Boreal Forest: http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/canada/placesweprotect/sustainable-forestry-in-canadas-boreal-forest.xml (accessed June 2012).

⁵ Analysis produced by Global Forest Watch Canada, 2010.

⁶ Munk Centre and Environmental and Research Studies Centre. 2007. Running out of steam: Oil sands development and water use in the Athabasca River watershed. University of Toronto, University of Alberta.

⁷ Analysis produced by Global Forest Watch Canada, 2010.

⁸ Northwatch and MiningWatch Canada. 2008. The boreal below: Mining issues and activities in Canada's boreal forest. Ottawa, Ontario.

⁹ Ghassemi, F., and I. White. 2007. Inter-basin water transfer: Case studies from Australia, United States, Canada, China and India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

¹⁰ Unpublished analysis produced by Global Forest Watch Canada.

¹¹ Carlson, M., J. Wells, and D. Roberts. 2009. The Carbon the World Forgot: Conserving the Capacity of Canada's Boreal Forest Region to Mitigate and Adapt to Climate Change. Boreal Songbird Initiative and Canadian Boreal Initiative. Seattle, Washington and Ottawa, Ontario.

¹² Ogden, Aynslie. 2002. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation in Northern Canada. Issue brief. Northern Climate ExChange Occasional Paper Ser. Vol. 3. Taiga Net. Whitehorse, Yukon.

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International Boreal Conservation Science Panel - Threats to the Boreal

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The International Boreal Conservation Science Panel is focused on providing scientific expertise useful to decision makers considering the future of one of the world's last great conservation opportunities - the protection of Canada's boreal forest region.

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It's estimated that roughly 20% of the Amazon rainforest has disappeared during the past 50 years.

Deforestation due to agriculture, urbanization, and illegal logging is not only threatening the millions of unique plant and animal species native to the Amazon River region, it's affecting humans worldwide. Whether it's extreme drought in São Paulo, Brazil, the multibillion-dollar illegal wildlife trade, or the catastrophic impacts of climate change, threats to the Amazon are having a very tangible ripple effect around the globe.

The good news is that some of the world's most accomplished scientists are backing a big push to save the forest. We sat down with one of those scientists-National Geographic explorer Dr. Thomas Lovejoy-to talk about the state of the Amazon and why conservation matters.

NG: You've worked in the Amazon for more than 50 years. How have you seen the region change?

TL: In the 1960s, there was only one highway in the entire Amazon basin. That's an area as large as the continental United States with one highway and three million people. Today, there are between 30 million to 40 million people, countless roads, and it's about 20% deforested.

But on the plus side, 50 years ago there were only two national parks-in Venezuela-and a national forest and an indigenous reserve in Brazil. Today, more than 50% of the Amazon is under some form of protection. The real challenge is to move toward a much more integrated approach to planning and managing the Amazon.

When we talk about conservation of the Amazon, it's hard for many people to relate because they don't feel connected to the region. How can we change that?

There are actually a lot of direct connections between our daily lives and the Amazon, no matter how far away we are.

For example, there's a big, nasty viper called the bushmaster that lives in the Amazon. This snake kills its prey with venom that causes the prey's blood pressure to go to zero. Scientists in São Paulo discovered that this venom actually works by affecting a previously unknown system in the body called the angiotensin system. This discovery then allowed pharmaceutical chemists to design the first ACE inhibitor medicines. Today, millions of people use these medicines to treat high blood pressure. They have longer, fuller, and more productive lives, and they have the venom of a nasty snake far away in the Amazon to thank for it.

A connection that affects everyone on the planet is climate change. Reforestation is essentially a way of removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The existing forest is absorbing some carbon dioxide already. In terms of the global carbon cycle, tropical forests have a carbon sink roughly equal to half of what is in the atmosphere. About half of that is in the Amazon. This means to lose the Amazon would dramatically increase climate change.

And there are some extraordinary local connections as well. The Amazon basically makes half of its own rainfall. Moisture comes in off the Atlantic Ocean, falls as rain in the Amazon forest, and about three-quarters of it evaporates back into the atmosphere. This then gets carried west and most of it turns into rain again closer to the Andes Mountains, where it falls and feeds the Amazon river system. This system holds about 20% of the world's river water, which is huge. What isn't rained out of the Andes disperses north and south, with the southern portion being really important for agriculture in Brazil and Argentina. So, São Paulo's current drought-possibly the worst in its history-is happening partly because the region is getting less rainfall from the Amazon.

What is your vision for the future of the Amazon?

There's been a lot of damage done and forest lost, but nothing is gone until it's gone. A lot of the negative buzz out there-like the initial projection of species extinctions that I made in 1980-is made in the hope that it will in fact turn out to be a lot less because you've gotten people's attention.

Ideally what we hope is for the Amazon to return to be about 90% of the extent of its original forest, and for it to be managed collectively by the nine Amazon nations (Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana). We want to see more integrated planning between the people in charge of transportation, energy, agriculture, and the other industries in the region. We think Amazon cities can have higher quality of life and keep people in existing cities so there's less reason to deforest.

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Ask an Amazon Expert: Why We Can't Afford to Lose the Rainforest | National Geographic Society

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It's estimated that roughly 20% of the Amazon rainforest has disappeared during the past 50 years. Deforestation due to agriculture, urbanization, and illegal logging is not only threatening the millions of unique plant and animal species native to the Amazon River region, it's affecting humans worldwide.

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Climate-driven changes in these harsh lands at the ends of the planet could have a worldwide impact.

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Studying and Conserving Antarctic Ecosystems

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Twenty-five nations work together through an international agreement called the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources to study and manage Antarctica’s living marine resources using an ecosystem-based approach.

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According to a UNEP report, inhabitants and tourists of the Mediterranean region produce 24 million metric tons of plastic waste (of which less than 6% is recycled) each year; this figure normally grows during the summer because of tourism presence and activities.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_pollution_in_the_Mediterranean_sea#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20UNEP%20report,of%20tourism%20presence%20and%20activities.

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Plastic pollution in the Mediterranean sea - Wikipedia

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The Mediterranean Sea has been defined as one of the seas most affected by marine plastic pollution.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][excessive citations]

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Biogeography of Antarctica - Discovering Antarctica

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Where is life found in and around Antarctica, and what are the ecological characteristics of the continent?

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+ Summary

Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest represents a critical issue in our modern world, as it is the root cause of many other problems that affect the entire planet. The Amazon's deforestation is particularly relevant because it has been a chronic issue that has plagued the region for decades. Some of the key contributing factors include cattle ranching, infrastructure development such as roads, the building of many large dams, and small-scale subsistence farming. Consequences of deforestation in the Amazon include a significant loss of species and their habitats, a disturbance of indigenous peoples and their health, an increase in CO2 emissions, and a negatively altered water cycle around the globe. Many practices have been used to combat the issue, including increased monitoring of deforestation levels, expanding land rights and protection to indigenous peoples, land policy reform, and anti-deforestation legislation, but each have their own different strengths and weaknesses.

+ Key Takeaways

Deforestation in the Amazon is a complex and deeply interconnected issue with many related causes and consequences.

Deforestation in the Amazon is not just an environmental issue, but a social issue as well.

Deforestation in the Amazon affects the planet as a whole.

Contributing factors to Amazonian deforestation include cattle ranching, infrastructure development (roads), the building of many large dams, and small-scale subsistence farming.

Consequences of deforestation in the Amazon include a significant loss of species and their habitats, a disturbance of indigenous people and their health, fire, an increase in CO2 emission, and a negatively altered water cycle around the globe.

Many practices have been used to combat the issue of deforestation in the Amazon, including increased monitoring of deforestation levels, expanding land rights and protections to indigenous people, reforming land policy, and enacting anti-deforestation legislation, but each have their own strengths and weaknesses.

+ Key Terms

Amazon - A large tropical rainforest occupying the drainage basin of the Amazon River and its tributaries in northern South America, and covering an area of 2.3 million square miles (6 million square km). Comprising about 40% of Brazil's total area, it is bounded by the Guiana Highlands to the north, the Andes Mountains to the west, the Brazilian central plateau to the south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. ¹

Amazonia - The area around the River Amazon in South America, principally in Brazil, but also extending into Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. The region comprises approximately one third of the world's remaining tropical rainforest. ²

Amazonia Legal (Legal Amazon) - An area of 5.2 million km, constituting all of the Brazilian Amazon. The Brazilian government created the Amazonia Legal designation in 1953 as a way to plan and promote the social and economic development of states in the Amazon region, which historically share the same economic, political, and social challenges. ³

Deforestation - The action or process of clearing forests. ⁴ The United Nations 2020 Global Forest Resources Assessment defines deforestation as "the conversion of forest to other land use independently whether human-induced or not." ⁵

Desertification - The process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture.

