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Sustainability - sustainable production, responsible consumption, sustainable materials

Convenience - consumers of convenience

Technology - digital age of consumers expect digital platforms integrated into businesses and customer experiences

Omnichannel strategies - for customer experience e.g brand knowing customers size when online shopping

Ethics in the fashion industry - the Conde Nast walk out an protest in relation to unfair dismissal, pay and treatment in the fashion industry marks a new era in the way the cut throat industry operates

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1. Eliminate waste and pollution: This involves strategies such as carbon tracking, capture, and removal technologies to reduce pollution at its source. Examples include investing in carbon removal technologies and partnering with innovations that can convert emissions into new materials.

2. Circulate products and materials: The focus here is on reducing plastic production and promoting circular packaging solutions. Initiatives like Earth Day 2024's "planet versus plastic" campaign aim to reduce plastic reliance, with actions such as using biodegradable packaging and implementing AI to track and recycle plastic waste.

3. Regenerate nature: The article stresses the importance of empowering women in agribusiness to improve global regenerative food systems. It advocates for gender equity in farming to enhance community resilience, food security, and environmental sustainability.

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In recent years, the fashion industry has come under increasing scrutiny for its environmental impact, prompting a paradigm shift towards more sustainable practices. Circular fashion emerges as a promising solution by minimising waste, reducing resource consumption, and promoting longevity in garment lifecycles. This article explores the concept of circular fashion, its principles, benefits, challenges, and the role of stakeholders in driving its adoption.

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Welcome to Quick Question, a series where we unpack the sometimes confusing topics that are often discussed but not always explained in sustainable fashion. Have a Q? Submit your burning question to hello@thesustainablefashionforum.com to be featured on SFF.

"Make fashion circular."
"The future of fashion is circular."

Whether you're new to the sustainable fashion space or are a seasoned vet, chances are you've heard someone in the industry make one (or both) of these statements, but what do they mean? What is circular fashion , and why is it the future?

The current fashion model operates linearly, prioritizing the mass production and consumption of clothing and footwear, mostly made from fossil fuel-based synthetics that aren't designed to be reused or recycled.

The continuous cycle of overproduction and overconsumption within this linear system is fueled by aggressive marketing, omnipresent advertising, and the persuasive power of influencers. This creates a culture of impulsive purchasing, enticing consumers with the allure of low prices and the promise of bolstering their sense of personal identity and social acceptance. The linear model significantly contributes to textile waste by encouraging the disposal of clothing and footwear after minimal use or when trends shift. Consequently, these items often end up in landfills, get incinerated, or are sent to developing nations, resulting in numerous environmental and social complications.

Recognizing the pressing threat of limited resources and growing consumer concerns about environmental and social impacts, the fashion industry is shifting towards a circular economy.

What is a Circular Economy?

A Circular Economy is an economic model, rooted in Indigenous principles, designed to minimize waste and make the most of resources. It's a departure from the traditional linear economy, which follows a "take-make-dispose" pattern, where resources are extracted, used to create products, and then discarded as waste.

In a Circular Economy, the goal is to keep resources in use for as long as possible, extracting the maximum value from them while in use, and then recovering and regenerating products and materials at the end of their service life. This model emphasizes three key principles:

1. Design for Longevity and Reusability: Products are designed to be durable, easily repairable, and recyclable or reusable at the end of their life cycle.

2. Resource Efficiency and Regeneration: Emphasis is placed on using resources more efficiently, reducing waste generation, and promoting recycling, remanufacturing, and refurbishment to regenerate materials and products.

3. Closed-Loop Systems: The aim is to create closed-loop systems where materials are continuously cycled back into the economy, reducing the need for new resource extraction.

Circular fashion refers to an approach within the fashion industry that aims to create a closed-loop system, reducing waste and maximizing the lifespan of clothing and textiles. It aligns with the principles of the Circular Economy by rethinking how garments are designed, produced, used, and disposed of.

Key aspects of circular fashion include:

1. Design for Longevity and Durability: Garments are designed to be durable, timeless, and high quality, encouraging longer lifespans and reducing the need for frequent replacements.

2. Materials and Production Methods: Emphasis is placed on using sustainable and eco-friendly materials, incorporating recycled or upcycled fabrics, and employing production methods that minimize waste and environmental impact.

3. Extended Use and Reuse: Circular fashion encourages clothing rental, resale markets (such as second-hand stores or online platforms), and clothing swaps to extend the life of garments beyond a single owner's use.

4. Repair, Remake, and Recycling: Promoting repair services, encouraging consumers to mend or alter garments, and facilitating recycling or upcycling of old clothes into new products are vital elements of circular fashion.

5. Closing the Loop: Creating systems where garments can be fully recycled or biodegrade at the end of their life cycle, minimizing landfill waste and allowing materials to be reused in new clothing or other products.

Embracing this approach means endless reuse and recycling, reducing waste, pollution, and reliance on new raw materials. This shift offers a transformative solution to the fashion industry's challenges like climate change, pollution, and waste, while fostering responsible growth offering opportunities for innovative business models and fostering a more environmentally conscious consumer culture.

Achieving a circular system in fashion involves a comprehensive approach that encompasses various stakeholders, from designers and manufacturers to consumers and policymakers. From groundbreaking developments in textile recycling to digital product passports and game-changing bio-based materials, achieving an industry-wide circular business model is a lofty ambition. It will take large-scale innovation and significant funding to decouple the industry from the current growth-based model.

Design for Circularity

While there's no industry standard for what constitutes a circular product or agreed-upon definition for the baseline criteria, we know that to enable a circular economy products need to be:

Used Long Term and Durable: Designing products to last longer not only reduces the frequency of replacements but also minimizes overall resource consumption and waste generation. This involves using high-quality materials and robust construction methods to ensure longevity.

Made to be Remade: Prioritizing recyclability means designing products with materials that are easy to disassemble and process into new materials at the end of their life cycle. It involves choosing materials that have minimal environmental impact and can be recycled or reused efficiently.

User-Centric in Design: Designing products with the end-user in mind involves creating items that resonate with consumers on an emotional level, ensuring they have an enduring aesthetic appeal. Additionally, incorporating user-friendly repair options and making spare parts readily available encourages consumers to extend the lifespan of products.

Repairable: Constructing products with easily repairable components and providing accessible repair services or guidance empowers consumers to maintain and repair items, prolonging their usefulness and reducing the likelihood of premature disposal.

Brands also have a role in educating consumers about the value of durability, repairability, and responsible consumption. Providing guidance on how to care for products, offering repair tutorials or workshops, and ensuring easy access to spare parts contribute to a more sustainable consumption pattern.

Scale Textile Recycling Operations

Today, recycling textiles into new textiles at scale is a major challenge. According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, less than 1% of fiber used to produce clothing is recycled to make new clothing. Garments that are recycled are mainly downcycled (recycling something so that the resulting product is of a lower value than the original item) into items like insulation, mattress stuffing and industrial wipes, which surprise, surprise, ultimately ends up in the landfill. In addition to products needing to be designed for recycling, significant long-term investment and collaboration are needed to scale the collection, sorting, and recycling operations.

Scale Circular Business Models

Circular business models that allow companies to make revenue without making new clothes present significant opportunities for the fashion industry to decouple revenue from raw material production. These business models include rental, repairs, , and remaking (restoration, repurposing, disassembling) and offer revenue, cost benefits, and provide better product margins and competitiveness.

In striving towards a circular fashion economy, the industry stands at a pivotal crossroad. Embracing the principles of circularity-designing for durability, encouraging reuse and recycling, scaling textile recycling operations, and adopting innovative business models-offers a transformative path forward. It's a journey that demands collective commitment, innovation, and a fundamental shift in how we perceive, create, and consume fashion. By reimagining the lifecycle of clothing, prioritizing sustainability, and fostering a culture of conscious consumption, the fashion industry can not only mitigate its environmental impact but also pave the way for a future where style harmonizes with responsible stewardship of our planet's resources.

Welcome to Quick Question, a series where we unpack the sometimes confusing topics that are often discussed but not always explained in sustainable fashion. Have a Q? Submit your burning question to hello@thesustainablefashionforum.com to be featured on SFF.

"Make fashion circular."
"The future of fashion is circular."

Whether you're new to the sustainable fashion space or are a seasoned vet, chances are you've heard someone in the industry make one (or both) of these statements, but what do they mean? What is circular fashion , and why is it the future?

The current fashion model operates linearly, prioritizing the mass production and consumption of clothing and footwear, mostly made from fossil fuel-based synthetics that aren't designed to be reused or recycled.

The continuous cycle of overproduction and overconsumption within this linear system is fueled by aggressive marketing, omnipresent advertising, and the persuasive power of influencers. This creates a culture of impulsive purchasing, enticing consumers with the allure of low prices and the promise of bolstering their sense of personal identity and social acceptance. The linear model significantly contributes to textile waste by encouraging the disposal of clothing and footwear after minimal use or when trends shift. Consequently, these items often end up in landfills, get incinerated, or are sent to developing nations, resulting in numerous environmental and social complications.

Recognizing the pressing threat of limited resources and growing consumer concerns about environmental and social impacts, the fashion industry is shifting towards a circular economy.

What is a Circular Economy?

A Circular Economy is an economic model, rooted in Indigenous principles, designed to minimize waste and make the most of resources. It's a departure from the traditional linear economy, which follows a "take-make-dispose" pattern, where resources are extracted, used to create products, and then discarded as waste.

In a Circular Economy, the goal is to keep resources in use for as long as possible, extracting the maximum value from them while in use, and then recovering and regenerating products and materials at the end of their service life. This model emphasizes three key principles:

1. Design for Longevity and Reusability: Products are designed to be durable, easily repairable, and recyclable or reusable at the end of their life cycle.

2. Resource Efficiency and Regeneration: Emphasis is placed on using resources more efficiently, reducing waste generation, and promoting recycling, remanufacturing, and refurbishment to regenerate materials and products.

3. Closed-Loop Systems: The aim is to create closed-loop systems where materials are continuously cycled back into the economy, reducing the need for new resource extraction.

Circular fashion refers to an approach within the fashion industry that aims to create a closed-loop system, reducing waste and maximizing the lifespan of clothing and textiles. It aligns with the principles of the Circular Economy by rethinking how garments are designed, produced, used, and disposed of.

Key aspects of circular fashion include:

1. Design for Longevity and Durability: Garments are designed to be durable, timeless, and high quality, encouraging longer lifespans and reducing the need for frequent replacements.

2. Materials and Production Methods: Emphasis is placed on using sustainable and eco-friendly materials, incorporating recycled or upcycled fabrics, and employing production methods that minimize waste and environmental impact.

3. Extended Use and Reuse: Circular fashion encourages clothing rental, resale markets (such as second-hand stores or online platforms), and clothing swaps to extend the life of garments beyond a single owner's use.

4. Repair, Remake, and Recycling: Promoting repair services, encouraging consumers to mend or alter garments, and facilitating recycling or upcycling of old clothes into new products are vital elements of circular fashion.

5. Closing the Loop: Creating systems where garments can be fully recycled or biodegrade at the end of their life cycle, minimizing landfill waste and allowing materials to be reused in new clothing or other products.

Embracing this approach means endless reuse and recycling, reducing waste, pollution, and reliance on new raw materials. This shift offers a transformative solution to the fashion industry's challenges like climate change, pollution, and waste, while fostering responsible growth offering opportunities for innovative business models and fostering a more environmentally conscious consumer culture.

Achieving a circular system in fashion involves a comprehensive approach that encompasses various stakeholders, from designers and manufacturers to consumers and policymakers. From groundbreaking developments in textile recycling to digital product passports and game-changing bio-based materials, achieving an industry-wide circular business model is a lofty ambition. It will take large-scale innovation and significant funding to decouple the industry from the current growth-based model.

Design for Circularity

While there's no industry standard for what constitutes a circular product or agreed-upon definition for the baseline criteria, we know that to enable a circular economy products need to be:

Used Long Term and Durable: Designing products to last longer not only reduces the frequency of replacements but also minimizes overall resource consumption and waste generation. This involves using high-quality materials and robust construction methods to ensure longevity.

Made to be Remade: Prioritizing recyclability means designing products with materials that are easy to disassemble and process into new materials at the end of their life cycle. It involves choosing materials that have minimal environmental impact and can be recycled or reused efficiently.

User-Centric in Design: Designing products with the end-user in mind involves creating items that resonate with consumers on an emotional level, ensuring they have an enduring aesthetic appeal. Additionally, incorporating user-friendly repair options and making spare parts readily available encourages consumers to extend the lifespan of products.

Repairable: Constructing products with easily repairable components and providing accessible repair services or guidance empowers consumers to maintain and repair items, prolonging their usefulness and reducing the likelihood of premature disposal.

Brands also have a role in educating consumers about the value of durability, repairability, and responsible consumption. Providing guidance on how to care for products, offering repair tutorials or workshops, and ensuring easy access to spare parts contribute to a more sustainable consumption pattern.

Scale Textile Recycling Operations

Today, recycling textiles into new textiles at scale is a major challenge. According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, less than 1% of fiber used to produce clothing is recycled to make new clothing. Garments that are recycled are mainly downcycled (recycling something so that the resulting product is of a lower value than the original item) into items like insulation, mattress stuffing and industrial wipes, which surprise, surprise, ultimately ends up in the landfill. In addition to products needing to be designed for recycling, significant long-term investment and collaboration are needed to scale the collection, sorting, and recycling operations.

Scale Circular Business Models

Circular business models that allow companies to make revenue without making new clothes present significant opportunities for the fashion industry to decouple revenue from raw material production. These business models include rental, repairs, , and remaking (restoration, repurposing, disassembling) and offer revenue, cost benefits, and provide better product margins and competitiveness.

In striving towards a circular fashion economy, the industry stands at a pivotal crossroad. Embracing the principles of circularity-designing for durability, encouraging reuse and recycling, scaling textile recycling operations, and adopting innovative business models-offers a transformative path forward. It's a journey that demands collective commitment, innovation, and a fundamental shift in how we perceive, create, and consume fashion. By reimagining the lifecycle of clothing, prioritizing sustainability, and fostering a culture of conscious consumption, the fashion industry can not only mitigate its environmental impact but also pave the way for a future where style harmonizes with responsible stewardship of our planet's resources.

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What is Circular Fashion? - The Sustainable Fashion Forum

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What is circular fashion? Why is circularity the future of fashion and what are some examples of circular fashion brands? If the concept of circular fashion has got you stumped, we've got you covered!

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Circular fashion represents a departure from the linear model of "take-make-dispose" prevalent in traditional fashion production. Instead, it embraces principles of circularity, including designing for durability, recycling, upcycling, and minimizing waste throughout the supply chain. By prioritizing the reuse and recycling of materials, circular fashion aims to create a closed-loop system where resources are regenerated rather than depleted.

1. Design for Durability: At the core of circular fashion is the concept of designing garments to withstand multiple wears and washes. This involves selecting high-quality materials, employing durable construction techniques, and creating timeless styles that transcend seasonal trends.

2. Recycle and Upcycle: Circular fashion encourages the recycling and upcycling of garments at the end of their lifecycle. Recycling involves breaking down textiles into raw materials for the production of new fabrics, while upcycling involves creatively transforming discarded clothing into new, higher-value products.

3. Closed-Loop Systems: Adopting closed-loop systems ensures that materials remain in circulation for as long as possible. This includes initiatives such as take-back schemes, where brands collect used garments for recycling, and rental and resale platforms that extend the lifespan of clothing through sharing and second-hand markets.

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1. Eliminate waste and pollution: This involves strategies such as carbon tracking, capture, and removal technologies to reduce pollution at its source. Examples include investing in carbon removal technologies and partnering with innovations that can convert emissions into new materials.

2. Circulate products and materials: The focus here is on reducing plastic production and promoting circular packaging solutions. Initiatives like Earth Day 2024's "planet versus plastic" campaign aim to reduce plastic reliance, with actions such as using biodegradable packaging and implementing AI to track and recycle plastic waste.

3. Regenerate nature: The article stresses the importance of empowering women in agribusiness to improve global regenerative food systems. It advocates for gender equity in farming to enhance community resilience, food security, and environmental sustainability.

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Embracing circular fashion offers a multitude of benefits for both businesses and the environment. By reducing reliance on virgin resources, it helps mitigate the environmental impact of fashion production, including carbon emissions, water usage, and pollution. Additionally, circular fashion fosters innovation and collaboration within the industry, driving the development of new materials, technologies, and business models.

Despite its potential, circular fashion faces several challenges on the path to widespread adoption. These include limited infrastructure for textile recycling, consumer behavior and perception, and the complexity of supply chain transparency and traceability. Overcoming these barriers requires coordinated efforts from stakeholders across the fashion ecosystem, including brands, manufacturers, policymakers, and consumers.

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Brands play a pivotal role in driving the transition to circular fashion by integrating sustainability into their design, production, and marketing strategies. Manufacturers and suppliers are responsible for implementing circular practices within the production process, such as reducing waste and improving resource efficiency. Policymakers can support the circular fashion movement through regulations, incentives, and investments in infrastructure and research. Finally, consumers have the power to drive demand for sustainable fashion through their purchasing choices and behaviors.

Circular fashion represents a paradigm shift towards a more sustainable and regenerative approach to clothing production and consumption. By embracing principles of circularity, stakeholders across the fashion industry can work together to minimize waste, conserve resources, and create a more resilient and equitable future for fashion. Through collaborative efforts and collective action, the vision of circular fashion can become a reality, shaping a more sustainable future for the apparel industry and the planet.

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The International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics, Lund University, Tegnérplatsen 4, Lund 22100, Sweden

Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

1. Introduction

Sustainability has long been recognized as a core issue, as well as an opportunity, for businesses [ 1, 2, 3]. It has been argued that more radical approaches beyond product and process redesign, such as the move towards new product-service combinations and business models, can lead to higher environmental gains [ 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. The circular economy (CE) is an alternative paradigm to the current 'take-make-dispose' linear economy to help slow, close and narrow resource loops [ 9, 10]. With nascent roots in the 1960s [ 11, 12, 13, 14], the CE paradigm has been popularized in the past decade, entering policy and business debates [ 12, 15, 16]. New circular business models (CBMs) have been heralded as a potential driver for CE transitions [ 12, 17]. CBMs contribute to the slowing of resource loops by encouraging long product life and reuse of products, closing loops through capturing the residual value from by-products or "waste" through business model innovation, and narrowing resource loops through product design and manufacturing efficiencies [ 9]. However, CBMs are not yet widespread in business practice because of the need to change the key building blocks of the business, as well as the need to go against dominant business paradigms [ 18, 19].