Evapotranspiration - The process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces and by transpiration from plants.

Forest - Areas having more than 50% tree cover. ⁶

Hectare - 1 hectare is about 2.47 acres.

Land Surface Albedo - The ratio of the solar radiation reflected from Earth's surface to the solar radiation incident upon it, which is critical to the regulation of Earth's surface energy budget. In essence, land surface albedo is a measurement of the "whiteness" or reflectivity of the surface of the land.

Logging - The clearing (land) of trees to produce lumber. ⁷

Mato Grosso - A large state in west-central Brazil most covered in Amazon rainforest.

Reforestation - The act of renewing forest cover (as by natural seeding or artificial planting of seeds or young trees). ⁸

Slash-and-burn - Relating to or denoting a method of agriculture in which existing vegetation is cut down and burned off before new seeds are sown, typically used as a method for clearing forest land for farming, ⁹ also called fire-fallow cultivation.

Uncontacted Tribes- Tribes who have had no peaceful contact with anyone in the mainstream or dominant society.

Context

Forests represent a critical part of our planet's environmental health, and they affect the environment on many levels. ¹⁰ Sustainably managed forests provide numerous goods and services ¹¹-the World Wildlife Fund estimates that 1.6 billion people worldwide depend on forests for their livelihood, 300 million of whom live in forests. ¹² Forest ecosystems are also home to 80% of the world's terrestrial biodiversity, including countless species of plants and animals, many still yet to be discovered. ¹³ Subsequently, deforestation affects the environment, the economy, and even human health. ¹⁴ The Earth's climate is especially affected, as deforestation emits CO2 into the atmosphere. But deforestation also has biophysical effects, including changes in land surface albedo, evapotranspiration, and cloud cover. ¹⁵

The Amazon is the largest rainforest in the world as well as the largest river basin, spanning 670 million hectares ¹⁶ across 9 South American countries: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. ¹⁷ The Amazon contains more species of plants and animals than anywhere else on the planet, and is believed to be the home of 10% of all species on Earth. ¹⁸ Of the many plant species in the Amazon, 75% are unique to the Amazon. There are 3,000 different species of fish, which is the largest number of freshwater fish species in the world. ¹⁹ Additionally, the Amazon rainforest is home to 34 million people who depend on its resources. ²⁰

The Amazon rainforest is also the planet's largest deforestation front. ²¹ With 90-140 billion metric tons of carbon stored in the Amazon's forests, deforestation breeds high potential for "large-scale, irreversible ecological disaster." ²² Already, 20% of the Amazon biome has been lost, and the World Wildlife Fund estimates that 27% of the Amazon biome will be without trees by 2030 if the current rate of deforestation continues. ²³ From 1978 to 2017, over 750,000 square kilometers (75,000,000 hectares) of the Amazon was destroyed. ²⁴ Between 2001 and 2012, forest losses in the Amazon biome averaged about 1.4 million hectares per year, totaling 17.7 million hectares, mostly in Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. The country of Brazil is a key player in deforestation, and was responsible for 75% of the deforestation in the Amazon from 2001-2012. ²⁵

Contributing Factors

Government Involvement

One factor that influences Amazonian deforestation, as well as its other contributing factors, is government involvement. This takes the form of legislation, or lack thereof, that directly protects the forest, but also includes the policies surrounding logging permits, the process of designating protected lands, and the rules around businesses involved in the Amazon rainforest. These policies include penalties, fines, warnings, and seizures of equipment, or lack thereof, when legislation is violated. As the Amazon rainforest includes territory of 9 different countries, multiple governments are involved in its protection. However, the most influential government by far is the Brazilian government as 64% of the Amazon falls within its borders. ²⁶ ²⁷

From 2004 to 2012, the Brazilian government put several legislative measures in place to protect the Amazon and, as a result, deforestation in the Brazilian part of the Amazon dropped to its lowest recorded levels. ²⁸ ²⁹ However, governmental power and its effects can quickly change and, since the most recent President of Brazil began his term on January 1, 2019, a few key statistics have noticeably decreased. Enforcement actions by the main environmental agency of Brazil dropped by 20% during the first 6 months of 2019, compared with the first 6 months in 2018. ³⁰ There was then a 39% increase in forest cover loss when comparing the similar January-July period between 2018 and 2019. ³¹ Furthermore, in June 2019 alone, the rate of deforestation in Brazil rose 88% compared to June of the previous year. ³² These data indicate that government involvement in policy creation and enforcement is an influential factor, and, subsequently, can play a role in many of the following contributing factors.

Cattle Ranching

Cattle ranching is the biggest single cause of deforestation in the Amazon rainforest, accounting for about 80% of the Amazon's deforestation as forests are cleared for farmers to raise herds of cattle, primarily for exporting beef. ³³ The Brazilian Amazon is home to about 200 million head of cattle and is the largest exporter of cattle products in the world, supplying a quarter of the cattle products in the global market. ³⁴

Deforestation caused by cattle ranching is supported by an international demand for cattle-related products, including leather, meat, dairy, and cosmetics, which flow into companies in multiple industries worth billions of dollars. ³⁵ Deforestation through cattle-ranching is further driven by low costs for inputs, such as breeding bulls or cows, fencing, artificial feed, medicine, and labor, as well as ease of transportation and inexpensive land. ³⁶ At the onset of these deforestation problems, the government of Brazil had incentives for many years to increase land usage and ownership through cattle and clearing land. ³⁷

Infrastructure Development (Roads)

Roads and other related infrastructure have a huge impact on deforestation by increasing accessibility to the forest. After extensive research into all roads and transportation routes (including those that were illegal or unofficial), one study found that nearly 95% of all deforestation occurred within either 5.5 km of roads or 1 km of rivers, as both facilitate much more access to the rainforest. ³⁸ Additionally, the study found that protected areas near roads and rivers had much lower deforestation (10.9%) than did unprotected areas near roads and rivers (43.6%). ³⁹

Although there are many illegal and unofficial roads contributing to the issue, the Trans-Amazonian Highway is a large piece of this problem. This highway stretches 4,000 kilometers across Brazil (and the very center of the Amazon) and connects the coastal city of João Pessoa to the northeast border of Peru. ⁴⁰ The highway's first portion opened in 1972, but it has yet to be completed as construction has been interrupted due to a lack of financing and other issues. ⁴¹ This road allows deeper access into the Amazon and, following its construction, deforestation levels spiked. ⁴² It is estimated that, at its worst in the 1990s and early 2000s, more than 25,000 square kilometers of forest were cleared per year as a result of the highway. ⁴³

Hydropower dams

There are about 150 dams in the Amazon region, with hundreds more planned. ⁴⁴ Dams contribute to deforestation by replacing large swaths of forest with reservoirs of water. One example is the Belo Monte Dam, which is the fourth largest hydroelectric project on Earth. Its reservoir was filled in 2015, taking out 260 square miles of lowland and forest. ⁴⁵ Other examples of dams in the Amazon include the Balbina, Tucuruí, and Samuel dams. The area of forest lost to reservoir creation was 1,200 square miles at Balbina, 744 square miles at Tucuruí, and 168 square miles at Samuel. ⁴⁶ Perhaps most notable, however, is the Tucuruí Dam, which is located in the northeastern Brazilian Amazon and is the largest dam ever built in a tropical rainforest. ⁴⁷ Its reservoir displaced 40,000 people and flooded 2,875 square kilometers of forest. ⁴⁸

Flooding forests for reservoirs is not the only way dams contribute to deforestation. In addition, dams displace populations (Belo Monte has displaced 20,000 indigenous people since it was built in 2015), ⁴⁹ attract more people to the dam location with related jobs, and expose areas along the many roads that are built to each dam. All of these effects lead to more deforestation via increased land development and increased access for various groups engaged in deforestation. ⁵⁰ Many projects associated with these dams, like that of creating waterways for soy transportation, contribute to deforestation as well. ⁵¹

Small-Scale Subsistence Agriculture

Around the world, agriculture accounts for about 27% of all forest loss, and Amazonia is no exception. ⁵² Oftentimes, farmers will use slash-and-burn techniques to clear land for growing or harvesting commodities like soy, palm oil, gold, sugarcane, and beef, which depletes the forest cover and increases the risk of fire. In 2003, one of the worst years for deforestation in the Amazon, it was discovered that more than 20% of the forest in Mato Grosso (a Brazilian state) was converted to cropland. ⁵³ Much of this specific cause is powered by global markets and economic conditions. ⁵⁴ Generally, specific deforestation rates tend to rise and fall in concert with the price of soybeans, beef, timber, and other crops in the region. ⁵⁵

Consequences

Loss of Habitat or Species

Human disturbance and deforestation of the Amazon rainforest results in degradation of species. Decades of research shows that primary forests such as the Amazon are crucial in maintaining biodiversity; subsequently, forested areas with increased human interference (such as deforestation) experience reductions in species diversity. ⁵⁶ Data from a 2015 study on the Amazon show that loss of biodiversity is occurring in the rainforest's ecosystem, ⁵⁷ and a decrease of species richness was found to be higher in areas where deforestation has occurred to make room for agriculture. ⁵⁸

The elimination of tree cover is the main reason for species disturbance. Not only do the trees of the Amazon rainforest provide a home for many species, but the canopy of the rainforest also regulates temperature which is critical for numerous other species. Without the regulation these tree canopies provide, the environment becomes more like a savannah with much less vegetation, a highly variant temperature from day to night, and much lower humidity levels. This change also results in high winds and exposure to direct sunlight, solar radiation, and, at times, heavy precipitation, all of which could prove fatal to many species.

There are many implications as to why experts are concerned over the loss of species diversity in the Amazon; approximately 80% of the world's terrestrial biodiversity lives in forest area, and there are thousands of species of plants and animals unique to the Amazon rainforest that are found nowhere else in the world, such as pink river dolphins, macaws, toucans, tamarins, and glass frogs. Many species of plants and animals indigenous to the Amazon have made and continue to make unique contributions to science and medicine, and data suggests that a continuance in deforestation may lead to the extinction of certain plants and animals such as these. ⁵⁹ This trend can already be seen with the endangerment of many species including the Amazon Fer-de-lance viper and the three-toed sloth. ⁶⁰ Data suggests that species diversity will continue to decline if deforestation trends continue. ⁶¹

Disturbing Indigenous Peoples

Thirty-three million people inhabit the Amazon rainforest, and there are over 350 indigenous communities that depend on the forest and its resources for survival. ⁶² However, those numbers used to be larger, and many tribes and communities have become extinct due to deforestation and its accompanying side effects, including loss of food sources, soil erosion, water contamination, and exposure to foreign diseases to which aboriginal people do not have natural immunity. These diseases are brought in by illegal loggers, farmers, and ranchers. ⁶³

Although many of these Amazonian peoples have legal protections from deforestation over their lands, as most live within the Amazon's 422 indigenous reserves, ⁶⁴ they still often face invasion from loggers and farmers. ⁶⁵ In response, some tribes sell their land rights to the highest bidder and the deforestation continues. ⁶⁶ Generally, however, Amazonian tribes are conservation-minded and do what they can to preserve their homes-sometimes by protesting or petitioning government, and other times by actively fighting against loggers by burning down logger camps-but they are usually outnumbered and overpowered. ⁶⁷ Choosing to remain uncontacted is ultimately the most beneficial for tribes as typically 50% or more of the tribe does not survive the first few years of contact due to disease. ⁶⁸

Fire holds a unique position when it comes to deforestation, as it is both a cause and effect, and creates a negative spiral that can be difficult to stop. Much of this cause and effect cycle occurs because deforestation replaces the wet and humid rainforest biome with a more hot and dry, savannah-like biome, which catches fire much easier than a rainforest. ⁶⁹ Apart from physically burning the rainforest, fire also plays into other consequences of deforestation by releasing CO2 into the air and destroying plant and animal habitats. Fire is also deeply connected to many of the primary contributing factors of deforestation in the Amazon, as slash-and-burn techniques are often the tool of choice for cattle ranchers and farmers to drive further into the Amazon. ⁷⁰

For centuries, fires have been started in the Amazon rainforest to sustainably clear land for agriculture, but in recent years fires of a different breed have been raging in the rainforest, set mostly to clear much wider swaths of land for the expansion of cattle and crops. ⁷¹ The year 2019 saw considerably more fires than 2018, ⁷² and researchers connect this rise in fire to the rise in deforestation and decrease in government enforcement of environmental policies, which occurred at the same time. ⁷³ Although wildfires can start in the Amazon, it is very rare due to its high levels of humidity and rain. ⁷⁴ Brazil's Space Research Center (INPE), which track fires by satellite, estimates that 99% of these recent fires were caused, whether intentionally or accidentally, by humans. ⁷⁵ However, the slash-and-burn process can take multiple years from start to finish, and one often never knows the purpose behind a fire until crops or cattle appear after the fact, which makes it difficult to collect accurate data. ⁷⁶

Increase in C02 Emissions

According to one study, 15% of global CO2 emissions are attributed to deforestation. ⁷⁷ However, the Amazon's role in the global management of climate and CO2 levels is larger than that; deforestation in the Amazon leads not only to carbon emissions during the logging process, but also from fires caused by deforestation. The massive tree loss brought about by deforestation has also led to a decreasing level of CO2 absorption in the Amazon.

Researchers say that the Amazon, which once used to be a massive carbon sink, may only be absorbing half as much carbon dioxide as it did 20 years ago, mostly due to deforestation. ⁷⁸ Furthermore, one study in 2019 found that current prediction models for the Amazon's CO2 absorption, and their accompanying assumptions, did not take into consideration the depleted phosphorus levels in the Amazon's soil, which impacts a tree's ability to take in CO2. ⁷⁹ As a result, the study revealed that these predictions for absorption were inaccurate, as they were double the amount of absorption actually taking place. ⁸⁰ In other words, this data is especially relevant to global climate change as the Amazon absorbs a quarter of the carbon dioxide absorbed by all rainforests globally-a number which decreases with the rise of deforestation. ⁸¹ Annually, the world as a whole emits 40 billion tons of CO2 into the air, 2 billion tons of which is absorbed by the Amazon rainforest. ⁸²

Deforestation's contribution to climate change and carbon emission becomes cyclical when fire becomes involved. Slash-and-burn techniques use fire to clear forest, which emits additional CO2 into the atmosphere, along with the initial CO2 emissions that come with deforestation. Subsequently, stopping deforestation is widely recognized as one of the most effective fronts on which to battle climate change, as the opposite effect on carbon emissions can be seen with reductions in deforestation. ⁸³

Water Cycle Changes

The significant loss of vegetation from deforestation in the Amazon, and therefore transpiration of water that comes from that vegetation, negatively affects water cycles and triggers a cycle of desertification and climate change not only in the region, but also around the world. ⁸⁴ Locally, transpiration and evaporation accounts for 50-60% of rainfall in the region of Amazonia, and shifts in such a large portion of the water cycle have consequences across the globe. ⁸⁵

For example, in 2014, Princeton University-led researchers reported that widespread destruction of the Amazon rainforest could result in 20% less rain in the northwest United States, and 50% less snowpack in the Sierra Nevada. They also framed the implications of these effects, noting that the snowpack in the Sierra Nevada Mountains is an important source of water for irrigation in California's Central Valley, and that California has been the United States' primary state for food and dairy production for the past 50 years. ⁸⁶

Another study showed that the effect of deforestation in the Amazon was strong on water cycles around the world, reducing precipitation and cloudiness on multiple continents, mostly in the Americas, and of greatest note in the central United States. ⁸⁷ Some research indicates that these global water cycle shifts are so dramatic they could potentially cause droughts in important agricultural areas in India, Africa, China, and the United States, where negative effects have already been traced back to Amazon deforestation. ⁸⁸ ⁸⁹ However, additional changes in water cycles and subsequent desertification beyond a regional scale are only predicted to occur with much larger increases in Amazon deforestation. ⁹⁰