After a period of 'excitement' about the CE paradigm, it is time to start 'operationalizing' the CE concept [ 11] in a way that it lives up to 'sustainability expectations' [ 10, 20, 21] and avoids negative side-effects [ 22]. This requires change at the citizen, business and policy levels [ 12]. In this paper, we focus on the business level predominantly (recognizing that this level is intertwined with consumers and policy) by identifying CBM tools and approaches as a way to support operationalization of the CE [ 23].

To support the business model design, it has been recognized in management literature and practice that the innovation process requires "structure and guidance to frame and focus thought" [ 24]. To provide guidance in the process of circular business model innovation (CBMI) and help business developers overcome the challenges experienced when designing and innovating business models towards circularity [ 25, 26] (e.g., communicating offers, optimally arranging reverse logistics and addressing time delays between product availability and demand), a broad variety of methods and tools have been developed [ 7, 23, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31].

We argue that the infusion of tools in practice would benefit from an overview of the state of the art of CBMI tools, and an assessment of potential contributions of such tools in the business model innovation process. Research on tool development highlights that many tools are being developed but not used in practice, which may be due to the lack of transparency in the tool development process and limited (reported) testing with potential users of the tools [ 32, 33]. Hence, this paper presents an overview of existing tools and methods for circular business model innovation. The overview seeks to provide structure to the landscape of tools and identifies promising tools to support practitioners in the CBMI process, using criteria developed in this research. These criteria are developed into a final 'tools checklist', which aims to support researchers and practitioners in future sustainability tool development.

The paper proceeds with a review of the relevant background literature ( Section 2), a description of the methodology ( Section 3), and the findings ( Section 4). Section 5 presents the discussion and Section 6 presents the conclusions.

2. Background

2.1. Emergence of Circular Business Model Innovation

A business model broadly describes 'the way business is done' [ 34] by illustrating how a business proposes, creates and delivers and captures value [ 35] for the business, customer and wider group of stakeholders [ 36]. As such, it provides a 'systemic lens' to investigate businesses and the ways they operate [ 37]. A business model is typically depicted by a value proposition (product/service offering), value creation and delivery (how this value is provided e.g., through activities and sales channels) and value capture mechanisms (how money is made and other forms of value are captured) [ 34].

Innovating the business model can take two broad forms, i.e., the design of an entirely new business model, or the reconfiguration of the elements of an existing business model [ 38] and is associated with increased competitiveness of companies [ 39]. Business model innovation can be thought of as an iterative process that consists of several phases (e.g., ideation, implementation and evaluation) [ 40] and involves different levels of detail (e.g., changes at a conceptual level to changes in operational practices) [ 41].

The concept of value is central to business models. In traditional management literature, value refers to the value captured for the firm [ 42], its customers [ 34] and stakeholders such as shareholders [ 38]. In today's economic system, negative externalities of production and consumption practices are insufficiently incorporated in prices and many potential value creation opportunities of businesses are wasted, missed or destroyed [ 43]. Literature on sustainable business models highlights the need for a broader understanding of value, including the benefits and costs to other stakeholders beyond the firm and its customers, specifically to society and the environment [ 43, 44]. As such, sustainable business models (SBMs) integrate economic, environmental and social aspects of sustainability into the purpose of an organization, at the firm and at network levels [ 45, 46], and use a triple bottom line (people, profit, planet) approach in measuring performance [ 47].

A multitude of sustainable business model archetypes has been identified in the literature [ 9, 19, 47, 48, 49, 50]. One type of a sustainable business model is a circular business model (CBMs) [ 10, 43]. The concept of CBMs builds on the research field of business models [ 34, 41, 51, 52], and research fields such as those on closed loop value chains [ 53, 54], product service systems (PSS) [ 5] and industrial ecology [ 55, 56, 57]. These fields have since long recognized the importance of tracing material flows to reduce environmental impact while 'creating value from "waste"' [ 55, 56, 57], and the environmental and economic opportunities associated with optimizing the use intensity and longer use of products [ 5]. CBMs focus on slowing, closing and narrowing loops to maintain the embedded economic value for as long as possible, reduce environmental impacts and deliver superior customer value [ 21, 27, 49]. To embed circular practices in the business model, firms can design products for longevity [ 58], provide offers aligned with preserving product integrity [ 59, 60] or recover material resources at end of life (i.e., recycling, industrial symbiosis) [ 30, 61]. Yet, firms wanting to capitalize on circular practices must adopt an innovation perspective that goes beyond the direct supply chain needed for the production of products to consider networks for multiple cycles of value creation as well as disposal when the end of life is irreversibly reached [ 30].

The process of circular business model innovation (CBMI) in this paper is understood as innovating the business model (i.e., updating the elements of an existing business model, or establishing a new organization and associated business model) to embed, implement and capitalize on circular economy practices. Such practices may focus on different aspects of the circular economy, such as product durability and design for product life extension to slow resource loops, and recycling approaches to close the loop [ 9]. CBMI requires an iterative process of several phases (e.g., ideation, implementation and evaluation) [ 40] and can result in different degrees of innovation (e.g., a new activity added to a business model vs. a comprehensive change in various business model elements). By rethinking how a company creates, delivers and captures value, business model innovation can be a holistic approach to align the value creation logic of a company with circular principles. Particularly in established firms, CBMI is related to trialing and testing a variety of models to assess their suitability but is also about setting in motion internal changes within the organization, through engaging stakeholders internal and external to the firm [ 62].

With recent developments in policy, fueled by organizations such as the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, CBMs have become more prominent as a way to achieve greater levels of sustainability [ 5, 12] and tackle ever more pressing climate change impacts [ 63] while contributing to firm competitiveness and broader socio-economic issues [ 12]. However, to this date, the uptake of CBMs is slow [ 11, 18] and more research is needed to understand which tools and methods can provide effective support for companies in their transition towards CBMs.

2.2. Towards Tools for Circular Business Model Innovation

Circular business model innovation (CBMI) is a relatively recent field, with most tools and methods to support the business model innovation process only having recently emerged. However, in the fields underlying the CBM concept ( Section 2.1), a plethora of tools and methods has been developed. Work on eco-design and innovation tools, for instance, has been popular for a few decades [ 32], with many contributions focusing on design for X, where X refers to various strategies such as recycling and reuse [ 64, 65]. Later, many tools and approaches to support the design of (sustainable) PSS became prominent [ 8, 66]. Over the past decades, an increasing number of 'sustainability tools' for business model design [ 67] have been suggested [ 32].

Generally, tools take the form of guidelines (e.g., little detail but broadly applicable such as sustainability standards by the International Standards Organization, ISO), checklists (in-depth, but narrow, with application at selected stages of the product development) or more analytical tools (e.g., providing detailed and/or systematic analysis at specific stages of the product development process, such as life cycle assessment) [ 68, 69]. They may cover one or multiple aspects of the product lifecycle [ 70] and can be qualitative or quantitative in nature [ 71]. Tools tend to focus on conceptual design, ideation and supply chain involvement as well as integrating stakeholder, customer and managerial concerns [ 67].

Despite the plethora of tools, research indicates that tools that fit company needs and expectations well are scarce [ 70]. Many popular generic tools and approaches (e.g., business model canvas by Osterwalder and Pigneur [ 72] or the lean startup approach by Ries [ 73]) appear to be used flexibly in practice, but without a specific focus on CBMI. However, without adequate facilitation, the widespread use of these more generic tools may also 'dilute' the focus on sustainability or the circular economy [ 33, 62] and result in more conventional business cases lacking a clear positive environmental or societal impact. On the other hand, many tools specifically developed for sustainability or circularity innovation purposes, unfortunately, remain unused [ 32]. This may be due to the fact that they have not been tested empirically and did not include users (most importantly business developers in companies) and their needs in the CBMI process [ 32]. Furthermore, tools may be too complex or demanding in terms of time commitment and number of steps in the process, or too context-specific (see tool requirements in [ 34]). It is perhaps not surprising that tools such as the business model canvas by Osterwalder and Pigneur [ 72] or the lean startup approach by Ries [ 73] are so popular because initially, they look simple and generic, i.e., adaptable to various contexts. Finally, tools seem to be developed within a particular discipline (e.g., engineering, business, design) [ 32], but fail to learn from beneficial interdisciplinary insight that could support the usability of tools. As an example of work trying to integrate different disciplines, design science has become more prominent in sustainability business-oriented tools, by specifically using a stakeholder and user perspective [ 74, 75], using techniques from design science such as prototyping [ 76], and, more generally, testing tools with users iteratively in practice [ 74].

2.3. Tools for Circular Business Model Innovation: Gaps and Opportunities

A number of tools are emerging that focus specifically on business model innovation for circular economy practices. Often tools on CBMI build on approaches from traditional management literature. For instance, a number of business model visualization and mapping tools have been suggested that build on the Business Model Canvas by Osterwalder and Pigneur and emphasize the notion of 'value creation' [ 23, 30, 72, 77, 78, 79]. Popular innovation approaches, such as effectuation (learning from entrepreneurial practice) [ 80] and lean start-up (focusing on trialing new ideas in practice in a fast and iterative way) [ 73], have been used as building blocks for recent approaches to CBMI [ 81, 82]. Many other tool types that focus on ideation for CBMs are also emerging, such as serious games [ 83, 84], case databases [ 85] and typologies [ 61].

To support the effective adoption and further development of CBMI tools in practice, first, a clear overview of the state of the art of tools and their potential contribution in the business model innovation process is needed. For eco-design tools, several reviews have been conducted (e.g., [ 32, 67, 71]). These reviews focus on evaluating tools according to two dimensions: tool purpose, which describes the type and purpose of the tool (e.g., checklist, analytical [ 68]; nature of the tool (e.g., qualitative, quantitative) [ 71]), and tool form and characteristics (e.g., diagrams or computer-based tools [ 70] and evolution of tool development over time e.g., [ 86]).

To the best of our knowledge, only one review to date focuses on tools and approaches that have been suggested for CBMI [ 87]. However, to begin 'operationalizing' the CE [ 11], there is a need for a further thorough investigation of tools, in particular because many sustainable innovation tools are developed, but they are not used in practice [ 32] and there is a risk that 'generic tools' (e.g., [ 72, 73]) might not lead to CBMs with a clear environmental impact [ 88]. Furthermore, clear methodological approaches and assessment of tools often lack, even for those developed within academia [ 89]. Hence, we seek to identify and investigate promising tools with the potential to support CBMI in practice that have been developed in a rigorous and transparent manner through 'empirical testing' (i.e., iterations and deliberate learning and improvement) with the potential user. In addition, to support practitioners and their various objectives and business settings, we investigate additional tool characteristics, such as targeted user group, and whether guidance on use and validation of the tool (suggested in design studies [ 74, 76]) is available.

To address this gap, this paper develops an overview of tools for CBMI that provides structure to the landscape of tools and identifies 'good practice' CBMI tools. To do this, we describe the purposes and type of the selected tools, characteristics and form [ 68, 70, 71] and use and validation of the tool, extending earlier work in earlier reviews [ 87] by also emphasizing the use and validation of tools. Through screening and selecting existing tools according to a set of 'quality' criteria, we identify tools with a validated potential to support researchers wanting to develop future CBMI tools and practitioners interested in applying tools for CBMI.

3. Methods

The main objective of this study is to identify CBMI tools and their characteristics. In particular, and in contrast to previous reviews, this study centers on business model innovation and CE, with a focus on tools' rigor and validation, and aiming to address the gap of empirically tested tools [ 32]. Based on this overall objective, a systematic literature review was performed to identify publications offering CBMI tools. An extensive review protocol of tool selection criteria was applied to create an overview of existing CBMI tools. Figure 1 contains a visualized overview of the process, which is further explained in the following sub-sections.

3.1. Literature Review Process

3.1.1. Identification of the First Set of Publications

Between November 2018 and January 2019, the authors identified publications related to CBMI tools through a bibliographic search. The review focused on publications in the peer-reviewed literature and was complemented by a review of tools from grey literature. Publications were first identified by searching in the two major academic databases Scopus and Web of Science, using a combination of keywords related to the circular economy (circular, circular economy, resource efficiency, resource loops) with keywords related to business model innovation (business model, business innovation, innovation, product-service system) and keywords related to tools, processes or methods (tool, framework, typology, game, operationalise, implement) (The Boolean combination of search words was ("circular" OR "circular economy" OR "resource efficiency" OR "resource loops") AND ("business model" OR "business innovation" OR "innovation" OR "product-service system") AND ("tool" OR "framework" OR "typology" OR "game" OR "operationalize" OR "implement") AND ("business").).

This broad search strategy was designed in line with the objective of the paper to create an overview of existing tools and methods suited for CBMI. Due to interest in CBM tools by practitioners and the relative immaturity of the field, the authors also conducted a complementary grey-literature review. For this, the authors reviewed practitioner-focused CE-related websites (listed in Appendix A) as well as materials from workshops, conferences, and courses attended by the authors. The grey literature review search was less structured than the academic database search, as information on CBMI tool development in practice is dispersed. However, the search built on the authors' experiences with tool development and knowledge of relevant CE initiatives and projects.

After identification and elimination of duplicates found across the bibliographic databases, in total, 235 (online) publications related to CBMI tools were identified. This total selection comprised 163 academic journal articles, 41 conference papers, 14 books and book chapters, 13 websites and online tools, three reports and one thesis.

3.1.2. Shortlisting of CBMI Tools through Two Phases of Filtering

In the next step, these 235 publications were further screened and shortlisted in two review rounds to identify tools that are in line with the scope and purpose of the paper as previously presented in Section 2.3. Table 1 summarizes the selection criteria for suitability that were applied in the two rounds of screening.

The shortlisting process showed that although a relatively large number of tools comply with criteria No 1 and 2 ("CE/CE business models" and "a tool, process or method"), only a small number meet criteria No 3 ("rigorously developed"), criteria No 4 ("validated in practice") and criteria No 5 ("procedure available") in Table 1. After the first initial screening and application of criteria, 34 publications containing tools remained. The second detailed screening identified a total of 13 publications about tools as suitable for further analysis. The longer list of 34 tools resulting from the first screening and reasons why these were excluded is provided in Appendix B. Table 2 presents the final selection of publications with tools that were shortlisted for further analysis.

To ensure the accuracy of the screening procedure, all shortlisted publications were independently reviewed by the authors. This process was characterized by frequent meetings among all four authors to discuss the decision-making process and help align the interpretation of selection criteria. In each screening round, the publications were equally distributed between the four authors of this paper and checked against the selection criteria. This was followed by meetings between the authors to compare outcomes and reasoning during the decision-making. During the first and second screening, different authors were allocated to the publications. A 'final check' was done by yet another author, which followed by a meeting to create the final list of tools. At the end of the process, each publication had been evaluated multiple times and at least by three different authors in detail. More detail on the process and criteria adopted is provided in the 'Review Protocol' in Appendix C.

3.2. Data Analysis and Categorization

In order to enable easier comparison against each other and give structure to the emerging landscape of CBMI tools, the identified 13 tools were analyzed according to a framework that was compiled from literature previously identified in Section 2.3. The framework comprises four main categories:

For each category, a number of initial sub-categories and examples were developed based on earlier tool reviews (e.g., [ 67, 70, 71, 87]) and business model innovation literature (see Table 3). In the purpose category, the CBMI stages have been adopted from the business model innovation phases "initiation, ideation, integration, and implementation" in Frankenberger et al. [ 40] and the more generic build, measure, learn cycle by Ries [ 73], which has previously been applied to large businesses experimenting with new business models [ 82, 97]. Following a content analysis of the tools, the framework was iteratively fine-tuned. This process was characterized by frequent discussions and check-ins among the authors. Table 3 displays the final framework to analyze the selected 13 tools.

4. Results

This section presents the main results of the analysis. The focus is on the purpose and form of tools ( Section 4.1), as well as the target user group and validation ( Section 4.2).

4.1. Purpose and Form of the Tool

Table 4 classifies the tools according to the three phases in the iterative CBMI process as previously discussed [ 40, 73]. While ideate and design type of tools dominate the shortlist, a few 'multi-purpose tools' address two or even three phases of the CBMI process. The overview in Table 4 shows that there are CBMI tools that help companies implement and test, as well as evaluate and improve CBMI options. Although some tools were generic and designed to help a variety of firms identify new opportunities for capturing value based on circular economy principles [ 30, 92, 94], most tools focused on one particular aspect related to CBMI. For example, a few focused on product development and linking customer needs and wants to circular design strategies [ 93, 96]. Others focused on interpreting environmental impact and circular business model propositions [ 88, 91].

All tools were classified as qualitative, as none of the tools required entering numerical data or performing calculations. Furthermore, five tools were identified to take a clear value chain perspective, focusing on the steps from material acquisition to end of life [ 30, 83, 84, 95, 96]. Finally, the findings show the presence of a variety of different forms, such as tools that offer a process and conceptual framework, and others that focus on visually engaging formats, such as cards and games. However, besides the games which must be connected and applied to the real-world after the tool has been used [ 83, 84], the remaining tools present step-by-step processes or (conceptual) frameworks that can be followed and used immediately in the innovation process. In fact, some tools, such as Nußholz [ 30] and Heyes et al. [ 75], build on more generic types of business model canvases (evolving from Osterwalder and Pigneur [ 72]) as part of the tool or process.

4.2. Empirical Testing, User Involvement and Generalisability

Table 5 classifies the final 13 tools according to the target user, level of user involvement, and generalizability. All of the developed tools are targeted to businesses practitioners, while a few of them address additional use groups such as students and educators (e.g., [ 83, 84]).

We emphasize that empirical validation is often very limited or completely lacking for the large majority of potential CBMI tools ( Appendix B). Findings show that even among our elected shortlist, most tools have been tested with practitioners only with a limited number of workshops, or with students (e.g., [ 83, 84]). Moreover, guidance on how to use the tools in practice is often missing, potentially undermining the more widespread use of tool among business practitioners. Sometimes such guidelines are published in a separate annex, or afterwards (e.g., [ 98]) these were only considered if easily identifiable in the publication. Furthermore, while nine out of the 13 tools are of a generic nature (i.e., suitable for different sectors), a few tools have specifically been developed for a certain sector (e.g., textiles).

5. Discussion

This research aimed to contribute to the popular field of the circular economy by providing an examination of circular business model innovation (CBMI) tools and to support current research and practice and future tool development. The process of CBMI tool collection led to a list of 13 tools. While many sustainability tools have been developed, it was found that only a few at present focus specifically on CBMI, despite the rising popularity of the CE. The variation in tools identified reveals that scholars have attempted to 'embed circularity' within different phases of the business model development process. The final list of CBMI tools is comprised of processes or (conceptual) frameworks and tools that are predominantly qualitative in nature and processes or (conceptual) frameworks. Most tools have only been tested with a limited number of workshops or users, at least as documented in the papers. Furthermore, many tools lack comprehensive descriptions of how they can be used by others. Hence, the discussion focuses on insights to support future tool use. This is followed by contributions to research and practice and outlining limitations and future research.

5.1. CBMI Tool Development to Increase Uptake in Practice

The broad literature search found that there are many potential tools that could be applied to support CBMI-however, a significant number are quite generic and not specific to CE (e.g., [ 72, 73]) and among the ones specific to CE, many do not fulfil the strict selection criteria applied (e.g., transparent development process and tested with users, see Appendix B). The analysis also revealed that tools could benefit from an interdisciplinary approach adopted recently by some authors (e.g., [ 74]), such as embedding design approaches in the business modelling processes [ 74, 76]. Iterative (tool) development-including multiple tests with users-is also an important element in design research [ 98] and could increase the usefulness of CBMI tools and their future uptake. Considering that user validation and iteration is a key aspect emphasized in fields such as design science and practice [ 74], we highlight the importance of developing tools in collaboration and interaction with practitioners and embedding insight from across disciplines. While design science is one promising field to inspire tool development, it is expected that fields such as business studies and engineering [ 32] but also other further afield research disciplines such as biology could provide inspiration for tool development [ 99]. Finally, simplicity, the ability to drive business change, and adaptability to different contexts were identified as criteria for sustainability tools in earlier research [ 28],but are also echoed in the approaches to tool development examined in this research, where many tools were found to be generic, adaptable and easy to use.

Based on the selection criteria developed and applied in this paper, as well as insight from the literature reviewed in this paper, we developed a checklist for CBMI tool development, found in Box 1.

Checklist for CBMI tool development

The tool is rigorously developed-from both literature and practice insights [ 43].

The tool is iteratively developed and tested with potential users [ 32, 100].

The tool integrates relevant knowledge from different disciplines [ 75, 76].

The final tool version has then been used by practitioners, preferably multiple times [ 32, 100], and an evaluation of this process is done to assess tool use and usefulness [ 76, 101].

The tool provides a transparent procedure and guidance on how others can use the tool [ 98].

Circular economy or broader sustainability objectives and impact are firmly integrated into the tool and safeguarded when tool application is facilitated by others than the tool developer [ 33, 62].

The tool inspires or triggers (business) change [ 28].

The tool is adaptable to different (business) contexts [ 28].

These 10 criteria are aimed at guiding future research (and practice) contributions in CBMI tool development. Box 1 was developed for CBMI, but we argue that the checklist could be more widely applied to sustainability tool development. To this end, "CBMI" in point 1 in the checklist could be replaced with the broader term "sustainability-oriented innovation" as we see that the further guidance in the checklist is more generally applicable. Thus, although our checklist was developed to support CBMI, it is also potentially of use to a wider audience of sustainability tool developers.

5.2. Contributions to Theory and Practice

Despite the plethora of sustainability-oriented tools [ 32], few reviews of CBMI tools have been developed to date. We add to existing research by developing a shortlist of CBMI tools based on the tool quality criteria developed in this paper and give insight into the different characteristics of existing CBMI tools. Based on these insights and former 'tool literature' we developed a checklist for future researchers and practitioners in the field CBMI, but also for sustainability tool developers more generally. Thus, we seek to contribute to theory by connecting CBMI and sustainability tool development and responding to earlier research which highlights the deficiencies of sustainability tools [ 32]. To practice, we aim to provide a useful overview of existing CBMI tools, in particular of their purposes and relevance in the innovation process. For practitioners such as consultants in the broader CE field, we aim to provide a useful guideline on how to develop more rigorous tools that could benefit CBMI implementation.

5.3. Limitations and Future Research

The (C)BMI process is highly iterative, and as mentioned before, researchers have tried to find different 'entry-points' for tools in the process. In this paper, we adopted the generic phases of 'ideation and design', 'implement and test' and 'evaluate and improve' [ 40, 81, 82]. A limitation of this approach is that in practice, the (C)BMI process in companies may follow different phases or may take place in a more ad-hoc manner. Within these overarching phases, a variety of tools could fit, and some may be useful across several phases. Hence, future research is encouraged to provide deeper empirical insights into the complexities of actual circular business model innovation processes. Longitudinal ethnographic [ 82] and action-type [ 81] of research approaches that follow the actual steps and outcomes of the CBMI process could help increase understanding of the CBMI process, overcome specific organizational barriers and identify the most fitting business models. Indeed, CBMI is related to trialing and testing a variety of models to assess their suitability, as well as setting in motion internal changes through engaging stakeholders internal and external to the firm [ 62]. Future tool development could consider both these aspects more profoundly, as they are potentially of quite a different nature-on the one hand emphasizing ideating, developing and testing new propositions-and on the other hand highlighting the need for internal 'change management'-as well as novel collaborations towards circular business models and value chains. Due to the various organizational aspects linked to CBMI, different tools might be developed, catering for different organizational sizes and types (see e.g., [ 95] for SMEs and [ 84] for entrepreneurs).

Future research may also benefit from a clear interaction between researchers and practitioners who can exchange knowledge on 'best tool practice'. For example, adopting the criteria in the CBMI tool development checklist ( Box 1), coupled with further insight from tool use in practice, could feed back into future research in this field.

Finally, the research has benefited but also been limited by the lenses of the involved researchers. As an interdisciplinary team representing research across sustainability, business, design and engineering disciplines, we sought to present a broad view on tools and possible criteria. However, because of the authors' own experience of developing (CBMI) tools, subjectivity is hard to avoid. We sought to address this through the multiple review phases of the tools, involving different authors each time. Another limitation is related to the fact that the identified CBMI tools may have been developed and tested further beyond the publication, but such evidence was not gathered, due to the accessibility of such insight. Hence, openness and transparency on tool procedures and development can further improve uptake of CBMI tools.

6. Conclusions

This research aims to contribute to CBMI tool development in two ways. Firstly, it presents an overview of existing CBMI tools, provides structure to the landscape of existing tools, and identifies gaps. We find that current tools exist for all generic phases of CBMI: ideate and design; implement and test; evaluate and improve. However, the majority are (semi-) qualitative in nature and focus on the ideation and design phase. This suggests an opportunity for more quantitative tools and tools that support all phases of the CBMI process. As various tools build on widely used business model work, such as the business model canvas [ 72], more interdisciplinary approaches that bridge the fields of business, design, engineering and sustainability sciences [ 32], as well as cross-cultural insights, could advance tool development. Judging from the lack of CBMs in large corporations [ 18, 19], there is a potential for better integration of popular tools and approaches used by practitioners (e.g., [ 72, 73]) with academic insight on CE implementation and innovation. In addition, the development of tools in close interaction with practitioners (i.e., businesses) and building on best practice examples could further advance tool development. Secondly, the paper contributes to supporting the development of CBMI tools in research and practice through the development of a 10-criteria checklist ( Box 1). It is suggested that this checklist could also support the development of sustainability tools more generally.

Several avenues for future research are suggested to support the operationalization and mainstreaming of CBMs. Future research can contribute to the trialing of new CBMs to find the most suitable ones for businesses [ 62, 103], as well as supporting the organizational change dynamics of transforming businesses' dominant business models for the CE. This may be best supported by action-oriented research approaches that are underpinned by strong theoretical insight and practice review. For this to work in practice, business practitioners would need to be open for higher levels of research involvement, and different types of interactions would need to be designed into research projects. At the same time, academics can become more effective at translating theoretical insight into effective CBMI tools, processes and support-from ideation and design to implementation and testing, and evaluating and improving-to guide CE operationalization in a way that it lives up to 'sustainability expectations' and avoids negative side-effects. This is needed in order not to 'dilute' sustainability or circularity objectives in favor of more conventional business cases that lack a clear positive environmental and societal impact.

To conclude, we encourage researchers from across disciplines to collaborate with practitioners for future tool development, ensure transparency of the tool development and create accessible tool guidance to spur greater uptake of CBMI tools and help 'operationalize' the CE.

Author Contributions

N.B. initiated the paper and compiled the full draft; L.S. conducted and wrote up the database search for CBMI tools; K.W. wrote and compiled the methodology, J.N. focused on the background and overall editing of the paper. This being a collective effort, N.B., L.S., K.W. and J.N., jointly developed the methodology and spent equal time on categorizing and coding the tools, and rounds of editing and writing.

Funding

This research was supported by the Mistra REES (Resource Efficient and Effective Solutions) program, funded by Mistra (The Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research) and the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program 'Circular business models for the solar power industry'-CIRCUSOL-under grant agreement 776680.

Acknowledgments

We want to thank researchers at TU Delft Industrial Design Engineering (Circular Product Design) and Lund University, IIIEE for fruitful discussions on tools to be used in the circular economy business model innovation process. We also want to thank the Mistra REES and CIRCUSOL teams for ongoing discussions on tools.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Appendix A. Websites/Platforms for CE Practice Tools

The field of the circular economy is rapidly expanding. We focused on the below list of projects, organizations and websites which arose from our current networks and expertise in this field to identify possible tools:

Appendix C. Review Protocol

The purpose of this initial screening is to quickly filter out publications that are outside our scope. After dividing the publications equally amongst authors, each author reviews the abstracts, keywords, and titles of his/her publication to identify publications that are:

The purpose of the second screening is to critically analyze the existing tools to ensure they fit with our tool selection criteria. After re-divide the remaining publications and assigning them again to a different author, we now impose our strictest criteria:

purpose-made tools for the CE/CE business models

the tool has been rigorously developed-e.g., from both literature and practice

○

◾

collections of tools without a clear empirical grounding

◾

they are 'consultancy type' of tools without a clear understanding of development and independent usage (e.g., DTU Matche tools)

has been tested with potential users and final version used by practitioners (best tools, multiple times) and some evaluation of this process is done

a procedure is ready on how others can use it

○

○

◾

Tools which are a 'black box' and/ or they cannot be used independently by the user. E.g., many agent-based or modelling tools may do a 'service to a company' by modelling something for them, but the tools cannot be used by the company, or others interested in using the model.

◾

Collections of tools-e.g., Pajula et al., (2017)-without insight into individual tool use

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No.

Criteria

Explanation/Description

1st Initial Screening

2nd Detailed Screening

1

The publication must be relevant to CE/CE business models

The initial screening focused on a broad relevance to CE/ CE business models, and the second screening filtered out those not specifically developed for this purpose.
Recent literature reviews have included various sustainable business (model) tools-however, as our focus is on CBM, we focus here on CE specific ones.

X

X

Purpose

Circular business model innovation stage

Ideate and design; implement and test; evaluate and improve

Intention/Focus

Training; decision-making; educational

Scope

Single firm perspective; value chain/ecosystem perspective

Characteristics and form

Complexity

single tool; a portfolio of tools

Form/type

Typology; maturity model; canvas; workshop; game; database of cases

Nature of data

Quantitative; qualitative

User group

Target user scope

Single company or organization; multiple companies or organizations

Target actors

Students; policy/government; large business; SME; academic; other

Validation

Application in practice

Conceptual; tested with multiple users after the initial version

Test group

Students; practitioners; academics

Table 4. Tool characteristics with regards to purpose, Circular Business Model Innovation (CBMI) phase ², and form/type.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Review and Evaluation of Circular Business Model Innovation Tools

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The circular economy has been heralded as a potential driver for sustainable development by business, academia, and policymakers. In a future circular economy, new business models are needed that slow, close and narrow resource loops to address key resource and climate challenges.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The clothing industry employs 25 million people globally contributing to many livelihoods and the prosperity of communities, to women's independence, and the establishment of significant infrastructures in poorer countries. Yet the fashion industry is also a significant contributor to the degradation of natural systems, with the associated environmental footprint of clothing high in comparison with other products.

Routledge Handbook of Sustainability and Fashion recognizes the complexity of aligning fashion with sustainability. It explores fashion and sustainability at the levels of products, processes, and paradigms and takes a truly multi-disciplinary approach to critically question and suggest creative responses to issues of:
* Fashion in a post-growth society
* Fashion, diversity and equity
* Fashion, fluidity and balance across natural, social and economic systems

This handbook is a unique resource for a wide range of scholars and students in the social sciences, arts and humanities interested in sustainability and fashion.

Introduction Part I - Framing and expanding fashion and sustainability 1. Other Fashion Systems Kate Fletcher 2. Sustainability and Fashion Joanne Entwistle 3. Nature's systems Louise St Pierre 4. A Whole New Cloth: Politics and the Fashion System John Thackara Part 2 - Sustainability and fashion as seen from other places and disciplines 5. The Real Challenge of Sustainability John Ehrenfeld 6. Economic Growth and the Shape of Sustainable Fashion: contextualizing fashion sustainability in terms of consumer-led economic growth Ann Thorpe 7. Prospect, seed and activate - advancing design for sustainability in fashion Jonathan Chapman 8. Speed Carolyn Strauss 9. African Second-hand Clothes: Mima-te and the Development of Sustainable Fashion Amanda Ericsson and Andrew Brooks 10. Fashion And Sustainability In The Context Of Gender Mirjam Southwell 11. Spirituality and Ethics: theopraxy in the future of sustainability within the supply chain Sue Thomas 12. Consumption studies: the force of the ordinary Ingun Klepp and Kirsi Laitala 13. Accidentally sustainable?: ethnographic approaches to clothing practices Sophie Woodward 14. The world in a wardrobe: expressing notions of care in the economy and everyday life Joe Smith Part 3 - Perspectives on refining fashion from within 15. Establishing the History of Sustainability in Fashion Sasha Wallinger 16. Branding Sustainability, Business Models in Search of Clarity Simonetta Carbonaro and David Goldsmith 17.Towards fashion media for sustainability Else Skjold 18. The role of science and technology for sustainable fashion Greg Peters, Hjalmar Granber, Susanne Sweet 19.The New Synthetics: Could synthetic biology lead to sustainable textile manufacturing? Carole Collet 20. The fashion system through a lens of zero-waste fashion design Timo Rissanen 21.Fashion brands and workers' rights Liz Parker Part 4 - Visions of sustainability from within the fashion space 22. Fashion as material Lynda Grose 23. Fashion Design Dilys Williams 24. Fashion and community Lizzie Harrison 25. Openness Amy Twigger Holroyd 26. Mending Jonnet Middleton 27. "A suit, of his own earning": Fashion Supremacy and Sustainable Fashion Activism Otto von Busch 28. The futures of futures studies in fashion Mathilda Tham Conclusions

Biography

Kate Fletcher is Professor of Sustainability, Design, Fashion at the Centre for Sustainable Fashion, University of the Arts London, UK.

Mathilda Tham is Professor of Design at Linnaeus University, Sweden, and metadesign researcher at Goldsmiths, University of London, UK.

'Containing the work of leading thinkers and activists, this Handbook is a much-needed volume, which broadens and deepens our understanding of the complexities of the conjoining of sustainability and fashion. A truly collaborative initiative, in its content and method it provides guidance, challenges, but also a positive way forward for sustainability and fashion to co-exist, despite what sometimes seem to be overwhelming odds.' -Hazel Clark, Parsons The New School for Design, USA'Fletcher and Tham have gathered together a stellar cast of academics, researchers, practitioners and activists who offer their perspectives on sustainability viewed through the lens of fashion. Through concise essays and case study snapshots the reader is challenged and guided to think more deeply about sustainability as a matter of personal, local and globally interconnected agency.''Fashion and sustainability can be hard to grasp due to its complexity. This seminal handbook offers a wide range of good suggestions and perspectives; from very hands on propositions to highly abstract theoretical inquiries, each and every chapter provide good examples for action and exploration of issues relevant for both scholars, students, and industry.'-Vibeke Riisberg, Kolding School of Design, Denmark-Sandy Black, University of the Arts London, UK
'Many books document, describe and perhaps even explain fashion. What this book adds is the desire to change it. No-one reading the extraordinarily diverse content is left with any doubt as to the complexity, but also the urgency, of that ambition. Starting with a movement from the study of systems to a concern with consequences.' -Daniel Miller, University College London, UK

'Sustainable Fashion has in the past often seemed gestural, borrowing from the discourse of Sustainable Design to only ever slightly lessen a massive problem. This selection proves that Sustainable Fashion Design is now a conceptually mature field with much to teach other disciplines of design.' -Cameron Tonkinwise, Carnegie Mellon University, USA

'Throughout, this handbook strives to present an objective, future-oriented approach to sustainability in the fashion industry that takes into account the experiences of designers, manufacturers, the labor force, consumers, and the environment. This important and unique resource will appeal to a wide range of scholars, students, practitioners, and activists. Summing Up: Highly recommended.' - C. B. Cannon, Brand Library and Art Center, CHOICE April 2015

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Routledge Handbook of Sustainability and Fashion

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The clothing industry employs 25 million people globally contributing to many livelihoods and the prosperity of communities, to women's independence, and the establishment of significant infrastructures in poorer countries. Yet the fashion industry is also a significant contributor to the degradation of natural systems, with the associated environmental footprint of clothing high in comparison with other products.

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Sustainability & Innovation: Upcycling, Repair & Deadstock Strategies

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Sustainability & Innovation: Upcycling, Repair & Deadstock Strategies

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Rising Demand for Upcycling: Increased consumer interest in upcycled, recycled, repurposed, and reworked items.

Consumer Behavior: 53% of UK consumers repaired items instead of replacing them; 22% willing to pay more for waste-reducing brands.

Social Media Trends: Continuous growth in "recycled materials" searches; TikTok's #Deadstock tag had 55.5m views by October 2022.

Gen Z Influence: Desire for individuality and sustainable consumption.

Actionable Insights: Use sustainability as a cost-saving measure during the cost-of-living crisis; promote budget-friendly, recycled, and repairable products.

Circular Processes: Essential to integrate reuse and material longevity into design strategies to reduce waste and GHG emissions.

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Consumer Attitudes: Increasing adoption of sustainable lifestyles; more about saving money than saving the planet.

Behavioral Shifts: Preference for durable, reusable, and repairable goods; influenced by cost of living crisis.

Business Implications: Companies need to enhance transparency, embed circularity, and integrate ESG strategies.

Sustainability Efforts: Focus on decarbonisation, reducing waste, and achieving net-zero targets.

Challenges: Affordability remains the primary barrier; need for affordable sustainable alternatives.

Regulatory and Market Changes: Embrace regulatory changes, improve ESG data collection, and leverage policy incentives.

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On balance more consumers have adopted a sustainable lifestyle in 2023 compared with a year ago.
In the past 12 months there has been an increase in the proportion of consumers saying they have adopted a more sustainable lifestyle across 11 of the 23 sustainable behaviours we track in our research. In contrast, there was a fall in six of them.