Practices

Monitoring Deforestation

Monitoring deforestation has been one of the first steps taken in many efforts to combat deforestation. By monitoring deforestation, government agencies hope to more easily enforce related laws and slow or eliminate deforestation. This practice includes constant tracking, measuring, and mapping over time to determine the exact dimensions of the problem. As an awareness grows of precisely where the deforestation happens, it becomes more possible to trace the deforestation back to specific causes and attack the problem at its roots. Many approaches have been taken to monitor deforestation, including mostly cross-sector collaborations. For example, the organization Imazon worked with Google to help develop better ways to track deforestation with their Google Earth Engine technologies, launching a platform called Sistema de Alerta de Desmatamento (SAD). ⁹¹ ⁹² These efforts culminated in the creation of Global Forest Watch-an online open-source platform that uses Landsat satellite imagery to monitor deforestation levels and trends in almost real-time. The Brazilian government's National Space Research Institute also monitors deforestation through a short-term system forest monitoring system called DETER. ⁹³ This system is the world leader in using satellite data to monitor deforestation. ⁹⁴

On a more basic level, and from a different angle, the Amazon Conservation Team (ACT) organization has equipped indigenous Amazonian persons with GPS technology to better manage the forest that their lives depend on, and to better advocate with local governments, instead of relying on third-party intervention. ⁹⁵ With GPS capabilities at their fingertips, indigenous people know the exact boundaries of the land they own-and therefore when their land rights are infringed upon-and monitor their lands with unprecedented precision and accuracy. ⁹⁶

Impact

Monitoring the deforestation of the Amazon closely allows root causes to be identified and specific action to be taken. Many groups take advantage of the monitoring tools and technologies that have recently been developed to further the impact that they have. ⁹⁷ For example, the Amazon Conservation Association (ACA), a non-profit NGO, reports that their usage of the Global Forest Watch allows them to "detect illegal gold mining and logging in protected areas within days" and subsequently initiate government action within 24-48 hours of receiving an alert. ⁹⁸ Many companies who intend to create more environmentally-conscious supply chains are also able to use various tools available through Global Forest Watch to monitor suppliers and ensure that they know where and how the products are being sourced. ⁹⁹

Imazon attributes the 80% reduction of Amazonian deforestation between 2004 and 2012 to the newly gained ability of monitoring deforestation with satellite imagery and disseminating that information widely on a regular basis. ¹⁰⁰

Gaps

Monitoring deforestation is a first step for many initiatives that tackle the issue, but simply monitoring a problem will never be a solution to that problem. Monitoring provides accurate data and nuanced information around the problem of deforestation, but the real value of monitoring comes when action is taken with the data. Many policy-makers have resisted data around deforestation trends, underscoring the importance of more extensive solutions. ¹⁰¹ Also, up until 2012, Brazil's DETER system received 250 metre-pixel MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) data that illegal loggers leveraged to evade detection by only logging smaller areas, exploiting a potential weakness in many efforts to accurately monitor deforestation. ¹⁰²

Expanding Land Rights and Protections for Indigenous Peoples

Satellites have been useful in unveiling deforestation and pressuring local governments to drive total levels of deforestation down, but another practice, starting on the ground instead of in the sky, has proved efficient as well. ¹⁰³ This approach entails working with the indigenous people of the Amazon rainforest. Many approaches have been taken in this realm, but all with the overarching goal of reducing deforestation via two main strategies: expanding protected areas for indigenous people and teaching indigenous people how to preserve their forest homes through the adoption of new technologies and practices (including effective lobbying with local governments). ¹⁰⁴

Impact

Working with indigenous people has proved to be an impactful strategy for many decades when it comes to deforestation. ¹⁰⁵ Although not the most direct strategy, the data from several studies suggests a sizeable impact: a report from the World Resource Institute showed that, in Brazil, deforestation in indigenous community forests from 2000 to 2012 was less than 1%, compared with 7% outside them. ¹⁰⁶ Furthermore, the report showed that the higher amount of deforestation that had occurred outside indigenous community forests led to 27 times more carbon dioxide emissions than were produced from deforestation on indigenous community forests, and that indigenous community forests contain 36% more carbon per hectare than other areas of the Brazilian Amazon. ¹⁰⁷

In 1987, the unprecedented was achieved as 20 million hectares of Amazon rainforest were given back to indigenous inhabitants. ¹⁰⁸ In 1990, Gaia Amazonas was founded and began to work with indigenous people in expanding their protected territories and negotiating skills. ¹⁰⁹ In the Colombian Amazon, they have been able to create the largest continuous indigenous territory in the world, with 26 million hectares of Amazon forest legally recognized as indigenous territory. ¹¹⁰ The organization's efforts have reached 26,000 indigenous people belonging to 100 communities in the Amazon by establishing a shared governance of protecting forest areas. ¹¹¹

Gaps

Working with indigenous people to expand their rights for the purpose of reducing deforestation requires a deep understanding of their culture, among other issues. Additionally, the impact of such activities is often difficult to measure, especially as the results of such activities may take some time to manifest. Although research indicates that there are generally lower deforestation rates in lands that are under indigenous stewardship as opposed to other Amazonian areas outside that category, how much correlation or causation exists is debatable and, based on historical data, it is difficult to predict how much expanding indigenous land rights would actually reduce deforestation in the future. ¹¹² Furthermore, although some research has been done on how individual indigenous groups have been able to combat deforestation in combination with various conservation organizations, little has been done in evaluating the impact that specific organizations have on deforestation as they work with indigenous people. ¹¹³

Additionally, there have been multiple instances where indigenous tribes in the Amazon have been granted legal rights over pieces of land, but then turned around and sold those rights to logging companies, as the tribes wanted the money more than the land, and deforestation continued. ¹¹⁴ Another struggle with expanding and granting indigenous land rights is enforcing those rights, which takes time, money, and heavy government involvement, as well as defining the responsibility of indigenous peoples for the sustainability or deforestation of their lands. ¹¹⁵

Anti-Deforestation Legislation

Anti-deforestation legislation comes from various governing bodies and covers a wide spectrum of legislation including anti-logging, logging permit systems, protected area designations, sustainable forestry laws, sourcing laws, reforestation mandates and programs, cattle ranching mitigation, farming restrictions, and so on. As the Amazon rainforest is the most prevalent area for deforestation in the world, it has captured a notable global interest including gaining the attention of many lawmakers. Some examples of these types of legislation include the United Nation's REDD+ program (Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries), Brazil's Forest Code, ¹¹⁶ and various types of reforestation requirements, logging permits, agricultural credit systems, carbon credit systems, the Terra Legal program, product embargoes, environmental licenses, the Public Forest Management law, and so on. ¹¹⁷

Impact

The largest impact from anti-deforestation legislation the Amazon has seen has been from laws that designate territory for indigenous people. As previously stated, indigenous community forests have been shown to emit 27 times less carbon dioxide from deforestation than neighboring non-indigenous administered lands. ¹¹⁸ The government has strongly enforced logging laws and jailed many perpetrators, but isolating a reduction of deforestation from specific laws is more difficult and not well documented. ¹¹⁹

Gaps

The legislative process has notoriously lagged far behind the devastating consequences of deforestation, and as soon as laws are created and enforced, many times there are still loopholes that are taken advantage of. Not every law has been airtight. Creating laws and enforcing them are two separate things; many times the two do not come together as laws are created but left inadequately enforced, making them effectively nonexistent.

As mentioned previously, areas designated as protected are routinely lacking the personnel and resources to adequately be protected. ¹²⁰ For example, a recent study showed that the government of Brazil has weakened when it comes to creating and enforcing legal systems, which has triggered an increase in laundering soy, cattle, and timber, as well as generally subverting legislation through permit fraud. ¹²¹ ¹²²

Protected Area Designations

Reforming land policy is another angle from which many have tackled deforestation, including designating areas as protected and expanding protections. Protected areas can take the form of preserved areas for indigenous people, national parks, and even include the area called the Legal Amazon or Amazonia Legal (Legal Amazon) in Brazil. ¹²³ Other protective designations include Amazon Regional Protected Areas (ARPA), ¹²⁴ which is another Brazilian designation, as well as "sustainable use reserves," ¹²⁵ biological reserves, ¹²⁶ legal reserves, and Areas of Permanent Protection.