The rising cost of living is influencing sustainable choices.
In a sign that the cost of living crisis is having an impact, behaviours with the largest increase in adoption this year include buying more second-hand items, paying more for longer-lasting products, repairing more, and using the car less.

More consumers are taking sustainability into consideration when making a purchase.
In addition to adopting money-saving sustainable behaviours, more consumers are taking into consideration durability and repairability when making a purchase in 2023, and whether products are labelled as responsibly sourced or manufactured, or support biodiversity.

The huge rise in energy prices in 2023 drove the majority of consumers to save energy wherever possible.
While most consumers have tried to lower their energy consumption, for example by reducing the number of hours when their heating is on, less than a third have adopted the more expensive energy-saving options such as improving the insulation of their home or installing solar panels or heat pumps.

Sustainable packaging and products, and reducing waste, are the two practices consumers value the most.
Frequently-purchased and essential items, such as groceries and everyday household products, drive consumer interest in sustainable and ethical values the most.

Fewer consumers drive or fly than before the COVID-19 pandemic.
Nearly one in five consumers said they drive or fly less, and use public transport more, than before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Circularity continues to grow in popularity.
Compared with 2022 there has been an increase in the proportion of consumers taking 'circularity' into consideration across 12 of 15 relevant behaviours. The biggest changes relate to circular activities aimed at saving money: 76% of consumers say they would consider using a repair service (compared with 73% in 2022), 39% are reselling more of their unwanted possessions (compared with 32% in 2022), and 34% are buying more second-hand products this year (compared with 29% in 2022).

A quarter of consumers are prepared to pay more for sustainability.
This includes paying more to protect biodiversity or for sustainable products and packaging, or for products or services of suppliers that respect human rights or commit to ethical working practices.

Affordability remains the number one barrier to the adoption of a more sustainable lifestyle.
While the main reasons for not adopting a more sustainable lifestyle remain the same as in 2022, a higher proportion of consumers mentioned them: these relate to cost (62%), a lack of interest in sustainability (58%), and not having enough information (50%). When asked what help they need to adopt a more sustainable lifestyle, consumers continue to ask for sustainable alternatives to be more affordable (56%), as well as requiring more help with the removal of plastics and packaging (53%) and for clearer guidance on how to dispose of or recycle products (46%).

Most consumers say the commitment of businesses to sustainability influences their trust in those businesses.
A third (34%) of consumers stated that their trust in brands would be improved if they were recognised as an ethical/sustainable provider by an independent third party. A similar proportion (32%) claimed that their trust in brands would be improved if they had a transparent, accountable, and socially and environmentally responsible supply chain.

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Sustainability & Consumer Behaviour 2023

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Read our latest findings on sustainable consumer and their lifestyles among other influences, have shaped consumer behaviours on sustainability in 2023.

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The report features brands from packaging, fashion, beauty, homeware, and consumer electronics that creatively repurpose waste materials.

Sustainable Practices: These brands are recognized for their commitment to sustainability, showcasing how waste can be reused effectively and stylishly.

Industry Examples: Each industry is represented by brands that exemplify how waste materials can be reimagined and reused, contributing to a circular economy.

Consumer Appeal: The use of waste materials appeals to environmentally conscious consumers looking for products that align with their values of sustainability and reduced environmental impact.

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Principle One: Eliminate Waste and Pollution

Circular Economy Transition: Expected to cut waste, pollution, and biodiversity loss, potentially contributing $4.5 trillion to global growth by 2030.

Declining Circularity: Global circular economy has worsened, dropping from 9.1% to 7.2% over five years.

Organizational Role: Companies can improve circularity by designing waste and pollution out from the start.

Waste Elimination Strategies:

Efficiency in Planning: Reduce production volumes through better range planning and demand-driven forecasting.

Digital Solutions: Digital sampling and on-demand manufacturing to minimize waste.

Upcycling Examples:

CarbonWave: Upcycles seaweed into cosmetic emulsifiers, preventing CO2 emissions and supporting tourism.

Insekt: Uses flies to convert food waste into skincare ingredients.

Packaging Focus: Increasing sustainability regulations and consumer willingness to pay more for eco-friendly packaging.

Practical Steps: Eliminate nonessential packaging, trial reusable options (e.g., Burger King), and transition to biodegradable materials (e.g., McDonald's).

Regulatory Impact: Legislation is driving the adoption of biodegradable and regenerative packaging.

Principle Two: Circulate Products and Materials

Design for Longevity: Emphasize repairability and deconstruction to maintain product quality over multiple cycles.

End-of-Life Planning: Integrate circularity into the product development process.

Legislation: Increasing regulations supporting product longevity and the right to repair.

Digital Product Passports: Facilitate product verification and enhance trust in secondhand markets.

Resale Market:

Durability and Repair: Design products for easy repair and branded resale options (e.g., TÔNN’s Facebook page).

Factory Mistakes: Sell products with minor defects at reduced prices (e.g., Neighbourhood Botanicals).

Disassembly for Recycling: Products unsuitable for resale should be designed for easy disassembly and recycling.

Innovations: Dissolvable, biodegradable threads and monomaterials (e.g., Pangaia’s Absolute Sneaker).

Local Production and Recycling: Hyperlocalize operations to reduce supply chain fragility and enhance sustainability.

Principle Three: Regenerate Nature

Regenerative Strategies: Replace toxic materials and processes with those that restore and renew ecosystems.

Soil Health: Emphasize regenerative farming to improve crop yield and resilience while sequestering CO2.

Corporate Commitments: Companies like General Mills and PepsiCo are pledging to adopt regenerative practices.

Algae Applications: Use of algae for regenerative practices across industries (e.g., Living Ink’s algae-based dyes).

Beauty Industry: Incorporate smart farming methods to optimize land and resource use.

Upwell Cosmetics: Developed a petroleum alternative wax from algae.

Indigenous Practices: Support indigenous communities that uphold biodiversity and ecosystem health.

Conservation Projects: Initiatives in Canada and California to empower indigenous conservation efforts.

Risks and Solutions

Litigation Risk: Adhere to sustainability legislation to avoid financial and reputational damages.

Supply Chain Fragility: Invest in regenerative agriculture and localize production to mitigate supply chain risks.

Customer Disconnection: Track and communicate sustainability metrics transparently to maintain consumer trust.

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Monthly data-led bulletin exploring three cross-industry innovations in global sustainability progress.

WGSN recommends organizations adopt a circular design system with three principles: eliminate waste and pollution, circulate products and materials, and regenerate nature.

Showcases real-world applications of circular principles from around the globe, offering actionable strategies for businesses.

Monthly Bulletin Highlights

1. Cleaner Transport: Innovations and changes driving a shift towards cleaner transport modes.

2. Optimized Circularity: Adding creative value to existing products by giving them a second life.

3. Conscious Consumption: Making informed choices to help regenerate nature.

4. Inner Sustainability: Shifting mindsets from anthropocentric to planetary-centric.

5. Wellness Sleepwear: Innovations in lower-impact fibers and finishes for better-quality sleep.

6. Beauty Legislation: Key sustainability legislation updates for the beauty industry.

7. Nocturnal Living: Forecasts for product opportunities and supply chain impacts driven by nocturnal lifestyles.

8. Sustainable Decor: Trends in creating responsible home accessories.

9. Tech Legislation: Essential sustainability legislation updates for consumer tech.

10. Packaging Trends for 2024: Key trends include refillable packaging and plastic-free initiatives.

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Conner Ives: ‘I want to blow apart our idea of what sustainability is’

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Conner Ives: ‘I want to blow apart our idea of what sustainability is’

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Circular Design System Recommendations:

Eliminate waste and pollution

Circulate products and materials

Regenerate nature

Monthly Bulletin Highlights:

Cleaner Transport: Innovations for sustainable transport modes.

Creative Value Adding for Optimized Circularity: Strategies to extend product life and enhance value.

Conscious Consumption: Informed choices contributing to nature's regeneration.

Last Month’s Sustainability Forecasts:

Inner Sustainability: Shift towards planetary-centric mindsets.

Fashion Innovation: Low-impact fibers for wellness sleepwear.

Beauty Legislation: Key updates on sustainability laws in the beauty sector.

Nocturnal Living: Trends in nocturnal lifestyles and their market impacts.

Sustainable Decor: Trends in responsible home accessories.

Tech Legislation: Crucial updates for sustainability in tech.

Packaging Trends for 2024: From refillable packaging to plastic-free innovations.

Conner Ives: Pioneering Sustainability in Fashion

Sustainability Focus:

Uses upcycled vintage materials to create unique garments.

Aims to minimize waste and redefine sustainable fashion practices.

Sources materials from vintage wholesalers and repurposes them creatively.

Design Philosophy:

Blends sustainability with high-fashion and individuality.

Draws inspiration from American fashion archetypes and designers like Donna Karan and Todd Oldham.

Emphasizes storytelling through materials and design, adding identity and heritage to his creations.

Impact and Vision:

Challenges traditional sustainability norms.

Seeks to inspire love for fashion while maintaining eco-friendly practices.

Represents a shift towards sustainable innovation in the fashion industry.

For more details on Conner Ives' sustainable approach, you can read the full interview on

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Conner Ives: ‘I want to blow apart our idea of what sustainability is’

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Next Generation 2023: American designer Conner Ives’ 2000s-tinged collections imbue upcycled garments with newfound glamour – but he’s much more than just another ‘sustainable designer’

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Multi-Stakeholder Perspectives on Scaling up UK Fashion Upcycling Businesses

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Multi-Stakeholder Perspectives on Scaling up UK Fashion Upcycling Businesses

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Investigates pedestrian street-crossing behavior in the presence of autonomous vehicles (AVs).

Utilizes a virtual reality (VR) environment to simulate street-crossing scenarios.

Factors examined include pedestrian decision-making, gap acceptance, and crossing initiation.

Two types of AV behaviors are tested: cautious (safe) and aggressive (risk-taking).

Results show that pedestrians are more cautious and hesitant in crossing streets with aggressive AVs.

Pedestrians tend to wait longer before initiating crossings when aggressive AVs are present.

The study highlights the impact of AV behavior on pedestrian decision-making and safety perceptions.

Findings emphasize the importance of designing AV algorithms that prioritize pedestrian safety and comfort.

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Making something new from something existing is 'in': This is upcycling

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Making something new from something existing is 'in': This is upcycling

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Explores the concept of upcycling in the fashion industry.

Upcycling involves creating new garments or products from existing materials or clothing.

Highlights the environmental benefits of upcycling, including waste reduction and resource conservation.

Discusses the creative process behind upcycling, which often involves reimagining and repurposing materials.

Profiles designers and brands known for their upcycling practices, such as Christopher Raeburn and Patagonia.

Notes the growing consumer interest in sustainable fashion and the role of upcycling in meeting this demand.

Emphasizes the importance of upcycling as a means of promoting circularity and reducing the fashion industry's environmental footprint.

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Making something new from something existing is ‘in’: This is upcycling

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Rvdk Ronald Van Der Kemp Haute Couture Fall Winter 2023 (crop) Credits: Launchmetrics Spotlight Which fashion designers are upcycling? How b

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Women’s Textiles Forecast A/W 25/26: Alt-Optimism

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Women’s Textiles Forecast A/W 25/26: Alt-Optimism

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Alt-Optimism: Advocates alternative thinking and imagination for a better future, with creativity as a healing force.

Evolution of Common Connections S/S 25: Reflects on the forecast for the season, emphasizing the STEPIC pillars of Politics and Creativity.

STEPIC pillars: Politics, Creativity

Product direction: Focuses on how envisioning new worlds can guide us through uncertainty, promoting individuality, diversity, and the synergy of opposing ideas.

Products: Innovative items prepared to safeguard and comfort, ranging from portable to super-padded designs.

Aesthetics: Features a spectrum from safety brights to AI-inspired themes and healing colors.

Alt-Optimism's Influence: Reintroduces heritage patterns and rural themes, challenging the obsession with constant novelty and speed.

Context: Situates Alt-Optimism within WGSN's 2026 forecasts, emphasizing the shift towards speculative thinking and storytelling in envisioning better futures during the transition from the information age to the imagination age.

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Conner Ives Brings an American Perspective to London Fashion Week

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Conner Ives Brings an American Perspective to London Fashion Week

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Conner Ives is an emerging American designer who debuted at London Fashion Week.

His collection features a mix of upcycled materials and vintage fabrics.

Ives gained attention for his innovative approach to design, blending sustainability with creativity.

He collaborated with Kate Moss and Marc Jacobs, garnering support from industry insiders.

Ives aims to challenge traditional fashion norms and promote inclusivity through his work.

His collection received positive reviews for its unique aesthetic and environmental consciousness.

The designer's background and perspective bring a fresh perspective to London's fashion scene

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Conner Ives has taken a full year to follow-up his debut London show.

It's an unusually long time for a buzzy young talent to wait to drop new products in today's newness-craving industry. But it takes time to source the deadstock fabrics and vintage garments that comprise the majority of materials used in his designs, and Ives - an American expat that's made London his home - has been thinking carefully about how to grow his business in a fashion system that seemingly runs on steroids.

"I would much rather do an incredible show that affects people deeply, rather than doing two mediocre shows and getting on this treadmill that just goes faster and faster," Ives said in an interview at his South Tottenham apartment (housed in the same building as his studio) ahead of his second London Fashion Week show.

The 26-year-old Bedford, New York native was a student when he first caught the eye of A-listers and industry veterans with his Americana-inflected garments made from spliced up vintage tees, silk scarves and piano shawls. He quickly began working on red carpet projects, before landing a gig working at Rihanna's now-shuttered Fenty label and making the cut as an LVMH-prize finalist.

Since launching his label in 2021, he's nabbed Net-a-Porter, Selfridges and Matches as stockists, and counts Hailey Bieber, Keke Palmer and Amber Valetta as fans. Following his debut show last February, his designs have popped up everywhere from the Met Gala red carpet to the pages of Vogue.

Now, with his second show, Ives is focused on how he can take his fledgling label to the next level, a goal that isn't easily achieved given most of his clothes are made from repurposed materials, which can take months to source in the correct colours and quantities. His challenge: figuring out how to scale his brand of "slow fashion," juggling sustainable ideals with the commercial demands of the fashion system.

"I'm really trying to restructure how we make clothes," he said. "I do have quite lofty goals for the business. I want to do something new. I want to create an American lifestyle brand that is responsible."

Ives hit multiple career milestones most designers dream of before he'd even graduated design school. He dressed Adwoa Aboah for the Met Gala in May 2017; was hired by Rihanna ("Truly the best boss I've ever had" - and still mentor, Ives said); and landed a capsule collection of his signature reconstituted T-shirt dresses on the shop floor of London-boutique Browns.

By the time graduation rolled around, he felt ready to start his own label, which launched in 2021. "I had a bit of press to go off of, I had a bit of a name, I could capitalise on this," he said.

Underpinning Ives' aesthetic is his American heritage, with collections featuring archetypes in American pop culture: from 'The Stay-At-Home Mom' to Jackie O. and 'The Vogue Girl,' inspired by wide-eyed assistant Andy Sachs from The Devil Wears Prada. This season's cast of characters include a bartender straight out of the 2000 film Coyote Ugly; a Real Housewife; and an all-American pop star (think Britney Spears circa 2001).

"I don't think I ever considered my Americanness until I got to London," the Central Saint Martins alumnus said. "In this city, in this sphere that I was in, I realized that my American upbringing was a really unique experience, [yet] American pop culture was digested the world over, everyone knew the references I was trying to plug into."

Bart Ramakers, founder of agency Parrot, which works with Ives on brand sales and business strategy, says he was instantly drawn to the designer's American perspective coming out of a city like London when he first came across Ives during his second year at Central Saint Martins.

"There's something about how he puts different prints and colours together and the placement of pieces, even when he cuts up different scarfs and he makes a pattern out of it for a blouse or a dress," he said. "I love how there's that colour sensitivity, which to me has a very high level of sophistication, but there's definitely a very feminine sexy side of his work as well."

Ives is part of a movement of next-generation designers trying to build sustainable, values-driven fashion businesses by embedding principles like circular production into their brands from the start. Amid a climate crisis and a heavily polluting fashion industry, young designers are more conscious than ever about ensuring the clothes they make are as responsible as they can be.

Others like Marine Serre, Bode, Priya Ahluwalia and Bethany Williams are also seeking to eschew mass production and minimise the use of virgin materials. For Ives, about 75 percent of his collections are pieces made from second-hand clothing, deadstock and vintage materials, the designer said.

But it's challenging to operate and grow a label that relies so heavily on second-hand materials. Sourcing and repurposing the fabrics takes time and manpower, and limits how many of each item can be produced. Ives' business is still operating at a very small scale, but last season requests from retailers already surpassed what the brand was able to fulfil, Ives said. Meanwhile, achieving profitability in the traditional wholesale system often requires young creatives to quickly ramp up order volumes, as well as showing buyers new styles regularly.

"Sourcing all of those T-shirts, or scarves or pianos shawls - all of that is a lot of work. In that sense, scalability is harder," said Ramakers. "So we're looking at: how can we be creative with that, to build a sustainable business...there's other ways than the classic retail model."

Ives is the first to say he doesn't have all the answers. But the American entrepreneur inside him is determined to figure out how to make it work, he says.

Currently, collections are a mix of what Ives dubs "demi-couture" - high-priced, more time-intensive pieces that are extremely limited or one-of-a-kind - and more commercial ready-to-wear, including pieces made from recycled fabrics and simpler-to-produce upcycled styles like his spliced T-shirt dresses. (Last year, the brand produced over 1,200 of the T-shirt dresses, which retail for about £450, using local London factories).

With his latest collection, Ives has opted to include more of the recycled fabric-pieces, which can be produced in a more standardised, scalable way. His Friday show will debut shirting made from Tencel, an eco-friendly fabric made from processed trees, evening dresses rendered in recycled polyamide and oversized faux fur coats made using recycled wool.

This year the designer plans to release two collections, but still stick to just one runway. "That at least feeds the hunger of the bigger retailers that need to keep a consistent flow of new products," he said. "You have a lot of pressure on your back from buyers, press, people that work within a system that gives them an output every three to four months."

Collaborations, like a footwear tie-up with accessories brand Wandler set to debut at the show, are another opportunity the designer is exploring.

Operating a small designer business isn't easy, even without the added challenges of Ives' more-sustainable model. But many industry figures are rooting for him to succeed, including buyers at Net-a-Porter who selected Ives for its "Vanguard" incubator programme.

"His creative inclusion of upcycled fabrics, mixed with his incredible use of print and colour, is exactly what we look for in an emerging designer," said Net-a-Porter market director Libby Page, adding that his dresses are in high demand.

"Conner is a designer that I think has an incredibly bright future," said celebrity stylist Danyul Brown, pointing to Ives' ability to leverage vintage materials while keeping his looks modern. "I consider him one of the industry's most relevant and talented."

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Conner Ives Brings an American Perspective to London Fashion Week

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Conner Ives has taken a full year to follow-up his debut London show. It's an unusually long time for a buzzy young talent to wait to drop new products in today's newness-craving industry.

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WGSN advocates for adopting a circular design system, incorporating three key principles: eliminating waste and pollution, circulating products and materials, and regenerating nature.

Monthly bulletins feature real-world applications of circular principles, providing actionable strategies for sustainable business practices.

Current bulletin highlights:

Removal of toxic PFAS from products and operations in anticipation of legislative mandates.

Investment in technologies to convert waste into valuable resources and revenue streams.

Collaboration and innovation to reverse biodiversity loss, including partnerships with adjacent industries.

Recent sustainability forecasts from WGSN cover various sectors:

Business Strategy: Strategies to address water scarcity threats and build business resilience.

Fashion: Exploration of bacteria-powered materials for sustainable fashion innovations.

Beauty: Future of vertical farming in beauty products, including skincare, fragrance, and supplements.

Food & Drink: Overview of sustainability legislation impacting the food and drink industry.

Interiors: Trends from recent trade shows emphasizing resourceful use of waste and nature-inspired design.

Consumer Tech: Highlights from CES 2024, focusing on home tech solutions addressing climate change and consumer behavioral shifts.

Packaging: Insights into packaging innovations, including biomaterials and fully circular products.

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Transitioning from a linear to a circular economy is essential for sustainability.

Circular economy principles aim to design out waste and pollution, keep products and materials in use, and regenerate natural systems.

Circular systems prioritize renewable energy, eliminate toxic chemicals, and design for durability and reuse.

Circular business models include product-as-a-service, sharing platforms, and remanufacturing.

Benefits of the circular economy include reducing resource scarcity, minimizing environmental impact, and fostering economic growth.

Collaboration among businesses, governments, and stakeholders is crucial for successful circular economy implementation.

Circular economy practices can apply across various industries, including fashion, food, and electronics, transforming the way products are made and used.

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Get to grips with the fundamentals of circular economy thinking with these bitesize explainers and immersive deep dives. Expand your understanding and explore how the concept can be applied to different parts of the economy.

Explainers

Get the basics on some key concepts related to the circular economy.

Deep dives

Dig deeper into broad topics related to the circular economy or get practical advice on transitioning to a circular economy in your company.

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Get up to speed with the fundamentals of the circular economy with these content pills or dive deep into our materials. Expand your understanding and discover how the concept can be applied to different parts of the economy.

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The impact of textile production and waste on the environment (infographics)

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The impact of textile production and waste on the environment (infographics)

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The fashion industry is estimated to be responsible for 10% of global carbon emissions, more than international flights and maritime shipping combined.

The production of textiles contributes to water pollution, with each ton of fabric dyed using up to 200 tons of water.

Synthetic fibers like polyester release microplastics into waterways when washed, contributing to ocean pollution.

The textile industry is a significant contributor to landfill waste, with over half of fast fashion produced being disposed of in under a year.

Recycling and reducing textile waste could lead to significant environmental benefits, including reducing CO2 emissions and water usage.

The European Parliament is taking steps to address the environmental impact of textiles through legislation and initiatives promoting sustainable practices.

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In June 2023, MEPs set out proposals for tougher EU measures to halt the excessive production and consumption of textiles. Parliament's report calls for textiles to be produced respecting human, social and labour rights, as well as the environment and animal welfare.

EU measures to tackle textile waste

The EU has an EU Ecolabel that producers respecting ecological criteria can apply to items. This gives more visibility to products that include fewer harmful substances and cause less water and air pollution.

In 2018, the waste directive was approved by the Parliament. The Commission strategy also includes measures to tackle the presence of hazardous chemicals, while it calls on producers to take responsibility for their products along the value chain, including when they become waste, and aims to help consumers to choose sustainable textiles.

The Parliament put forward ideas for changes to textile waste rules in March 2024. The revision of the waste directive will introduce extended producer responsibility schemes. This means in practice that producers of textiles, such as clothing, footwear hats, accessories, as well as other companies that put such products on the European single market, will have to cover the costs for the separate collection, sorting and recycling.

While the Commission proposed that the extended producer responsibility schemes should be introduced 30 months after the directive enters into force, MEPs pushed for 18 months. In addition, EU countries would be obliged to collect textiles separately by 1 January 2025 for re-use, preparing for re-use and recycling.

"We request a textile waste reduction target, with an oversight of exported used textiles," said Anna Zalewska (ECR, Poland), the MEP responsible for steering the rules through Parliament. She also called for better infrastructure for separate collection of textiles and more efficient sorting of municipal waste, so that items which can be recycled are extracted before being sent to the incinerator or landfill.

Next steps

The negotiations with the Council will be done by the next Parliament, which will be elected during the European elections on 6-9 June 2024.

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The impact of textile production and waste on the environment (infographics) | Topics | European Parliament

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With fast fashion, the quantity of clothes produced and thrown away has boomed. Find out more about the environmental impact and what the EU is doing about it.

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Sustainability trends and gaps in the textile, apparel and fashion industries

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Sustainability trends and gaps in the textile, apparel and fashion industries

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Textile, apparel, and fashion (TAF) industries are significant contributors to global environmental pollution throughout their supply chains.

Manufacturing and transportation processes in these industries generate substantial waste and greenhouse gas emissions, often exploiting cheap labor in developing countries.

Stakeholders are increasingly aware of the environmental and social impacts of TAF industries, prompting businesses to address their environmental footprint.

This paper conducts a systematic literature review of sustainability trends in TAF industries over the past 20 years, using bibliometric tools for content analysis.

Three primary research areas are identified: consumer behavior towards sustainable clothing, circular economy initiatives, and sustainability challenges across the supply chain.

The study highlights literature gaps and offers future research suggestions for each research cluster, aiming to guide further investigation.

It also identifies drivers and barriers to implementing corporate social responsibility and circular economy practices within TAF industries.

The study aims to assist researchers and academics in identifying unexplored sub-fields and potential areas for expanding scientific literature on the topic.

Additionally, it provides insights for practitioners and managers to align business models with current sustainability trends and improve overall environmental performance.

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Sustainability trends and gaps in the textile, apparel and fashion industries - Environment, Development and Sustainability

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Textile, apparel, and fashion (TAF) industries contribute significantly to global environmental pollution at every point of the supply chain. Clothing manufacturing and transportation produce a large volume of waste and high greenhouse gas emissions, often taking advantage of cheap labor in developing countries. As a result, stakeholders are becoming more aware of the effect of the textile, apparel, and fashion industries on the climate and human rights, thus pushing businesses to mitigate their environmental damage. This paper offers a systematic literature review of sustainability trends in the TAF industries in the last 20 years. Bibliometric tools are also used to support the content analysis of the papers. The findings reveal three primary research areas in the TAF context: consumers’ behaviour towards sustainable clothing, circular economy initiatives, and sustainability challenges across the whole supply chain. As a result, this study highlights literature gaps and provides future research suggestions for each identified research cluster. In addition, drivers and barriers to implementing corporate social responsibility and circular economy practices are identified. Consequently, this study will help researchers and academicians work in this area to identify unexplored sub-fields, which reflect some potential investigation areas for expanding scientific literature on the topic. Finally, this study supports practitioners and managers in exploring the main research themes addressed in the scientific field, providing knowledge to improve and align business models with current sustainability trends.

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AI, Outlets, Recycling: Can Luxury Solve Its Billion-Dollar Excess Inventory Problem?

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AI, Outlets, Recycling: Can Luxury Solve Its Billion-Dollar Excess Inventory Problem?

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Luxury brands face a significant challenge with excess inventory, valued in the billions, which poses environmental and financial concerns.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology offers potential solutions to manage excess inventory more effectively.

AI can help luxury brands predict consumer demand more accurately, optimize production, and reduce overstocking.

Some brands are exploring alternative outlets, such as resale platforms or pop-up sales, to offload excess inventory without diluting brand value.

Recycling programs and initiatives are being implemented by luxury brands to repurpose excess inventory and minimize waste.

Collaborations with technology firms and sustainability experts may further enhance the effectiveness of AI-driven solutions and recycling efforts in managing excess inventory.

The adoption of innovative approaches, including AI, alternative outlets, and recycling, may help luxury brands address their excess inventory problem while promoting sustainability and minimizing financial losses.

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On an industrial site near the French-Belgian border, high-end sneakers, handbags and ready-to-wear garments are routinely dismantled, shredded and granulated in preparation for recycling.

None of these products have ever been used by a consumer. Instead they are a small slice of what has become a billion-dollar challenge for luxury's biggest businesses: what to do with goods that don't sell from season to season?

Last year, LVMH held €3.2 billion ($3.5 billion) of stock it had written down because of "obsolescence" or lack of sales prospects, up from €2.7 billion in 2022. Gucci-owner Kering recorded a €1.5 billion allowance for its inventory, an increase from €1.3 billion a year earlier. That's the equivalent of hundreds of thousands, if not millions or products, though these numbers include raw materials and prototypes as well as finished goods.

Such excess is a feature of fashion's dominant business model, designed to maximise production efficiency and sales prospects in a trend-driven industry where accurately aligning supply and demand has been a perennial challenge. But how companies handle the growing glut is an increasingly complicated question.

Luxury brands have long used staff sales, private shopping events and outlets to discreetly sell off old stock. What they couldn't offload, they destroyed to avoid damaging their pricing power and carefully cultivated perception of exclusivity.

But luxury's relationship with discounters has always been uneasy - even more so now as slowing sales push up excess inventory levels across the sector. Meanwhile, the practice of burning unsold goods has become a reputational and regulatory hazard that's already been outright banned in France and will be outlawed across all of the EU soon.

Recycling is one solution, but manually dismantling each product so that its constituent parts can be reprocessed into new materials is costly, time consuming and currently limited in scale. Lower-priced brands, like Nike, have faced criticism for shredding brand new products they couldn't sell in recycling plants.

"It is a big issue for the industry," said Claudia D'Arpizio, a partner at consultancy Bain & Company. "If you're a big brand and you have a lot of inventory, it's very difficult to find a solution at scale. I would say we're less than 50 percent of the way [there]."

A Culture of Excess

Luxury brands lean into the idea that their products are inherently more sustainable than cheaper labels because they make smaller quantities and design for longevity. But the reality is that they have always over-produced.

Higher volumes mean better economies of scale during manufacturing. And over-ordering is viewed as cheaper than the risk of missing a sale because stock isn't available. For luxury apparel, a 50 percent full-price sell-through rate is considered good, according to analysts.

"There is embedded excess in the system," said D'Arpizio. "Fashion will never have zero leftovers; this is structural."

As luxury's biggest players have grown over the last decade, so has the value of their overstock. The cost of impaired inventory held by Kering and LVMH more than doubled between 2014 and 2023.

To be sure, gauging the true scale of the issue is tricky. Provisions can be reversed or carried over from year-to-year. Companies don't disclose details about the volume of products they expect to make a loss on, or what they do with this stock. Luxury trade groups have pushed back against regulation that could require them to do so.

The wide array of products that can be included in these numbers makes analysis and comparisons across companies trickier still. For instance, LVMH's inventory includes stocks of make-up, perfume, fashion, jewellery and leather goods, as well as the raw materials used to make them. (Wine and spirits are largely excluded from inventory provisions, according to the company's accounts.) By contrast, Kering's brands have a stronger focus on ready-to-wear, which has a much worse sell-through rate than more trans-seasonal products like leather goods.

Investors are conditioned to tolerate such waste so long as it doesn't hurt the bottom line. The value of LVMH's impaired inventory amounted to just 4 percent of revenue in 2023. The company said products it has written down are still likely to sell during this financial year. Kering's excess inventory amounted to a larger 8 percent of sales, but that reflects its focus on fast-moving fashion products, analysts said. The company did not provide comment.

A Luxury Problem

In the summer of 2018, Burberry published a routine set of financials containing a figure that would prove explosive: the British luxury house had burned nearly $40 million-worth of goods in the preceding financial year.

The practice was commonplace across the luxury sector at the time, though most companies didn't talk about it publicly. Burberry had published the figures for years without remark. But something in the zeitgeist had shifted that year, with environmental concerns moving up the agenda and investors questioning how such waste reflected on the British brand's sluggish turnaround effort. The backlash came swiftly and within months the company had vowed to stop destroying unsold stock.

It took regulators stepping in for other brands to follow suit. Kering announced plans to stop destroying any unsold products globally from 2022, after France passed a law that would ban the practice. Hermès said in its last annual report that the company no longer destroys unsold items in France and will extend this policy to operations around the world between 2025 and 2030.

Large luxury companies are still trying to figure out what to do instead. Of course, lower-cost brands over-produce too, but unlike luxury players, mass fashion businesses are less squeamish about resorting to steep discounts, cut-price retailers and bulk traders.

"This is only pertinent really to luxury; the rest of these brands aren't that pristine," said Ken Pucker, professor of practice at the Fletcher School at Tufts University and former chief operating officer at Timberland.

AI, Outlets and Recycling

Luxury is trying to adapt, starting with design and production planning.

Kering has turned to artificial intelligence in a bid to help improve sales forecasts and limit the quantity of unsold goods at the end of each season. It's succeeded in improving the accuracy of its inventory predictions by upwards of 20 percent, and the results are still getting better, it told The Business of Fashion last year. LVMH entered a partnership with Google in 2021 with a similar goal to improve demand forecasting and inventory optimisation.

"It's become very important ... to adapt production to the level of demand because dealing with leftovers is quite a sensitive topic," said Charles-Louis Scotti, head of luxury goods research at financial services firm Kepler Chevreux. Large luxury brands "now have super-efficient warehouse centres and can reallocate inventory anywhere in the world, so if demand collapses in Europe they can ship to where demand is still very big."

But accurately aligning supply and demand remains highly challenging, so luxury brands are also forging relationships with charities and schools to donate and upcycle leftover products. And they're still discounting, even when they say they aren't. Top-end brands like Louis Vuitton, Hermès and Chanel host sales for staff, friends and family that can shift significant volumes. Hermès reportedly generates more than €100 million every year from such events. Prada said the company disposes of all its overstock through private sales and outlets.

The off-price sector is booming, boosted by a glut of inventory and rising prices that are pushing consumers to look for deals. In Europe, the segment's sales amounted to €40 billion in 2021, according to consultancy McKinsey & Co, or 11 percent of the total fashion market. It is expected to grow at five times the rate of full-price sales in the five years to 2030. Today, 13 percent of all luxury goods by value are sold through off-price outlets, according to Bain.

"Outlets will always play a strategic role because there's always a need for seasonal products," said D'Arpizio. "It's a strategic channel."

But with the value of excess inventory reaching into the billions at some companies, luxury brands are looking for other ways to manage stock without flooding the market. "In the end, the sheer amount of products being created is in a way too much to claim in sales and outlets," said Francois Souchet, a circular economy and sustainability strategist.

Increasingly, companies are looking at ways to repurpose what they cannot sell. Gucci has worked with a collection of designers, brands and artists on its Continuum project, which incorporates past pieces into new products. LVMH showed a collection in December created by artistic director Kevin Germanier using unsold products and excess fabrics from the group's maisons.

Both companies are exploring opportunities in recycling, too. LVMH launched a circularity initiative late last year, bringing together different start-ups and industrial partners the company has been working with in the space.

Kering has said all of its brands have developed pilot projects with Revalorem, the company that operates the processing site near France's border with Belgium. The luxury group discretely invested in the business last year, according to a December presentation.

But the biggest lever for change is not producing too much to begin with. "Eliminating the need to think about unsold products in the first place is the vital starting point," said Elisa Niemtzow, vice president for consumer sectors at consultancy BSR. "It's going to take creative and innovative thinking - and maybe thinking about different models of doing business."
Editor's Note: This article was updated on March 4, 2024 to correct Ken Pucker's title.
Disclosure: LVMH is part of a group of investors who, together, hold a minority interest in The Business of Fashion. All investors have signed shareholders' documentation guaranteeing BoF's complete editorial independence.

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AI, Outlets, Recycling: Can Luxury Solve Its Billion-Dollar Excess Inventory Problem?

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LVMH and Kering wrote down billions of dollars of unsold inventory last year. What to do with it has become an increasingly complex challenge.

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Chanel’s Latest Legal Battleground: Upcycling

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Chanel’s Latest Legal Battleground: Upcycling

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Travis Kelce, an American football star, wore an upcycled Chanel scarf shirt designed by stylist Logan Horne, sparking legal action from Chanel due to trademark infringement concerns.

Chanel's cease and desist letter to Horne's label, J. Logan Home, highlights the emerging legal battle around upcycling, which clashes with trademark protection.

Luxury brands have historically been cautious about the secondary market, fearing damage to brand image and sales cannibalization.

Major luxury players like Chanel have pursued legal action against re-commerce platforms and upcyclers to protect their brand integrity.

Upcycling, driven by sustainability concerns and demand for vintage products, has led to a rise in trademark and copyright infringement complaints from brands like Louis Vuitton and Levi's.

Legal experts note the grey area in trademark law regarding upcycling and its conflict with sustainability goals.

While brands have legal grounds for trademark protection, the sustainability benefits of upcycling pose challenges to traditional IP laws.

Upcyclers can take precautions like avoiding prominent logos or providing clear disclosures, but legal risks remain.

Intellectual property laws may hinder the shift to a circular economy by impeding upcycling and recycling efforts.

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A little over a year ago, Travis Kelce, the American football star and boyfriend of Taylor Swift, stepped out in a flamboyant silk shirt emblazoned with two barrel-chest-sized pink flamingos and trimmed across the bottom with a giant Chanel logo.

The design was upcycled from vintage Chanel scarves by stylist Logan Horne, whose brand, J. Logan Home, specialises in refashioning heritage luxury accessories. His pieces, which retail at close to $3,000 each, have been worn by musicians Dua Lipa and 2 Chainz and sold at stores including Farfetch, Kith and The Webster. They've also caught the attention of the French luxury giant's legal department.

In February, lawyers acting for Chanel sent Horne a cease and desist letter, demanding his label stop selling products bearing its logo and other brand signifiers.

It's the latest in a flurry of cases that have turned upcycling into an emerging legal battle ground, pitting a practice that's been pitched as key to improving the industry's sustainability credentials against the established bounds of trademark protection.

"We really have these two values that point in different directions," said Fashion Law Institute founder Susan Scafidi. "[Upcycling] is absolutely risky, despite the fact that it is trending and ethical."