Impact

Three recent studies highlight the impact of land policy reform. The first study, done by the World Resources Institute, showed indigenous community forests emitting 27 times less carbon dioxide from deforestation than neighboring non-indigenous administered forests. ¹²⁷ Another study showed that protected areas of the Amazon avoided or displaced 34,000-39,000 km2 of deforestation. ¹²⁸ Additionally, a 2013 study out of the University of Michigan showed that indigenous lands perform the best when it comes to lowering deforestation, although all forms of protection do limit deforestation to some degree. ¹²⁹

Gaps

Flaws can certainly be present in protecting land, as theory often differs from reality when resources are lacking to execute protections. As of 2011, half of protected areas in the Brazilian Amazon had no approved management plan and 45% had no management council. ¹³⁰ Staffing in some protected areas is very low-the state of Pará has only 1 officer per 1,817 square kilometers of forest. ¹³¹

Some designations are more effective than others. For example, sustainable use reserves are often abused and therefore not as effective in preventing deforestation as other designations. ¹³² Furthermore, designating an area as protected does not necessarily reduce deforestation in and of itself, especially if adequate resources are not deployed in actually protecting it, and protective laws are not enforced against those who violate them. Unfortunately, in much of the Amazon, even protected areas become prey to deforestation at times. ¹³³

Brandon Wegrowski is from southern California and is a recent graduate of BYU's Human Resource Management program. During his time at BYU and his involvement with the Ballard Center he became more keenly aware of the role that social innovation plays in understanding and solving important global issues - particularly in environmental issues, like deforestation in the Amazon - and their attending social consequences. Although Brandon has never been to the Amazon rainforest, he has studied this problem in depth since 2018, and he looks forward to visiting the Amazon in the near future to learn even more. In the meantime, he is spreading awareness of this problem by communicating what he has learned through avenues like Ballard Brief. In his free time, Brandon enjoys music, photography, sports, and the outdoors.

+ Summary

Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest represents a critical issue in our modern world, as it is the root cause of many other problems that affect the entire planet. The Amazon's deforestation is particularly relevant because it has been a chronic issue that has plagued the region for decades. Some of the key contributing factors include cattle ranching, infrastructure development such as roads, the building of many large dams, and small-scale subsistence farming. Consequences of deforestation in the Amazon include a significant loss of species and their habitats, a disturbance of indigenous peoples and their health, an increase in CO2 emissions, and a negatively altered water cycle around the globe. Many practices have been used to combat the issue, including increased monitoring of deforestation levels, expanding land rights and protection to indigenous peoples, land policy reform, and anti-deforestation legislation, but each have their own different strengths and weaknesses.

+ Key Takeaways

Deforestation in the Amazon is a complex and deeply interconnected issue with many related causes and consequences.

Deforestation in the Amazon is not just an environmental issue, but a social issue as well.

Deforestation in the Amazon affects the planet as a whole.

Contributing factors to Amazonian deforestation include cattle ranching, infrastructure development (roads), the building of many large dams, and small-scale subsistence farming.

Consequences of deforestation in the Amazon include a significant loss of species and their habitats, a disturbance of indigenous people and their health, fire, an increase in CO2 emission, and a negatively altered water cycle around the globe.

Many practices have been used to combat the issue of deforestation in the Amazon, including increased monitoring of deforestation levels, expanding land rights and protections to indigenous people, reforming land policy, and enacting anti-deforestation legislation, but each have their own strengths and weaknesses.

+ Key Terms

Amazon - A large tropical rainforest occupying the drainage basin of the Amazon River and its tributaries in northern South America, and covering an area of 2.3 million square miles (6 million square km). Comprising about 40% of Brazil's total area, it is bounded by the Guiana Highlands to the north, the Andes Mountains to the west, the Brazilian central plateau to the south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. ¹

Amazonia - The area around the River Amazon in South America, principally in Brazil, but also extending into Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. The region comprises approximately one third of the world's remaining tropical rainforest. ²

Amazonia Legal (Legal Amazon) - An area of 5.2 million km, constituting all of the Brazilian Amazon. The Brazilian government created the Amazonia Legal designation in 1953 as a way to plan and promote the social and economic development of states in the Amazon region, which historically share the same economic, political, and social challenges. ³

Deforestation - The action or process of clearing forests. ⁴ The United Nations 2020 Global Forest Resources Assessment defines deforestation as "the conversion of forest to other land use independently whether human-induced or not." ⁵

Desertification - The process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture.

Evapotranspiration - The process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces and by transpiration from plants.

Forest - Areas having more than 50% tree cover. ⁶

Hectare - 1 hectare is about 2.47 acres.

Land Surface Albedo - The ratio of the solar radiation reflected from Earth's surface to the solar radiation incident upon it, which is critical to the regulation of Earth's surface energy budget. In essence, land surface albedo is a measurement of the "whiteness" or reflectivity of the surface of the land.

Logging - The clearing (land) of trees to produce lumber. ⁷

Mato Grosso - A large state in west-central Brazil most covered in Amazon rainforest.

Reforestation - The act of renewing forest cover (as by natural seeding or artificial planting of seeds or young trees). ⁸

Slash-and-burn - Relating to or denoting a method of agriculture in which existing vegetation is cut down and burned off before new seeds are sown, typically used as a method for clearing forest land for farming, ⁹ also called fire-fallow cultivation.

Uncontacted Tribes- Tribes who have had no peaceful contact with anyone in the mainstream or dominant society.

Context

Forests represent a critical part of our planet's environmental health, and they affect the environment on many levels. ¹⁰ Sustainably managed forests provide numerous goods and services ¹¹-the World Wildlife Fund estimates that 1.6 billion people worldwide depend on forests for their livelihood, 300 million of whom live in forests. ¹² Forest ecosystems are also home to 80% of the world's terrestrial biodiversity, including countless species of plants and animals, many still yet to be discovered. ¹³ Subsequently, deforestation affects the environment, the economy, and even human health. ¹⁴ The Earth's climate is especially affected, as deforestation emits CO2 into the atmosphere. But deforestation also has biophysical effects, including changes in land surface albedo, evapotranspiration, and cloud cover. ¹⁵

The Amazon is the largest rainforest in the world as well as the largest river basin, spanning 670 million hectares ¹⁶ across 9 South American countries: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. ¹⁷ The Amazon contains more species of plants and animals than anywhere else on the planet, and is believed to be the home of 10% of all species on Earth. ¹⁸ Of the many plant species in the Amazon, 75% are unique to the Amazon. There are 3,000 different species of fish, which is the largest number of freshwater fish species in the world. ¹⁹ Additionally, the Amazon rainforest is home to 34 million people who depend on its resources. ²⁰

The Amazon rainforest is also the planet's largest deforestation front. ²¹ With 90-140 billion metric tons of carbon stored in the Amazon's forests, deforestation breeds high potential for "large-scale, irreversible ecological disaster." ²² Already, 20% of the Amazon biome has been lost, and the World Wildlife Fund estimates that 27% of the Amazon biome will be without trees by 2030 if the current rate of deforestation continues. ²³ From 1978 to 2017, over 750,000 square kilometers (75,000,000 hectares) of the Amazon was destroyed. ²⁴ Between 2001 and 2012, forest losses in the Amazon biome averaged about 1.4 million hectares per year, totaling 17.7 million hectares, mostly in Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. The country of Brazil is a key player in deforestation, and was responsible for 75% of the deforestation in the Amazon from 2001-2012. ²⁵

Contributing Factors

Government Involvement

One factor that influences Amazonian deforestation, as well as its other contributing factors, is government involvement. This takes the form of legislation, or lack thereof, that directly protects the forest, but also includes the policies surrounding logging permits, the process of designating protected lands, and the rules around businesses involved in the Amazon rainforest. These policies include penalties, fines, warnings, and seizures of equipment, or lack thereof, when legislation is violated. As the Amazon rainforest includes territory of 9 different countries, multiple governments are involved in its protection. However, the most influential government by far is the Brazilian government as 64% of the Amazon falls within its borders. ²⁶ ²⁷

From 2004 to 2012, the Brazilian government put several legislative measures in place to protect the Amazon and, as a result, deforestation in the Brazilian part of the Amazon dropped to its lowest recorded levels. ²⁸ ²⁹ However, governmental power and its effects can quickly change and, since the most recent President of Brazil began his term on January 1, 2019, a few key statistics have noticeably decreased. Enforcement actions by the main environmental agency of Brazil dropped by 20% during the first 6 months of 2019, compared with the first 6 months in 2018. ³⁰ There was then a 39% increase in forest cover loss when comparing the similar January-July period between 2018 and 2019. ³¹ Furthermore, in June 2019 alone, the rate of deforestation in Brazil rose 88% compared to June of the previous year. ³² These data indicate that government involvement in policy creation and enforcement is an influential factor, and, subsequently, can play a role in many of the following contributing factors.