Why is upcycling so controversial?

Chanel's objection to J. Logan Home's designs isn't exactly a bolt from the blue.

Major luxury players have historically been wary of the secondary market, concerned it could damage their carefully controlled hold on brand distribution and image, cannibalise sales and encourage counterfeiting.

It's a tension that has played out prominently over the last decade thanks to the rapid rise of online resale platforms. Though some brands have begun to tentatively embrace the space, others have remained cautious. Chanel, in particular, has pursued high-profile cases against re-commerce players it argues are using its brand without permission and selling fakes.

(The brand scored a major win earlier this year, when a New York court awarded it $4 million in damages in its suit against the resale business What Goes Around Comes Around. A separate legal dispute with The RealReal is ongoing).

Smaller-scale upcycling has attracted less public attention so far. But the practice has become more widespread, driven in part by demand for logo-heavy streetwear, tech-enabled access to vintage products and deadstock fabrics and a growing desire among young designers to operate sustainably.

That's given rise to an increasing number of trademark and copyright infringement complaints targeting upcyclers from brands including Louis Vuitton and Levi's, as well as Chanel.

In 2022, Louis Vuitton secured a $603,000 pay out and permanent injunction in a Texas case against a business selling refashioned Vuitton products. Last year, Levi's brought a complaint against French label Coperni, alleging it was using confusingly similar pocket stitching and fabric tabs to the famed denim label. The sale of such products alongside items that had actually been upcycled from Levi's jeans without authorisation created additional risk of consumer confusion, the company argued. Both brands declined to comment.

The claims are varied but ultimately boil down to concerns that third parties are free-riding on major brands' valuable IP in ways that could risk confusing consumers, eroding primary sales and tarnishing or diluting carefully cultivated marks.

Does upcycling infringe on brands' trademarks?

The disputes reflect legitimate trademark and copyright concerns, but they also raise questions over how far these protections should stretch when they conflict with broader sustainability goals, according to legal experts.

"It is a grey area within the law," said Scafidi. "Brands absolutely have a legal leg to stand on. The question is how well-clad it is."

The legal arguments break down like this:

In general terms, once a brand has sold an item, it becomes fair game to be resold or redistributed by third parties. But this principle, known as the first-sale doctrine or trademark exhaustion, may not apply if an item has been reworked or embellished, lawyers said.

Upcyclers can take precautions, like avoiding the prominent use of logos, or providing consumers with clear disclosures that reworked products are not authorised or affiliated with the brands they reference (an approach J. Logan Home adopted). But these steps still may not be sufficient to counter arguments of copyright or trademark infringement, according to lawyers.

And while the legal frameworks protecting companies' intellectual property are well established, whether the sustainability benefits of upcycling should be weighed against these hasn't really been tested.

"If we want to move from a linear to a circular economy, we need to upcycle," said Irene Calboli, a professor of law at Texas A&M University. "The fact that intellectual property law gets in the way of those who want to upcycle or recycle is just wrong."

Chanel said it is paying close attention to sustainability matters, pointing to its work with L'Atelier des Matières, which recycles unsold items and deadstock from luxury and premium brands.

"[Upcycling is] a positive trend that we continue to explore, and we have always been conscious of the need to strike a balance between protecting the rights of our brand and the rights of others to create and trade freely," the company said in a statement. "However, the use of elements stamped with the Chanel logo is sometimes simply an unauthorised misappropriation of our trademarks ... in such cases, we take the action we deem appropriate to protect our rights."

The wider legal crackdown hasn't only targeted brands making prominent use of logos either.

In a previous life, before she became a celebrated New York designer, Batsheva Hay worked as a copyright lawyer. So it was a shock when she found herself on the receiving end of a cease and desist letter from a large commercial brand over a short run of dresses made from deadstock fabric sourced from India. Though it bore no obvious logo, as it turned out, the print she used had been made for a bigger player who didn't want to see it reproduced elsewhere.

"I was really humiliated and horrified because I thought it was some cool vintage fruit print and it turned out to be some kind of junky commercial print," said Hay. Rather than take on the time and expense of fighting the case, she just took the remaining three dresses she hadn't yet sold off her site.

What does this mean for the future of upcycling?

Horne says he can't afford to fight Chanel, which has threatened to seek statutory damages of $2 million per mark, disgorgement of all profits and payment of its attorney's fees if he doesn't stop selling products carrying the company's branding, according to a copy of the letter reviewed by BoF.

Instead, he said he's looking at to pivot his brand while continuing to find creative ways to address the industry's issues with waste and over-production. The dream would be an opportunity to officially collaborate with an established label on an upcycled collection.

"As much as I believe in my mission ... I'm not trying to go bankrupt going to battle with Chanel," he said.

Industry watchers say the current flurry of cases reflect a broader adjustment to emerging new models. Some big brands, like Prada, Gucci and indeed Levi's, have already dabbled with upcycling collections and programmes of their own. Anna Foster, who runs the refashioned jeans brand E.L.V. Denim, has partnered with companies including Gabriela Hearst and The Outnet to help upcycle excess inventory. These days, she says she's having about a conversation a week with brands interested in exploring collaboration, but the industry moves slowly.

Meanwhile, politics may be moving at a faster speed, creating different challenges for brands. Both consumers and policy makers are increasingly aware of the huge levels of waste generated by the fashion industry, with new regulations that would make brands more responsible for dealing with old clothes and excess inventory in the pipeline in both Europe and the US.

"We really are at an inflection point where we might have a result in court that is different from the result in the court of social media," said Scafidi. "It's that tension that really needs to be resolved."

Disclosure: LVMH is part of a group of investors who, together, hold a minority interest in The Business of Fashion. All investors have signed shareholders' documentation guaranteeing BoF's complete editorial independence.

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Chanel's Latest Legal Battleground: Upcycling

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As they move to protect their intellectual property, big brands are coming into conflict with a growing class of up-and-coming designers working with refashioned designer gear.

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Sustainability & Innovation: Upcycling & Deadstock Strategies

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Sustainability & Innovation: Upcycling & Deadstock Strategies

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Consumer demand for upcycled, recycled, repurposed, and reworked items is increasing, driven by a desire for sustainability and individuality among Gen Z.

Data from Lyst, WGSN, and TikTok indicates a significant uptick in interest in terms like "deadstock" and "#upcycledfashion," reflecting this trend.

With the urgent need to decarbonize and reduce waste and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, incorporating processes that reuse or extend the life of materials and products is crucial.

McKinsey's Climate on Fashion report suggests that circular business models, including fashion rentals, re-commerce, repair, and refurbishment, could substantially reduce GHG emissions in the fashion industry by 2030.

The report identifies entry steps for maximizing the value of existing materials and garments, emphasizing the importance of supporting circular processes to unlock inherent value while aligning with consumer preferences.

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Sub-theme 13: Co-workers, Hackers and Makers: Transforming and Making Visible Work
Practices

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Sub-theme 13: Co-workers, Hackers and Makers: Transforming and Making Visible Work
Practices

# data[].attributes.body
Introduction to Upcycling: The paper delves into the motivations behind upcycling practices, focusing on sustainability and the creation of value through material engagement.

Upcycling Process: Upcycling involves collecting, sorting, assembling, and crafting discarded materials, framing it as a local, spontaneous, and collaborative process with various values.

Redefinition of Values: The paper challenges traditional notions of fixed values, proposing a perspective where values are continuously constructed through practice and interaction with materials.

John Dewey's Ethical Theory: Dewey's pragmatist approach views ethical conduct as a reflective practice shaped by past experiences, situational assessments, and future consequences.

Human Material Making and Valuation: The process of making is seen as a dynamic interaction between humans and materials, where values emerge through action and engagement.

Sustainable Wellbeing: The paper argues for a process-oriented, relational conception of valuation in understanding motivations for sustainable living, emphasizing subjective desires and inter-subjective variables.

Case Example: An example case study illustrates how values are made through material interactions and everyday engagement with the environment.

Conclusion and Future Work: The paper concludes by suggesting that understanding values as continually made and remade can offer insights into motivations for sustainable living.

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The Vogue Australian Fashion Week 2024 size inclusivity report

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The Vogue Australian Fashion Week 2024 size inclusivity report

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The article from Vogue Australia discusses the size inclusivity aspect of Australian Fashion Week 2024. It highlights that size-inclusive presentations comprised 12% of the showcased looks. This indicates a growing awareness and emphasis on diversity and representation within the fashion industry, particularly in terms of body size. The article likely delves into the significance of this shift, the impact on consumer perception, and the broader implications for the fashion landscape.

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The Vogue Australian Fashion Week 2024 size inclusivity report

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A numerical breakdown of the straight-size, mid-size and plus-size looks shown at this year's Australian Fashion Week reveals the designers leading the diversity charge-but reflects the broader decline in body diversity at runway presentations. Image credits: Indigital

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Design Materials and Making for Social Change : From Materials We Explore to Materials We Wear

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Design Materials and Making for Social Change : From Materials We Explore to Materials We Wear

# data[].attributes.body
It explores the intersection of design, materials, and social impact.

It emphasizes the importance of incorporating materials and making into design research.

The book covers various social issues and challenges, including homelessness, migration, craft skills, colonialism, climate crisis, education, and mental health.

It celebrates the role of materials and making in fostering alternative futures and promoting social change.

The content showcases diverse perspectives and approaches.

The book is relevant to scholars and practitioners in fields such as materials design, textile design, product design, fashion design, maker culture, systemic design, social design, design for sustainability, and circular design.

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Consumer Culture, Identity and Well-Being : The Search for the 'Good Life' and the 'Body Perfect'

# data[].attributes.subject
Consumer Culture, Identity and Well-Being : The Search for the 'Good Life' and the 'Body Perfect'

# data[].attributes.body
-This article explores various approaches and strategies adopted by the fashion industry to promote inclusivity in terms of body size. - Include discussions on the representation of diverse body types in fashion campaigns, runway shows, and clothing ranges. Additionally, it examines the impact of these models on consumer perceptions and the overall advancement of inclusivity within the fashion sector.

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Borderless Fashion Practice : Contemporary Fashion in the Metamodern Age

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Borderless Fashion Practice : Contemporary Fashion in the Metamodern Age

# data[].attributes.body
Explores the evolving nature of fashion in the digital era.

The book focuses on the work of four fashion designers: Virgil Abloh, Aitor Throup, Iris Van Herpen, and Eckhaus Latta.

These designers integrate various creative disciplines such as art, technology, science, architecture, and graphic design into their work.

Vanessa Gerrie introduces the concept of the metamodern age to frame the discussion, describing it as a time where the boundaries between the modern and the postmodern collapse.

Gerrie's analysis highlights the blurred borders in contemporary fashion and aims to further dissolve them, potentially leading to their erasure.

The book provides insights into the current Western cultural zeitgeist through the lens of fashion and creative practices.

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A biographical account or analysis of Kate Moss's influence on fashion, beauty standards, and cultural perceptions. It delves into her career trajectory, iconic fashion moments, collaborations, and broader impact on the fashion industry and popular culture.

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In the world of fashion, there exists a select few whose influence transcends the runway and extends into the very essence of culture. Among these luminaries, Kate Moss stands as an eternal icon, a muse, and a symbol of authenticity in a world where individuality is celebrated. "Kate Moss: The Style Icon - Redefining Fashion, Beauty, and Influence" is a captivating journey into the life and legacy of one of the most iconic figures the fashion world has ever known.From her humble beginnings in Croydon, England, to her meteoric rise as a global supermodel, Kate Moss's story is one of extraordinary talent, resilience, and transformation. Her unconventional beauty redefined standards, challenging the fashion industry to embrace the raw and real. The "heroin chic" trend she embodied marked a shift from the airbrushed images of the past to a celebration of authenticity and individuality.
Within these pages, you'll uncover the profound impact of Kate Moss, not only as a supermodel but as a muse who ignited the creative genius of renowned designers and photographers. Her collaborations with the likes of John Galliano, Alexander McQueen, and Vivienne Westwood resulted in unforgettable collections and campaigns that pushed the boundaries of art and fashion.
Beyond the runway, Kate Moss's influence extends into the realms of music, art, and popular culture. She's graced album covers, danced in music videos, and inspired painters like Lucian Freud, becoming a symbol of an era that valued the unique over the conventional.
Kate Moss's journey has not been without its challenges, and this book delves into her resilience. She overcame controversies and emerged stronger, transforming herself into a mentor to the next generation of models. Her business ventures in fragrances and fashion collections reflect her entrepreneurial spirit and her ability to stay at the forefront of the fashion world.
As a philanthropist, Kate Moss uses her influence to support charitable causes, embodying the idea that true beauty lies in giving back to society. Her openness and authenticity have allowed her to connect with audiences on a personal level, leaving an indelible mark on the hearts of many.
Kate Moss's enduring legacy continues to shape the fashion landscape, inspiring designers, models, and fashion enthusiasts alike. Her timeless style, her adaptability to ever-changing trends, and her multidimensional career have solidified her status as a style icon for the ages.
"Kate Moss: The Style Icon - Redefining Fashion, Beauty, and Influence" is a tribute to a living legend, a beacon of individuality, and a force that continues to shape the world of fashion and beauty. Join us on this captivating journey through the life and influence of Kate Moss, and discover the transformative power of authenticity in a world that celebrates the unique.

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In the world of fashion, there exists a select few whose influence transcends the runway and extends into the very essence of culture. Among these luminaries, Kate Moss stands as an eternal icon, a muse, and a symbol of authenticity in a world where individuality is celebrated.

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Sustainable Manufacturing Practices in the Textiles and Fashion Sector

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Sustainable Manufacturing Practices in the Textiles and Fashion Sector

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The environmental impacts of the textile and fashion supply chain have gained significant attention in recent decades.

Various phases of a textile product's life cycle, including raw material extraction, manufacturing, consumer use, and disposal, contribute to environmental impacts.

Mitigating these impacts, especially in the manufacturing phase, is crucial for addressing the overall environmental footprint of the textiles and clothing supply chain.

The contributed volume aims to showcase initiatives undertaken by the textile manufacturing sector to address environmental concerns.

It seeks to identify key practices adopted by textiles and clothing manufacturers to promote sustainability within the industry.

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Time in Fashion : Industrial, Antilinear and Uchronic Temporalities

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Time in Fashion : Industrial, Antilinear and Uchronic Temporalities

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Fashion embodies the concept of time uniquely, constantly creating its own past through rapid style changes.

This anthology explores three alternative perspectives on fashion and time:

1. Examining the seasonal nature of fashion as an industry and its impact on workers and wearers.

2. Viewing fashion design as a continuous process of adaptation, reconstruction, and motif recombination, influenced by nostalgia and revivals.

3. Considering fashion's "imaginary" as a form of alternate history, characterized by fantasy and myth-making, posing questions like "what if?"

The anthology includes classic and lesser-known texts from various disciplines such as philosophy, history, literature, media, and fashion design, spanning from the 18th century to the present.

It serves as a critical resource for understanding fashion's complex relationship with time, suitable for undergraduate and postgraduate students in the humanities, as well as anyone interested in fashion's creative, commercial, and cultural aspects.

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The Vogue Business Spring/Summer 2024 size inclusivity report

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The Vogue Business Spring/Summer 2024 size inclusivity report

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Specifically focusing on the Spring/Summer 2024 season, and various aspects of size inclusivity within the fashion landscape, such as the representation of diverse body types in fashion campaigns, runway shows, and clothing ranges.

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We analysed all shows and presentations on Vogue Runway for the SS24 womenswear season, to determine the level of size-inclusive representation. While there is a hint of change at major houses, progress remains painfully slow.

To receive the Vogue Business newsletter, sign up here.

In previous editions of the Vogue Business size inclusivity report, across menswear and womenswear, major luxury houses fell far behind smaller, younger labels when it came to size-inclusive casting. For Spring/Summer 2024 there were some glimmers of hope among fashion's upper echelons, as Balenciaga, Ferragamo and Mugler entered the rankings for the first time. But the brands at the top remain smaller and independently owned.

Taking into account all four cities, Karoline Vitto and Chopova Lowena ranked joint first with 100 per cent size diversity, meaning all of the models were either mid-size (US 6-12) or plus-size (US 14+). Vitto's show featured 13 plus-size models and 17 mid-size models, the highest plus-size representation of any show. Chopova Lowena skewed more heavily to mid-size, with 40 mid-size and two plus-size models. New York's Bach Mai was second, and London-based designers Palmer Harding, Di Petsa and Patrick McDowell ranked third, fourth and fifth respectively.

As with last season, Vogue Business analysed every runway show and presentation reviewed by Vogue Runway from the official New York, London, Milan and Paris schedules to calculate the proportion of total looks that are straight-size, mid-size and plus-size. Brands were contacted to allow them to verify the data and informed that if they did not verify, the initial figures collected by Vogue Business would be used. Sizing ranges were determined based on typical sample sizes for straight sizing and established definitions of mid- and plus-size.

As ever, there remains very little representation of plus sizes on the runway. Of 9,584 looks across 230 shows and presentations in New York, London, Milan and Paris, 0.9 per cent were plus-size (US 14+) and 3.9 per cent were mid-size (US 6-12). This means 95.2 per cent of looks presented were in a straight-size (US 0-4). This is a slight improvement on AW23, where 95.6 per cent of looks were straight-size, 3.8 per cent were mid-size and 0.6 per cent were plus-size.

Mid-size model Paloma Elsesser walked in all four cities this season, telling Vogue she was hoping her absence last season would have opened up opportunities for other mid- and plus-size models. When that didn't happen, she felt a responsibility to come back. "I was hopeful we would see continued progress, but there has been an unapologetic propensity toward thinness," she told Vogue. Mid-size model Jill Kortleve was also prominent across major shows such as Chanel, Alexander McQueen and Mugler.

Elsesser was one of six mid-size models to walk Balenciaga this season, along with plus-size pop star Yseult. It was the first time a plus-size person had walked the Balenciaga runway and placed the brand second in the Paris Fashion Week ranking, with 1.1 per cent plus-size looks and 6.9 per cent mid-size. The collection was inspired by designer Demna's personal muses, making the casting more representative of real bodies, as he cast his friends, family and fashion industry icons including his mother, fashion critic Cathy Horyn and performance artist Amanda Lepore. It remains to be seen if this a permanent shift in casting for one of fashion's most prominent houses, or simply a moment for SS24, before returning to the straight-size status quo.

Mugler also joined the top 10 in Paris for the first time, placing fourth with 7.7 per cent mid-size looks (though no plus-size). Under Harris Reed's leadership, Nina Ricci jumped from third place last season to first place this season, replacing size-inclusive label Ester Manas, which did not show this season. With more overall size representation in Paris this year, Alexander McQueen inched down from fifth place last season (with 5.5 mid-size looks and 1.8 per cent plus-size looks) to sixth place this season (with 4.4 per cent mid-size looks and 2.2 per cent plus-size looks).

Plus-size model James Corbin says he wasn't approached to walk any shows in London this season - where both menswear and womenswear collections were presented. The only show he was booked for in Paris, Christian Cowan's, was off-schedule (and therefore not included in our data). The New-York based designer - who typically shows during New York Fashion Week - brought an inclusive cast to the Parisian stage, including Corbin and mid-size model Monet Lauren. "Every fashion week we [plus-size models] want to be a part of it; we want to add something new to the industry," says Corbin. "For a New York-based brand to do this, in Paris, is something new and a new standard has been set... I expected to walk shows in London, but that didn't happen. Not many shows were inclusive enough to have a plus-size male model."

In Milan, representation inched up slightly with straight-size models representing 96.8 per cent of total looks in SS24 compared to 98.1 per cent last season, mid-size models representing 2.2 per cent (compared to 1.7 per cent) and plus-size models representing 1 per cent (compared to 0.2 per cent). Two bigger brands played their part: Moschino entered the top 10 this season, with 9.1 per cent mid- or plus-size models, while Dolce & Gabbana increased from ninth last season to sixth position this season at 8.9 per cent. In 2019, the Italian luxury brand officially extended its women's collection size range, which now goes up to IT 54, the company said. Another name to enter the top 10 this season was Ferragamo, with 4.7 per cent of models mid- or plus-size.

London-based designer and Fashion East graduate Karoline Vitto helped to boost Milan's numbers. She chose the city for her first solo show, which was sponsored by Dolce & Gabbana. Vitto topped the Milan charts with 100 per cent size diversity and came joint first globally alongside Chopova Lowena. It wasn't easy: with Ester Manas absent from the Paris schedule, Vitto told Vogue Business ahead of her show that fewer agencies were flying plus-size models between the European cities. "We're going to have to fly out a lot of girls who we casted in London," she said. Castings, which was one of the biggest costs this season, started a full month before the show.

Despite Vitto's absence, London remained the most size-inclusive city this season, with 1.6 per cent plus-size looks, 9.6 per cent mid-size and 88.8 per cent straight-size. This is a slight increase on AW23, where 1.5 per cent of looks were plus-size, 5.8 per cent were mid-size and 92.7 per cent were straight-size. London is now the first of the big four to have total size diversity above 10 per cent. Chopova Lowena, which did not show last season, ranked first in the UK capital with 95.2 per cent mid-size looks and 4.8 per cent plus-size. The brand street casts its models. Palmer Harding placed second, joining the top 10 for the first time. Di Petsa remained in third place, Patrick McDowell jumped from seventh to fourth place, and Bora Aksu remained in fifth.

Sinéad O'Dwyer, the second most size-inclusive designer in the AW23 ranking, dropped off the list this season because her show was not covered by Vogue Runway. She trialled a new format for SS24, presenting her collection at her alma mater, the Royal College of Art, alongside a panel discussion, during which she elucidated the production processes involved in creating size-inclusive collections.

She highlighted that part of the problem starts with education. "When you go to study fashion, you've already been given the body that you're going to be designing for. The mannequins are a certain size, and so are the blocks which you'll base your patterns off. Of course you can make your own blocks, but with so many deadlines and so much pressure to create innovation in terms of creativity very quickly, are you necessarily going to?" she said. "It's so odd because fashion as a creative art is so centred on the body, but then the first creative decision you make about the body you choose to design for has been taken out of the equation."

Including diverse and marginalised bodies on the runway is a political act that not many designers are willing to do, argues Enam Asiama, a plus-size model and advocate. "It's important to have designers, like Sineád [O'Dwyer], who know the audience and don't really care what fashion thinks. They're making up their own rules as they go along, and I don't think that we celebrate these designers enough," she says. "Many designers aren't willing to step outside of that bubble, maybe out of fear that they might not get that popularity if they do."

For Rio Uribe, the designer behind Gypsy Sport, which was ranked second in New York, size inclusivity is a no-brainer - even when it's waning. In New York, 1.2 per cent of looks were plus-size, up from 0.6 per cent last season. Mid-size representation fell slightly, from 5.7 per cent AW23 to 5.2 per cent this season. "We know that inclusivity and diversity has been up-trending and now it's down-trending," Uribe says. "But, we wanna let people know that it's not a trend for us and that it's really just part of the brand ethos and the community that we work with."

Gypsy Sport used to adjust samples after casting, but Uribe found this approach to be unsustainable when they kept having trouble with sizing on the day of the show. Now, Gypsy Sport makes samples in a range of different sizes, and casts accordingly. It's still complicated, but makes more sense in the long run, Uribe says. "When we are casting, we will say, OK, the purple dress is a size 16, we need to find a size 16 model. Or, the red dress is a size four and has accessible closures for a disabled person. So, we have to find the right person for that dress," he says. "It's almost working backwards." It makes life easier on the production side, he adds, as it helps the brand sell to a bigger market.

Women designers prioritise size inclusivity

Young women designers such as Elena Velez, Collina Strada, Di Petsa, Yuhan Wang, Chopova Lowena and Karoline Vitto continued to prioritise size inclusivity in SS24. For Di Petsa founder Dimitra Petsa, inclusivity should be inherent in the female gaze. "Most women's fashion is designed by men and you can see some unrealistic or impractical [elements because of that]," she says. (This season, discussions about the lack of representation of women and people of colour in top creative roles mounted when Kering announced that Séan McGirr would take over as creative director of Alexander McQueen, replacing the group's only female creative director, Sarah Burton.)

For Petsa, it comes down to understanding the women who wear her clothes as human beings, not mannequins to decorate. "For a lot of women, our bodies fluctuate throughout the month, so it's important to take that into account and create clothes that can fit if you gain or lose a bit of weight," she says. She does this through stretchier fabrics and items like corsets that can be adjusted. Chopova Lowena, the most size-inclusive label in London for SS24, also featured corset dresses that can be easily adjusted, fitting from a UK8 to a UK16.

Petsa accounts for flexibility in her casting decisions, too. "It's important to cast for the size but for the person. There are a few people I know I'm going to cast every season and I make something directly for their bodies and ask their measurements a few weeks before," she says. That means putting a bit more time and effort into creating patterns. "We also make some samples a bit larger and take them in before the show, or [reassign] the sample to another model and find something else for her." Petsa emphasises that a size-inclusive approach must extend to trans models too.

New York-based Kim Shui also creates clothing with flexibility for the female body in mind. "I include a lot of adjustable sizing so that in production there's more flexibility allowed," she says, bearing in mind that not everyone has the same bust/waist/hip ratio or torso length. "For instance, the corsets all have lace-up, so it's much more varied sizing. When we do fittings, I try my samples on a diverse range of sizes to see how it fits - especially if we're working with pieces that are bodycon or accentuate the bust."

The role of fashion councils in driving change

For the designers that send size-inclusive models down the runway season after season, the conversation is getting tiresome. Why should the designers for whom inclusive casting is a no-brainer - those who are the exception, not the rule - have to be the spokespeople for something that, to them, isn't an obligation, but a choice?

Perhaps change needs to be mandated beyond brand level. Copenhagen Fashion Week (CPHFW), which also acts as the city's fashion council, took a top-down approach to size inclusivity. In 2007, it introduced the Danish Fashion Ethical Charter, which includes promoting and working towards greater diversity in the fashion industry regarding ability, age, ethnicity, gender, race, religion, sexual orientation, size and socio-economic status. It also states designers should be "aware of and take responsibility for the impact the fashion industry has on body ideals, especially on young people".

CPHFW also seeks to promote a more healthy beauty and body ideal in the industry in general. "It's something our brands have been aware of - and actively working with - for many years now and we've definitely seen a remarkable improvement over the years," says CPHFW CEO Cecilie Thorsmark. "Of course one can always do better, but we've come a long way this last decade. Today, as part of Copenhagen Fashion Week's Minimum Standards, which came into effect earlier this year, it's a requirement to be a signatory of the Danish Ethical Fashion Charter and to comply with its rules and values. We do backstage checks to monitor this and we also advise brands whom we see might need an extra push."

It works: at CPHFW, out of 503 looks across the 18 CPHFW shows on Vogue Runway, 1.4 per cent were plus-size looks, 15.3 per cent were mid-size and 83.3 per cent were straight-size, which is considerably more size inclusive than any other city.

When asked about size inclusivity, the CFDA declined to comment for this report, instead sharing its Initiative of Health, Safety and Diversity, which goes in depth into protecting the wellbeing of models and providing advice for brands to identify the signs of eating disorders. There's no mention of size inclusivity in the memo or the initiative's web page, and the CFDA does not currently provide guidance or quotas improving size inclusivity on the runway. Fédération de la Haute Couture et de la Mode also declined to comment.

The British Fashion Council (BFC) is taking inspiration from Copenhagen, says CEO Caroline Rush. "The efforts made by CPHFW to promote size inclusivity provide an excellent blueprint for us to consider. While we don't currently have a size inclusivity charter for London Fashion Week schedule designers to sign, the BFC uses its platform to provide brands, including those on our schedule, with information so they can make informed choices," she says. "Diversity and inclusivity is central to our mission at BFC, and we are in frequent communication with our fashion council counterparts and continue to share our experiences, challenges and best practices so we can collectively accelerate positive change, including a push for size inclusivity, on a global scale."

Having a set of rules and regulations for brands to adhere to could enact change on an industry level, but is it sustainable, questions model and advocate Asiama. "Forcing something to happen might bring on change quickly, but it might not be as effective. What we want is long-term impact," she says, pointing to previous trends such as the body positivity movement which failed to create a lasting impact in the industry. "If we just have a bunch of people show up in these spaces to hit diversity quota targets, without having any real care for the community, we'll see the industry start to regress and support for those communities end once those targets disappear."

With data analysis by Emily Forkan.

Comments, questions or feedback? Email us at feedback@voguebusiness.com.
More on this topic: The Vogue Business Spring/Summer 2024 menswear size inclusivity report Karoline Vitto is bringing size inclusivity to Milan. Can it scale? The Vogue Business Autumn/Winter 2023 size inclusivity report

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Lucy Maguire, Maliha Shoaib, Ezreen Benissan and Madeleine Schulz

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Vogue Business in partnership with GXO Logistics

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The Vogue Business Spring/Summer 2024 size inclusivity report

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We analysed all shows and presentations on Vogue Runway for the SS24 womenswear season, to determine the level of size-inclusive representation. While there is a hint of change at major houses, progress remains painfully slow.

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Leather and Its Alternatives: Historical, Technical, and Ethical Perspectives

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Leather and Its Alternatives: Historical, Technical, and Ethical Perspectives

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Historical Context: Historically, leather has been prized for its malleability, versatility, and durability. However, the turn away from animal-based materials in recent times has led to a search for alternatives within the textile industry.

Colonial Influence: Prakrati Bhargava's article on the modernization of the leather industry in colonial Kanpur sheds light on how leather production demanded the development of professionals and institutions. However, there is a gap in understanding the specific animal species raised in this production system.

Conservation Concerns: David J. Vandyke-Lee's technical text from the 1970s highlights the deterioration of leather and the conservation efforts to address common problems. This underscores the environmental impact of leather production and the search for more sustainable alternatives.

Industry Perspective: Tom Hogarth's article presents the leather industry's reservations about substituting animals in production. While acknowledging ethical and environmental imperatives, the industry expresses skepticism about the feasibility and market reception of alternatives like mushroom-made leather.

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Our recent meeting of the "Curating Proteins and Fibers" reading group delved deep into leather-a material renowned for its malleability, versatility, and durability, among other notable qualities. Our reading group discussion, however, focused on leather and artificial leather alternatives to situate current interests within the textile industry in using alternative materials. Of course, not only do alternatives or "artificial leather" have different properties from the material they are intending to mimic; the turn away from animal-based materials also presents different limitations to scaling up the material. As historians of science, we sought to understand what factors have motivated the search to replace animal skin over the longue durée.

We identified three items to read together, spanning from primary sources, through museum conservation, to a historical research article from the Global South. We started with Prakrati Bhargava's article, "Modernization of Leather Industry and Chequered History of Technical Education in Colonial Kanpur," which describes the historical process of leather production in India and explains the ways leather demanded the creation of professionals and institutions adept at developing the industry. Although the text deals with leather, apart from a quick mention, there is a gap when it comes to the animal species raised in this production system. Additionally, the traditional and local system of leather production is sometimes described as "backward," creating a certain dichotomy between Traditional x Industrial, Modern x Outdated, which the reading group members viewed with reservations.

We read David J. Vandyke-Lee's text, "Skin and Leather, Reasons for Deterioration and Conservation," a technical text from the 1970s aimed at solving the most common problems in leather conservation. This is a valuable primary source from the field of museum conservation that illustrates a tendency of the time, that is, to demonstrate state of the art scientific techniques-even though they are considered harsh and harmful to the material, and thus obsolete by today's standards. The way leather interacts with the environment and can be worn down by it might partially explain why materials scientists and the materials' industry have sought ways to replace it. Our discussion also covered Tom Hogarth's "Have 'Vegan' Materials Shot Themselves in the Foot?" from the International Leather Maker. Approached as a primary source, the article presents an unfiltered view into the leather industry's reservations about the feasibility of substituting animals in production. While emphasizing the ethical and environmental imperatives to find alternatives to natural leather, it underscores the market's disappointment with innovations like mushroom-made leather, which led to notable financial repercussions. In general, the discussion combined with the readings made us reflect on:

What are the social and cultural reasons behind the search for new animal-based materials besides leather?

Which properties of animal-based materials could not be mimicked by the industry?

How does a deeper understanding of leather amplify our comprehension of animal fibers?

To what extent does thinking through leather sharpen our analyses of animal fibers?

Isabela Dornelas Sources:
Bhargava, Prakrati. "Modernization of Leather Industry and Chequered History of Technical Education in Colonial Kanpur." Indian Journal of History of Science 57, no. 2 (2022): 102-114.

Hogarth, Tom. "Have 'Vegan' Materials Shot Themselves in the Foot?" International Leather Maker, July 17, 2023, https://internationalleathermaker.com/have-vegan-materials-shot-themselves-in-the-foot/.

Vandyke-Lee, David J. "Skin and Leather, Reasons for Deterioration and Conservation." Newsletter (Museum Ethnographers Group), no. 8 (1979): 25-32.
Back to Curating Proteins and Fibers

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Leather and Its Alternatives: Historical, Technical, and Ethical Perspectives | MPIWG

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Historically, what drives the quest for alternatives to leather, an age-old, animal-derived material?

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15 Fashion Brands Leading The Way In Size-Inclusive Design

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15 Fashion Brands Leading The Way In Size-Inclusive Design

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Acurated list of fashion brands that specialize in or offer inclusive sizing options for plus-size individuals and provides insights into the growing importance of inclusivity in the fashion industry and the impact of these brands on promoting diversity and representation within the fashion landscape.

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The plight of the woman shopping for plus-size clothing has long been this: resign to a closet full of florals in grandma's curtains cuts, or scour the rear end of the sales rack and hope to find something that fits. Now, as fashion wakes up to the beauty of all bodies, plus-size clothing for women is looking a little less dire. Those ill-fitting curve ranges once relegated to the back of high street stores? They're giving way to inclusive sizing runs you can find on the regular rails.

There's a bold new breed of designers - Karoline Vitto and Sinéad O'Dwyer among them - championing curves on the catwalk and in collections that pretty much retire "plus-size" as a term. Yes, there's still work to be done at many high-end fashion houses, but with models like Precious Lee, Paloma Elsesser and Jill Kortleve making history at the biggest maisons, the future of full-figured fashion is more promising than it's ever been.

In 2023, if you know where to look, you'll find an abundance of fashion that flatters bigger busts, thick thighs and soft curves. If you don't? Scroll on for Vogue's edit of the best brands dressing diverse bodies right now.

The brainchild of Emma Chopova and Laura Lowena, Chopova Lowena is the London-based label that has garnered a cult following with its print-clashing, size-inclusive designs. The brand's distinctive carabiner skirts, in particular, have become a sellout style, and come in sizes 3XS-3XL.

Miaou was born when founder Alexia Elkaim couldn't find jeans that fit her hips and rear. Sound familiar? Since, she's perfected a haul of It-girl fashions that flatter all kinds of figures. Imbued with the essence of Y2K style, it's no surprise that they're all the rage right now.

Her collaboration with longtime friend and supermodel, Paloma Elsesser, is more than worthy of your wardrobe - not least because the cool capsule runs up to a 5XL.

For the kind of wardrobe staples that'll never go out of style, look to M&S. Its classically tailored, premium quality pieces are available up to a UK size 24, and are accessibly priced - so you won't break the bank in your pursuit of timeless chic.

When Karoline Vitto showed her debut collection in the autumn of 2022, she chose a groundbreaking cast of curve-only models that left the style set reeling. Season after season, her steel-threaded skirts and slips frame body bulges and folds as intricate art. Beautiful additions to the wardrobes of women who've embraced the skin they're in.

Celebrating the female form with distinctive wet-look dresses, Di Petsa's designs have been seen on the likes of Lizzo, Kim K, and Ashley Graham. If they're good enough for the A-List, they're good enough for your wardrobe - and the rippled water gowns and separates are very good indeed. Goddess energy radiates from every ensemble these pieces are a part of, making them the perfect pick for a trip somewhere sufficiently sun-kissed. They're made-to-order in Greece, in case you need any ideas...

If you've ever bought into the belief that a bigger body is something to hide, allow us to introduce you to the daring designs of Ester Manas. By way of glamorous ruffles, ruched detailing and sensual cut-out constructions, the Belgian brand serves serious body positivity that's not for the faint of heart. What's more, Ester's innovative approach and clever, adjustable tailoring mean her one-size garments really do fit - and flatter - women of all shapes.

When it comes to contemporary fashion, the high street is not to be dismissed. H&M, for example, excels at affordable takes on seasonal styles. Case in point: this trench in camel twill cotton is the perfect finishing layer for spring. Generously cut with the kind of drape that oozes elegance when worn over the shoulders (or the brand's plus size summer dresses), it's available in sizes up to a 4XL.

Think of Spanx, and you think of shapewear, such is the label's prowess. Its functional undergarments, sculpting lingerie, and stretch bodysuits are well stocked in plus-sizes of up to a UK 34, but the inclusivity doesn't stop there. Having enhanced the curves of women worldwide with iconic underwear, its latest venture into apparel is just as figure-flattering. These wide leg pants get our vote for comfort and sophisticated style.