Cattle Ranching

Cattle ranching is the biggest single cause of deforestation in the Amazon rainforest, accounting for about 80% of the Amazon's deforestation as forests are cleared for farmers to raise herds of cattle, primarily for exporting beef. ³³ The Brazilian Amazon is home to about 200 million head of cattle and is the largest exporter of cattle products in the world, supplying a quarter of the cattle products in the global market. ³⁴

Deforestation caused by cattle ranching is supported by an international demand for cattle-related products, including leather, meat, dairy, and cosmetics, which flow into companies in multiple industries worth billions of dollars. ³⁵ Deforestation through cattle-ranching is further driven by low costs for inputs, such as breeding bulls or cows, fencing, artificial feed, medicine, and labor, as well as ease of transportation and inexpensive land. ³⁶ At the onset of these deforestation problems, the government of Brazil had incentives for many years to increase land usage and ownership through cattle and clearing land. ³⁷

Infrastructure Development (Roads)

Roads and other related infrastructure have a huge impact on deforestation by increasing accessibility to the forest. After extensive research into all roads and transportation routes (including those that were illegal or unofficial), one study found that nearly 95% of all deforestation occurred within either 5.5 km of roads or 1 km of rivers, as both facilitate much more access to the rainforest. ³⁸ Additionally, the study found that protected areas near roads and rivers had much lower deforestation (10.9%) than did unprotected areas near roads and rivers (43.6%). ³⁹

Although there are many illegal and unofficial roads contributing to the issue, the Trans-Amazonian Highway is a large piece of this problem. This highway stretches 4,000 kilometers across Brazil (and the very center of the Amazon) and connects the coastal city of João Pessoa to the northeast border of Peru. ⁴⁰ The highway's first portion opened in 1972, but it has yet to be completed as construction has been interrupted due to a lack of financing and other issues. ⁴¹ This road allows deeper access into the Amazon and, following its construction, deforestation levels spiked. ⁴² It is estimated that, at its worst in the 1990s and early 2000s, more than 25,000 square kilometers of forest were cleared per year as a result of the highway. ⁴³

Hydropower dams

There are about 150 dams in the Amazon region, with hundreds more planned. ⁴⁴ Dams contribute to deforestation by replacing large swaths of forest with reservoirs of water. One example is the Belo Monte Dam, which is the fourth largest hydroelectric project on Earth. Its reservoir was filled in 2015, taking out 260 square miles of lowland and forest. ⁴⁵ Other examples of dams in the Amazon include the Balbina, Tucuruí, and Samuel dams. The area of forest lost to reservoir creation was 1,200 square miles at Balbina, 744 square miles at Tucuruí, and 168 square miles at Samuel. ⁴⁶ Perhaps most notable, however, is the Tucuruí Dam, which is located in the northeastern Brazilian Amazon and is the largest dam ever built in a tropical rainforest. ⁴⁷ Its reservoir displaced 40,000 people and flooded 2,875 square kilometers of forest. ⁴⁸

Flooding forests for reservoirs is not the only way dams contribute to deforestation. In addition, dams displace populations (Belo Monte has displaced 20,000 indigenous people since it was built in 2015), ⁴⁹ attract more people to the dam location with related jobs, and expose areas along the many roads that are built to each dam. All of these effects lead to more deforestation via increased land development and increased access for various groups engaged in deforestation. ⁵⁰ Many projects associated with these dams, like that of creating waterways for soy transportation, contribute to deforestation as well. ⁵¹

Small-Scale Subsistence Agriculture

Around the world, agriculture accounts for about 27% of all forest loss, and Amazonia is no exception. ⁵² Oftentimes, farmers will use slash-and-burn techniques to clear land for growing or harvesting commodities like soy, palm oil, gold, sugarcane, and beef, which depletes the forest cover and increases the risk of fire. In 2003, one of the worst years for deforestation in the Amazon, it was discovered that more than 20% of the forest in Mato Grosso (a Brazilian state) was converted to cropland. ⁵³ Much of this specific cause is powered by global markets and economic conditions. ⁵⁴ Generally, specific deforestation rates tend to rise and fall in concert with the price of soybeans, beef, timber, and other crops in the region. ⁵⁵

Consequences

Loss of Habitat or Species

Human disturbance and deforestation of the Amazon rainforest results in degradation of species. Decades of research shows that primary forests such as the Amazon are crucial in maintaining biodiversity; subsequently, forested areas with increased human interference (such as deforestation) experience reductions in species diversity. ⁵⁶ Data from a 2015 study on the Amazon show that loss of biodiversity is occurring in the rainforest's ecosystem, ⁵⁷ and a decrease of species richness was found to be higher in areas where deforestation has occurred to make room for agriculture. ⁵⁸

The elimination of tree cover is the main reason for species disturbance. Not only do the trees of the Amazon rainforest provide a home for many species, but the canopy of the rainforest also regulates temperature which is critical for numerous other species. Without the regulation these tree canopies provide, the environment becomes more like a savannah with much less vegetation, a highly variant temperature from day to night, and much lower humidity levels. This change also results in high winds and exposure to direct sunlight, solar radiation, and, at times, heavy precipitation, all of which could prove fatal to many species.

There are many implications as to why experts are concerned over the loss of species diversity in the Amazon; approximately 80% of the world's terrestrial biodiversity lives in forest area, and there are thousands of species of plants and animals unique to the Amazon rainforest that are found nowhere else in the world, such as pink river dolphins, macaws, toucans, tamarins, and glass frogs. Many species of plants and animals indigenous to the Amazon have made and continue to make unique contributions to science and medicine, and data suggests that a continuance in deforestation may lead to the extinction of certain plants and animals such as these. ⁵⁹ This trend can already be seen with the endangerment of many species including the Amazon Fer-de-lance viper and the three-toed sloth. ⁶⁰ Data suggests that species diversity will continue to decline if deforestation trends continue. ⁶¹

Disturbing Indigenous Peoples

Thirty-three million people inhabit the Amazon rainforest, and there are over 350 indigenous communities that depend on the forest and its resources for survival. ⁶² However, those numbers used to be larger, and many tribes and communities have become extinct due to deforestation and its accompanying side effects, including loss of food sources, soil erosion, water contamination, and exposure to foreign diseases to which aboriginal people do not have natural immunity. These diseases are brought in by illegal loggers, farmers, and ranchers. ⁶³

Although many of these Amazonian peoples have legal protections from deforestation over their lands, as most live within the Amazon's 422 indigenous reserves, ⁶⁴ they still often face invasion from loggers and farmers. ⁶⁵ In response, some tribes sell their land rights to the highest bidder and the deforestation continues. ⁶⁶ Generally, however, Amazonian tribes are conservation-minded and do what they can to preserve their homes-sometimes by protesting or petitioning government, and other times by actively fighting against loggers by burning down logger camps-but they are usually outnumbered and overpowered. ⁶⁷ Choosing to remain uncontacted is ultimately the most beneficial for tribes as typically 50% or more of the tribe does not survive the first few years of contact due to disease. ⁶⁸

Fire holds a unique position when it comes to deforestation, as it is both a cause and effect, and creates a negative spiral that can be difficult to stop. Much of this cause and effect cycle occurs because deforestation replaces the wet and humid rainforest biome with a more hot and dry, savannah-like biome, which catches fire much easier than a rainforest. ⁶⁹ Apart from physically burning the rainforest, fire also plays into other consequences of deforestation by releasing CO2 into the air and destroying plant and animal habitats. Fire is also deeply connected to many of the primary contributing factors of deforestation in the Amazon, as slash-and-burn techniques are often the tool of choice for cattle ranchers and farmers to drive further into the Amazon. ⁷⁰

For centuries, fires have been started in the Amazon rainforest to sustainably clear land for agriculture, but in recent years fires of a different breed have been raging in the rainforest, set mostly to clear much wider swaths of land for the expansion of cattle and crops. ⁷¹ The year 2019 saw considerably more fires than 2018, ⁷² and researchers connect this rise in fire to the rise in deforestation and decrease in government enforcement of environmental policies, which occurred at the same time. ⁷³ Although wildfires can start in the Amazon, it is very rare due to its high levels of humidity and rain. ⁷⁴ Brazil's Space Research Center (INPE), which track fires by satellite, estimates that 99% of these recent fires were caused, whether intentionally or accidentally, by humans. ⁷⁵ However, the slash-and-burn process can take multiple years from start to finish, and one often never knows the purpose behind a fire until crops or cattle appear after the fact, which makes it difficult to collect accurate data. ⁷⁶

Increase in C02 Emissions

According to one study, 15% of global CO2 emissions are attributed to deforestation. ⁷⁷ However, the Amazon's role in the global management of climate and CO2 levels is larger than that; deforestation in the Amazon leads not only to carbon emissions during the logging process, but also from fires caused by deforestation. The massive tree loss brought about by deforestation has also led to a decreasing level of CO2 absorption in the Amazon.

Researchers say that the Amazon, which once used to be a massive carbon sink, may only be absorbing half as much carbon dioxide as it did 20 years ago, mostly due to deforestation. ⁷⁸ Furthermore, one study in 2019 found that current prediction models for the Amazon's CO2 absorption, and their accompanying assumptions, did not take into consideration the depleted phosphorus levels in the Amazon's soil, which impacts a tree's ability to take in CO2. ⁷⁹ As a result, the study revealed that these predictions for absorption were inaccurate, as they were double the amount of absorption actually taking place. ⁸⁰ In other words, this data is especially relevant to global climate change as the Amazon absorbs a quarter of the carbon dioxide absorbed by all rainforests globally-a number which decreases with the rise of deforestation. ⁸¹ Annually, the world as a whole emits 40 billion tons of CO2 into the air, 2 billion tons of which is absorbed by the Amazon rainforest. ⁸²

Deforestation's contribution to climate change and carbon emission becomes cyclical when fire becomes involved. Slash-and-burn techniques use fire to clear forest, which emits additional CO2 into the atmosphere, along with the initial CO2 emissions that come with deforestation. Subsequently, stopping deforestation is widely recognized as one of the most effective fronts on which to battle climate change, as the opposite effect on carbon emissions can be seen with reductions in deforestation. ⁸³

Water Cycle Changes

The significant loss of vegetation from deforestation in the Amazon, and therefore transpiration of water that comes from that vegetation, negatively affects water cycles and triggers a cycle of desertification and climate change not only in the region, but also around the world. ⁸⁴ Locally, transpiration and evaporation accounts for 50-60% of rainfall in the region of Amazonia, and shifts in such a large portion of the water cycle have consequences across the globe. ⁸⁵

For example, in 2014, Princeton University-led researchers reported that widespread destruction of the Amazon rainforest could result in 20% less rain in the northwest United States, and 50% less snowpack in the Sierra Nevada. They also framed the implications of these effects, noting that the snowpack in the Sierra Nevada Mountains is an important source of water for irrigation in California's Central Valley, and that California has been the United States' primary state for food and dairy production for the past 50 years. ⁸⁶

Another study showed that the effect of deforestation in the Amazon was strong on water cycles around the world, reducing precipitation and cloudiness on multiple continents, mostly in the Americas, and of greatest note in the central United States. ⁸⁷ Some research indicates that these global water cycle shifts are so dramatic they could potentially cause droughts in important agricultural areas in India, Africa, China, and the United States, where negative effects have already been traced back to Amazon deforestation. ⁸⁸ ⁸⁹ However, additional changes in water cycles and subsequent desertification beyond a regional scale are only predicted to occur with much larger increases in Amazon deforestation. ⁹⁰

Practices

Monitoring Deforestation

Monitoring deforestation has been one of the first steps taken in many efforts to combat deforestation. By monitoring deforestation, government agencies hope to more easily enforce related laws and slow or eliminate deforestation. This practice includes constant tracking, measuring, and mapping over time to determine the exact dimensions of the problem. As an awareness grows of precisely where the deforestation happens, it becomes more possible to trace the deforestation back to specific causes and attack the problem at its roots. Many approaches have been taken to monitor deforestation, including mostly cross-sector collaborations. For example, the organization Imazon worked with Google to help develop better ways to track deforestation with their Google Earth Engine technologies, launching a platform called Sistema de Alerta de Desmatamento (SAD). ⁹¹ ⁹² These efforts culminated in the creation of Global Forest Watch-an online open-source platform that uses Landsat satellite imagery to monitor deforestation levels and trends in almost real-time. The Brazilian government's National Space Research Institute also monitors deforestation through a short-term system forest monitoring system called DETER. ⁹³ This system is the world leader in using satellite data to monitor deforestation. ⁹⁴

On a more basic level, and from a different angle, the Amazon Conservation Team (ACT) organization has equipped indigenous Amazonian persons with GPS technology to better manage the forest that their lives depend on, and to better advocate with local governments, instead of relying on third-party intervention. ⁹⁵ With GPS capabilities at their fingertips, indigenous people know the exact boundaries of the land they own-and therefore when their land rights are infringed upon-and monitor their lands with unprecedented precision and accuracy. ⁹⁶

Impact

Monitoring the deforestation of the Amazon closely allows root causes to be identified and specific action to be taken. Many groups take advantage of the monitoring tools and technologies that have recently been developed to further the impact that they have. ⁹⁷ For example, the Amazon Conservation Association (ACA), a non-profit NGO, reports that their usage of the Global Forest Watch allows them to "detect illegal gold mining and logging in protected areas within days" and subsequently initiate government action within 24-48 hours of receiving an alert. ⁹⁸ Many companies who intend to create more environmentally-conscious supply chains are also able to use various tools available through Global Forest Watch to monitor suppliers and ensure that they know where and how the products are being sourced. ⁹⁹

Imazon attributes the 80% reduction of Amazonian deforestation between 2004 and 2012 to the newly gained ability of monitoring deforestation with satellite imagery and disseminating that information widely on a regular basis. ¹⁰⁰

Gaps

Monitoring deforestation is a first step for many initiatives that tackle the issue, but simply monitoring a problem will never be a solution to that problem. Monitoring provides accurate data and nuanced information around the problem of deforestation, but the real value of monitoring comes when action is taken with the data. Many policy-makers have resisted data around deforestation trends, underscoring the importance of more extensive solutions. ¹⁰¹ Also, up until 2012, Brazil's DETER system received 250 metre-pixel MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) data that illegal loggers leveraged to evade detection by only logging smaller areas, exploiting a potential weakness in many efforts to accurately monitor deforestation. ¹⁰²

Expanding Land Rights and Protections for Indigenous Peoples

Satellites have been useful in unveiling deforestation and pressuring local governments to drive total levels of deforestation down, but another practice, starting on the ground instead of in the sky, has proved efficient as well. ¹⁰³ This approach entails working with the indigenous people of the Amazon rainforest. Many approaches have been taken in this realm, but all with the overarching goal of reducing deforestation via two main strategies: expanding protected areas for indigenous people and teaching indigenous people how to preserve their forest homes through the adoption of new technologies and practices (including effective lobbying with local governments). ¹⁰⁴

Impact

Working with indigenous people has proved to be an impactful strategy for many decades when it comes to deforestation. ¹⁰⁵ Although not the most direct strategy, the data from several studies suggests a sizeable impact: a report from the World Resource Institute showed that, in Brazil, deforestation in indigenous community forests from 2000 to 2012 was less than 1%, compared with 7% outside them. ¹⁰⁶ Furthermore, the report showed that the higher amount of deforestation that had occurred outside indigenous community forests led to 27 times more carbon dioxide emissions than were produced from deforestation on indigenous community forests, and that indigenous community forests contain 36% more carbon per hectare than other areas of the Brazilian Amazon. ¹⁰⁷

In 1987, the unprecedented was achieved as 20 million hectares of Amazon rainforest were given back to indigenous inhabitants. ¹⁰⁸ In 1990, Gaia Amazonas was founded and began to work with indigenous people in expanding their protected territories and negotiating skills. ¹⁰⁹ In the Colombian Amazon, they have been able to create the largest continuous indigenous territory in the world, with 26 million hectares of Amazon forest legally recognized as indigenous territory. ¹¹⁰ The organization's efforts have reached 26,000 indigenous people belonging to 100 communities in the Amazon by establishing a shared governance of protecting forest areas. ¹¹¹

Gaps

Working with indigenous people to expand their rights for the purpose of reducing deforestation requires a deep understanding of their culture, among other issues. Additionally, the impact of such activities is often difficult to measure, especially as the results of such activities may take some time to manifest. Although research indicates that there are generally lower deforestation rates in lands that are under indigenous stewardship as opposed to other Amazonian areas outside that category, how much correlation or causation exists is debatable and, based on historical data, it is difficult to predict how much expanding indigenous land rights would actually reduce deforestation in the future. ¹¹² Furthermore, although some research has been done on how individual indigenous groups have been able to combat deforestation in combination with various conservation organizations, little has been done in evaluating the impact that specific organizations have on deforestation as they work with indigenous people. ¹¹³

Additionally, there have been multiple instances where indigenous tribes in the Amazon have been granted legal rights over pieces of land, but then turned around and sold those rights to logging companies, as the tribes wanted the money more than the land, and deforestation continued. ¹¹⁴ Another struggle with expanding and granting indigenous land rights is enforcing those rights, which takes time, money, and heavy government involvement, as well as defining the responsibility of indigenous peoples for the sustainability or deforestation of their lands. ¹¹⁵

Anti-Deforestation Legislation

Anti-deforestation legislation comes from various governing bodies and covers a wide spectrum of legislation including anti-logging, logging permit systems, protected area designations, sustainable forestry laws, sourcing laws, reforestation mandates and programs, cattle ranching mitigation, farming restrictions, and so on. As the Amazon rainforest is the most prevalent area for deforestation in the world, it has captured a notable global interest including gaining the attention of many lawmakers. Some examples of these types of legislation include the United Nation's REDD+ program (Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries), Brazil's Forest Code, ¹¹⁶ and various types of reforestation requirements, logging permits, agricultural credit systems, carbon credit systems, the Terra Legal program, product embargoes, environmental licenses, the Public Forest Management law, and so on. ¹¹⁷

Impact

The largest impact from anti-deforestation legislation the Amazon has seen has been from laws that designate territory for indigenous people. As previously stated, indigenous community forests have been shown to emit 27 times less carbon dioxide from deforestation than neighboring non-indigenous administered lands. ¹¹⁸ The government has strongly enforced logging laws and jailed many perpetrators, but isolating a reduction of deforestation from specific laws is more difficult and not well documented. ¹¹⁹

Gaps

The legislative process has notoriously lagged far behind the devastating consequences of deforestation, and as soon as laws are created and enforced, many times there are still loopholes that are taken advantage of. Not every law has been airtight. Creating laws and enforcing them are two separate things; many times the two do not come together as laws are created but left inadequately enforced, making them effectively nonexistent.

As mentioned previously, areas designated as protected are routinely lacking the personnel and resources to adequately be protected. ¹²⁰ For example, a recent study showed that the government of Brazil has weakened when it comes to creating and enforcing legal systems, which has triggered an increase in laundering soy, cattle, and timber, as well as generally subverting legislation through permit fraud. ¹²¹ ¹²²

Protected Area Designations

Reforming land policy is another angle from which many have tackled deforestation, including designating areas as protected and expanding protections. Protected areas can take the form of preserved areas for indigenous people, national parks, and even include the area called the Legal Amazon or Amazonia Legal (Legal Amazon) in Brazil. ¹²³ Other protective designations include Amazon Regional Protected Areas (ARPA), ¹²⁴ which is another Brazilian designation, as well as "sustainable use reserves," ¹²⁵ biological reserves, ¹²⁶ legal reserves, and Areas of Permanent Protection.

Impact

Three recent studies highlight the impact of land policy reform. The first study, done by the World Resources Institute, showed indigenous community forests emitting 27 times less carbon dioxide from deforestation than neighboring non-indigenous administered forests. ¹²⁷ Another study showed that protected areas of the Amazon avoided or displaced 34,000-39,000 km2 of deforestation. ¹²⁸ Additionally, a 2013 study out of the University of Michigan showed that indigenous lands perform the best when it comes to lowering deforestation, although all forms of protection do limit deforestation to some degree. ¹²⁹

Gaps

Flaws can certainly be present in protecting land, as theory often differs from reality when resources are lacking to execute protections. As of 2011, half of protected areas in the Brazilian Amazon had no approved management plan and 45% had no management council. ¹³⁰ Staffing in some protected areas is very low-the state of Pará has only 1 officer per 1,817 square kilometers of forest. ¹³¹

Some designations are more effective than others. For example, sustainable use reserves are often abused and therefore not as effective in preventing deforestation as other designations. ¹³² Furthermore, designating an area as protected does not necessarily reduce deforestation in and of itself, especially if adequate resources are not deployed in actually protecting it, and protective laws are not enforced against those who violate them. Unfortunately, in much of the Amazon, even protected areas become prey to deforestation at times. ¹³³

Brandon Wegrowski is from southern California and is a recent graduate of BYU's Human Resource Management program. During his time at BYU and his involvement with the Ballard Center he became more keenly aware of the role that social innovation plays in understanding and solving important global issues - particularly in environmental issues, like deforestation in the Amazon - and their attending social consequences. Although Brandon has never been to the Amazon rainforest, he has studied this problem in depth since 2018, and he looks forward to visiting the Amazon in the near future to learn even more. In the meantime, he is spreading awareness of this problem by communicating what he has learned through avenues like Ballard Brief. In his free time, Brandon enjoys music, photography, sports, and the outdoors.

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Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest - Ballard Brief

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Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest represents a critical issue in our modern world, as it is the root cause of many other problems that affect the entire planet. The Amazon's deforestation is particularly relevant because it has been a chronic issue that has plagued the region for decades.

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The Mediterranean Sea is turning into a dangerous plastic trap, with record levels of pollution from microplastics threatening marine species and human health.

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15 Tenacious Animals That Live in the Taiga

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From a hardy frog to better-known bears and reindeer, meet the tenacious animals that inhabit the taiga (boreal forest), the largest biome on land.

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The polar regions are the first to be affected by the heating climate, and dramatic changes are already underway in Antarctica.

Floating ice shelves are melting rapidly, raising concerns about sudden, uncontrollable sea level rise. The Antarctic Peninsula, a popular tourist destination, is one of the most rapidly warming places in the Southern Hemisphere, with average summer temperatures increasing by over 5°F (3°C) between 1970 and 2020.

Since the 1970s the Southern Ocean has absorbed as much as 75 percent of the excess heat created by humans, and 40 percent of the carbon dioxide. Warmer, more acidic oceans are already impacting Antarctic ecosystems, with many penguin colonies shrinking, and in some cases disappearing altogether.

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Climate Crisis in Antarctica - Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition

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Antarctica and its ice, ocean and ecosystems play a critical role in regulating the global climate. Today, Antarctica is at a crossroads. The global climate crisis is interrupting natural processes across large parts of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean.

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Pantanal fires threaten unique biodiversity - Wetlands International

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The Pantanal, in the heart of Latin America, is a giant seasonal floodplain and the world’s largest tropical wetland across Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay. It is about the size of England.

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tens of millions of years older than the Amazon Rainforest. Daintree is a highly active habitat, serving as home to thousands of wildlife species, including 12,000 species of insects.

8 of the Oldest Forests in the World - Treehugger

Treehugger
https://www.treehugger.com › oldest-forests-world-4859...

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tens of millions of years older than the Amazon Rainforest. Daintree is a highly active habitat, serving as home to thousands of wildlife species, including 12,000 species of insects.

8 of the Oldest Forests in the World - Treehugger

Treehugger
https://www.treehugger.com › oldest-forests-world-4859...

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tens of millions of years older than the Amazon Rainforest. Daintree is a highly active habitat, serving as home to thousands of wildlife species, including 12,000 species of insects.

8 of the Oldest Forests in the World - Treehugger

Treehugger
https://www.treehugger.com › oldest-forests-world-4859...

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Animals of the Boreal Forest Biome 🌲 Wolf, Lynx, Moose, Hare, Owl...

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Boiling Point: The Mediterranean’s Unprecedented Heat

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The Mediterranean Sea is a climate change hotspot, warming faster due to limited water exchange, high evaporation, and saltier conditions, intensifying heat retention.

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The temperatures in the Arctic continue to rise at three times the global annual average.

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The Arctic Tundra is covered with Marshes, Bogs, Lakes and Streams. The plants that can be found in the Arctic Tundra include Shrubs, Mosses, Grasses and Lichen. Animals include, Pikas (Like a rabbit but with round ears) , Mountain Goats, Voles (Like a hamster but with a longer tail), Caribous (A reindeer), Arctic Foxes, Elks (Moose) and other animals.

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around 40,000 plant species, nearly 1,300 bird species, 3,000 types of fish, 427 species of mammals, and 2.5 million different insects. Rainforests are critically important to the well-being of our planet.

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around 40,000 plant species, nearly 1,300 bird species, 3,000 types of fish, 427 species of mammals, and 2.5 million different insects. Rainforests are critically important to the well-being of our planet.

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Rainforest Animals | Educational Resources

Loveland Living Planet Aquarium

https://livingplanetaquarium.org › education › animals-o...

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In Boreal Forest there are tigers, tiger that are strong.