Dismantling the notion of sample sizes entirely, Sinéad O'Dwyer is the designer behind some of the most inclusive catwalks you'll have seen on the fashion week circuit. Delicate fabrics like lace and chiffon are juxtaposed with decidedly grunge designs. The result? A suite of rebellious clothing that nails edgy, cool-girl style. Reinventing standard sizing conventions, Dwyer's shirred pieces are labelled 1 through 4, with the latter spanning a wide sizing run of UK 22-26.

After some stellar occasionwear? Karen Millen should be your first port of call. Pressed pleats, clean lines and elegance characterise the brand's plus-size offering. Its everyday essentials are equally refined, tailor made for curves in sizes 16 to 24. Designed to last well beyond seasonal trends, they're a sure investment for endless wear and timeless style.

Patterns and florals, but not the fusty kind - Rixo is far cooler than that. Its floaty selection of feminine pieces span blouses to bridal gowns, in vibrant styles that nod to vintage design while feeling fresh. With everything from feather trims to striking sundress prints, you'll find an outfit for all occasions here in sizes 6-24, and the brand's limited edition Abi Marvel collab serves women up to a UK 26.

Made with the dopamine dresser in mind, Ganni's statement styles are an expression of joy. Colour your closet with its electric hues and exaggerated tailoring - it's high time you left the "black is slimming" mantra behind. Plus, its extended sizing range runs up to a size 24. Consider your curves well and truly catered for.

Good American's Always Fits collection is most accurately described as an act of sorcery. How else could your favourite jeans carry you through up to four fluctuations in size? The only thing more impressive than the brand's "stretch and recover" denim is the fact its bootcuts, straight legs and skinnies run the gamut from size XS to 5XL. Bravo! Alongside these innovative denims there are a whole host of wardrobe staples - bodysuits, dresses, shirting and swimwear, and even wide calf-fitting boots and shoes. All come in form-flattering cuts for peak sophistication.

The key to building a strong capsule wardrobe is a quality selection of basics. There are plenty of those to be had at Skims, where goes-with-everything neutrals abound. Spanning lingerie and casualwear to cosy lounge co-ords, the luxe-minimalist styles go up to a 4X. Kim K's savoir-faire for shapely silhouettes runs through the fabric of every piece - slip one on, and you'll find all your best assets accentuated.

Savage x Fenty needs little introduction - the brand's inclusive fashion show has broken the internet every year since its inception. Big-bust friendly lingerie, loungewear, and a new activewear range are amped up by Rihanna's signature flair, dressing you in style for whatever the day holds.

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Lucy Maguire, Maliha Shoaib and Ezreen Benissan

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15 Fashion Brands Leading The Way In Size-Inclusive Design

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From Chopova Lowena to Savage X Fenty, these are the best plus-size fashion brands to know about for 2023. See and shop our edit here.

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Alternatives to leather and exotic skins

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Alternatives to leather and exotic skins

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The resource likely explores various alternatives to traditional leather, such as plant-based materials, synthetic alternatives, and innovative biomaterials.

It may discuss the benefits of these alternatives in terms of sustainability, ethics, and animal welfare.

The resource could provide insights into the characteristics, applications, and development of different leather substitutes.

It might address challenges associated with transitioning away from traditional leather production and promoting more sustainable practices in the fashion industry.

The resource may offer information on the growing trend of using leather alternatives in fashion and consumer preferences driving this shift.

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Want to keep learning?

Is vegetable tanned leather sustainable?

Vegetable tanned leather is positioned as more eco-friendly than chrome tanned and synthetic leather. But is it true?

What is the Leather Working Group certification?

Brands using LWG certified leather claim to offer more sustainable leather goods. But is it really better for the planet?

Under their skin: leather report series

Learn about leather's impact on people, our fellow animals and the planet in our in-depth reports, featuring recommended actions.

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Leather alternatives - Collective Fashion Justice

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There are plenty of plant-based and innovative alternatives that can be worn instead of leather. These are more sustainable, and aren't created through cruelty.

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Discusses the historical lack of representation in fashion, the challenges faced and the progress made in recent years.

Examines ongoing initiatives, changes in consumer attitudes, and the role of key players in driving forward the inclusivity agenda within the fashion landscape.

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From charges of cultural appropriation to outright racism, the last year has made clear just how far fashion still has to go to become more inclusive. Now, a perfect storm of identity politics, consumer activism and social media may bring about lasting change.

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Consumers care about sustainability—and back it up with their wallets

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Consumers care about sustainability—and back it up with their wallets

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Consumers increasingly prioritize sustainability when making purchasing decisions.

The article may cite data and research showing the rising importance of sustainability to consumers.

It may explore how sustainability concerns influence consumer behavior and brand loyalty.

The article might highlight the business case for integrating sustainability into CPG companies' strategies and operations.

Strategies and best practices for CPG companies to meet consumer demand for sustainability may be discussed.

The link could provide insights into how companies are adapting their products, packaging, and supply chains to align with sustainability goals.

Examples of successful sustainability initiatives and case studies from leading CPG companies may be included.

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Jordan Bar Am and Vinit Doshi and Steve Noble and Anandi Malik

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Consumers care about sustainability—and back it up with their wallets

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A joint study from McKinsey and NielsenIQ examines whether or not consumers really do care about sustainability when it comes to ESG claims on packaging.

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The significant environmental footprint of the leather industry, including pollution, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions.

Statistics or data illustrating the environmental harm caused by leather production compared to alternative materials.

Arguments advocating for the adoption of cruelty-free and sustainable alternatives to leather.

The role of consumer demand in driving change within the fashion and textile industries.

Potential solutions and alternatives to traditional leather, such as plant-based or synthetic materials.

Ethical considerations related to animal welfare and environmental sustainability in fashion and consumer choices.

Calls to action for individuals to make more environmentally conscious decisions when purchasing fashion items.

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Leather production is burning and poisoning our planet, catapulting it towards the worst effects of the climate catastrophe. Turning cows' skin into clothing and accessories produces massive amounts of manure and slaughterhouse waste, requires intensive water use, and pollutes the water, air, and land. The leather industry kills more than 1 billion animals every single year and shares responsibility for the same environmental hazards as the meat industry. If you're making compassionate decisions in your life to help combat climate change, not wearing leather should be one of them.

Climate Catastrophe

The greatest environmental destruction occurs before the animal skins even arrive at the tanneries, which means that greenwashing marketing schemes touting "vegetable-tanned" or "chrome-free" leather don't address the process that causes the most damage: farming.

Animal agriculture, which includes the leather industry, is a leading contributor to climate change, causing almost one-fifth of global greenhouse gas emissions. According to luxury fashion conglomerate Kering's 2016 "Environmental Profit and Loss" report, more than 93% of leather's environmental impact is caused by land use and greenhouse gas emissions associated with farming.

Land Use and Deforestation

Raising animals on factory farms for food and leather requires vast quantities of water and thousands of acres of pastureland, which must be cleared of trees. Around 80% of the Amazon rainforest has been cleared to make way for pastures or to grow animal-feed crops. Deforestation causes habitat loss for millions of species, eliminates the Earth's tree canopy, and drives climate change.

Manure, Waste, and Water Pollution

Animals on factory farms produce 130 times as much excrement as the entire human population - and mostly without the benefit of waste treatment plants.

Factory farms are the main cause of water pollution and ammonia emissions in the UK, harming ecosystems and turning rivers into "pea soup". Between 2021 and 2022, farms set a new record for water pollution violations, as 391 breaches of the farming rules for water were documented.

Chemicals and Tannery Toxins

Leather is the skin of a dead animal, which means it needs to be treated with a range of chemicals to keep it from naturally decomposing in the buyer's wardrobe.

Mineral salts, formaldehyde, coal-tar derivatives, cyanide-based dyes, and other dangerous substances are routinely used during the tanning process. Over 90% of the world's leather is chrome-tanned, and all waste containing chromium is hazardous. Wastewater containing these dangerous chemicals is often dumped into rivers or onto riverbanks and nearby fields. Pure Earth, a not-for-profit group that works to reduce pollution in developing nations, included tanneries on its 2012 list of the world's top 10 toxic industries.

Tannery workers and nearby residents are often plagued by higher rates of cancer as well as skin and respiratory diseases. Leather production is so unsafe that the process is being abandoned in the UK, most European countries, and in the US. Operations are moving overseas and jeopardising the health of people in other parts of the world so that people in the West can continue wearing leather gloves and shoes.

PETA Germany investigated the growing leather trade in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The group visited the poor residential district of Hazaribagh where 15,000 labourers - some as young as 10 - toil in more than 200 tanneries. Workers stand barefoot in toxic chromium effluent and handle acids and bleaches. Even if workers are given cheap rubber boots to wear, they often are not equipped with face masks or safety goggles to protect them against fumes that cause severe respiratory problems. Some workers lose fingers to the conveyor belts. At this factory, a shocking 90% of tannery workers die before the age of 50.

Leather leaves a path of destruction in its wake on the way to shop shelves and will continue to destroy the planet long after the items are tossed aside. Chrome gets inside the animal skin, making leather practically non-biodegradable and non-recyclable. The tanning industry itself has conducted independent studies and found that leather - regardless of the tanning process - does not effectively biodegrade.

Killing the Planet and Animals

Because cows' skin is the most economically important co-product of the meat industry, buying leather directly contributes to factory farms and abattoirs - and all the cruelty they involve. Animals raised on filthy, crowded farms are often caged and deprived of all that is natural and important to them, such as foraging for food and raising their young. Many are subjected to horrific mutilations - their teeth, tails, and testicles may be cut off without any painkillers. Female cows are repeatedly impregnated by artificial insemination, and their terrified babies are torn away from them shortly after birth. At the abattoir, many cows are still conscious and able to feel pain when their throats are cut. Luxury brands often sell "calf leather" or "calfskin", which means the terrified babies being torn away from their mothers may be killed in this way, too.

And it isn't just cows who suffer - during a PETA Asia investigation, a slaughterhouse worker confirmed that the facility in question killed up to 200 dogs every single day. When the investigation footage was filmed, there were about 300 dogs in the compound slated for slaughter. PETA Asia's investigator documented that dog skin was turned into dress gloves, work gloves, shoes, belts, jacket collar trim, and other products that are exported all around the world. No company is going to advertise that its gloves or belts are made of dog skin. An owner of one processing plant told PETA Asia's investigator that the facility markets its products as lambskin. If you buy leather, there's no easy way to tell what - or rather whom - you are wearing.

You Can Help Reduce Leather's Disastrous Impact

How can you help reduce the disastrous impact leather has on the environment, human health, and animals? The answer is simple: never buy or wear animal-derived leather. Vegan leather is widely available, and when you make this compassionate choice, you show major retailers that cruelty isn't in fashion.

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Every climate-conscious person should read this: leather doesn't just kill 1 billion animals every year - it's also catapulting our planet towards the worst effects of the climate catastrophe.

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Stella McCartney has introduced us to mushroom leather (recently co-opted by Hermés) and Karl Lagerfeld has started to make its own version with cacti

The eco-material revolution is here: and designers are very much on board. Stella McCartney is a long-standing inspiration in the industry for her constant innovation in the field of ethical fashion and has, over the years, used regenerated cashmere and sustainable viscose in her collections. Now, up-and-coming Scandi brands from Nudie Jeans to Filippa K are following her example. Here are the new eco-friendly materials to have on your radar.

Cupro

Considered one of the more sustainable textiles, Cupro is a biodegradable fibre made from naturally derived materials and is often used as an alternative to silk. Made from pre-consumer waste transformed into regenerated cellulose fibre, Cupro is completely vegan. In Scandinavia, brands such as Arket, Cos, Envelope1976 and Attire are all using Cupro in their collections while in the designer sphere, the material is loved by houses from Bottega Veneta to Sacai and Hugo Boss.

Wine leather

An innovative vegan biomaterial partly made from the by-products of winemaking, wine leather is made by Vegea, an Italian company. Grape skin and seed fibres are repurposed to make 'leather' which is 100 per cent vegan and can be recycled. What's more, the production process consumes hardly any water - a big environmental bonus. Founded in Milan in 2016, Vegea has since received awards for its contribution to the fashion industry. Pangaia recently launched a pair of sneakers made using wine leather, H&M uses the product in its boots and & Other Stories have started making wine leather sandals.

Pineapple leather

Pineapple leather, also know as Piñatex, is one of the best-known fruit-based vegan leathers on the market. An innovative natural textile made from pineapple leaf fibres, Piñatex uses the by-products of existing agriculture to help reduce waste and create an additional income stream for farming communities. The material was developed by Carmen Hijosa, who has been working on creating an alternative to leather since the 1990s. Today, Piñatex is used by Hugo Boss, Nae Vegan and H&M.

Orange Fiber

The first patented material made from citrus juice by-products, Orange Fiber is a cellulose yarn that's soft, silky and lightweight. A good replacement for viscose, this Italian-made textile has been used by H&M and was employed by Salvatore Ferragamo in 2016 to create a capsule collection.

Potato waste

Even potatoes have received the high fashion treatment: Chip[s] Board manufactures a wide range of materials created using potato waste. Its translucent or fibre reinforced bioplastics, with their incredible surface finish and durability, can be used in fashion and interior design. Chip[s] Board have worked in the past with Cubitts London on eyewear and textile designer Isabel Fletcher.

Agraloop

Transforming leftovers from food and medicine crops into high-value, natural fibre fashion products, Agraloop has won a Global Change Award. The Agraloop refines natural fibres derived from agricultural crops into a textile-grade fibre called Agraloop BioFibre, which can be used in garment manufacturing, packaging and organic fertilizer production.

Mushroom leather

Mylo is a unique, sustainable textile derived from mushrooms. Mycelium cells are grown on beds of sawdust and other organic materials, to form an interconnected, 3D network which is processed, tanned and dyed to make Mylo. Used by designers worldwide, Stella McCartney, Kering, Adidas and Luluemon have all invested in Mylo's development.

Cactus leather

This year, the eponymous Karl Lagerfeld label launched a vegan, cactus leather bag in collaboration with supermodel and sustainability ambassador, Amber Valleta. The bags are made of an innovative material by Desserto that's breathable, flexible, non-toxic and partly biodegradable, created from prickly pear cacti grown on an organic farm in Mexico. H&M have also been using cactus leather, as has the Swedish brand Deadwood.

Cork

Gathered from the bark of trees and regenerated after harvesting, cork bark is hydrophobic: in other words, it repels water. An inherently sustainable resource that's both renewable and biodegradable, cork can be used to make everything from shoes to yoga mats.

Seaweed

Not just a key ingredient in your sushi, seaweed can also be spun into a cellulose fibre using the same processes used to make Tencel and some bamboo. Seaweed grows abundantly in its natural habitat and is rich in essential substances like vitamins, antioxidants, amino acids and minerals. Pangaia are perhaps the most famous brand currently pioneering the use of seaweed fibres in fashion.

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Stella McCartney has introduced us to mushroom leather (recently co-opted by Hermés) and Karl Lagerfeld has started to make its own version with cacti

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Consumer spend on plant-based leather UK 2021

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Consumer spend on plant-based leather UK 2021

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According to a 2021 survey of consumers in the United Kingdom (UK) who purchase new clothing items, the willingness to pay more for plant-based leather than animal leather was conditional. Most consumers wanted the quality, sustainability, or ethics of the product to be proven before they would consider spending more on the item. Roughly 15 percent of respondents said that they would pay the same for plant-based leather as they would for animal leather.

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Consumer spend on plant-based leather UK 2021 | Statista

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According to a 2021 survey of consumers in the United Kingdom (UK) who purchase new clothing items, the willingness to pay more for plant-based leather than animal leather was conditional. Most consumers wanted the quality, sustainability, or ethics of the product to be proven before they would consider spending more on the item.

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Sustainable Fibres for Fashion and Textile Manufacturing

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Sustainable Fibres for Fashion and Textile Manufacturing

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Responsible Fashion Business in Practice

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Responsible Fashion Business in Practice

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Accelerating Sustainability in Fashion, Clothing, and Textiles 

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Accelerating Sustainability in Fashion, Clothing, and Textiles 

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Animal, Vegan and Plant-Based Leather: What Is Truly More Climate-Friendly?

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Animal, Vegan and Plant-Based Leather: What Is Truly More Climate-Friendly?

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This article explores the climate impact of different types of leather materials and discusses how choosing one particular type can help businesses reduce their scope 3 emissions.

Leather was invented 400,000 years ago in Hoxne in what is now called England. Since then, it developed throughout the ages and became a quintessential product in different applications (e.g., apparel, footwear, handbags, home décor & furnishing and automotive accessories etc.) in modern life. The global market for the leather was valued at USD 242.85 billion in 2022 and is projected to expand by 6.6% annually from 2023 to 2030.

What is Leather?

First and foremost, let's start by defining what exactly is leather. It is a strong, durable, and flexible textile made of either protein fiber (animal protein or plant protein) or plastic fiber ( Polyurethane or Poly vinyl chloride). Depending on its origin, it is nowadays further categorized into three categories:

Animal leather

Vegan leather and

Plant-based leather

How is animal leather produced?

Animal hides are often considered an important economic by-product of the meat packaging industry. Once the milk production from cows decline, their skin is turned into leather by a tanning process. The hides of their calves, who are raised for veal, are turned into high-priced calfskin. The economic success of cattle farming is directly linked to the sale of leather goods. The global leather industry tans the skins and hides of more than a billion animals each year. As concerns on animal welfare and CO2 emissions related to cattle continue to grow, leather alternatives have found their way on the market.

What is the alternative to animal leather?

What became a trendy and beloved material is "vegan leather", and vegan is often associated with environmental consciousness as it implies both the non-exploitation of animal resources and the avoidance of emissions related to cattle farming. Yet, is vegan leather necessarily less environmentally impactful than animal leather? The answer might disappoint.

Vegan leather is made from the plastics, mainly from Polyurethane (PU) and Poly vinyl chloride (PVC, aka vinyl). Being cheaper and cruelty-free, vegan leather took over as the market favourite, particularly PU-based vegan leather. PVC leather is not used as much as it used to be in late 60's and 70's, as it releases dioxins, which are hazardous in confined places and when heated. PVC also is composed of plasticizers such as phthalates, used to add more flexibility to the material, which also represent a tremendous health risk. Additionnally, companies often communicate on the material as being "sustainable" leather, a claim leading to greenwashing as this type of leather is in fact, not "sustainable".

Although vegan leather, by nature, is produced without harming animals and thus, without CO2 emissions related to cattle farming, but since it is made from monomers of fossil fuel origin and thus is a source of microplastics. These microplastics are rejected into the environment during manufacturing and can't biodegrade into the environment for millions of years after leather is discarded ( UNEP, 2018). The European Environment Agency's latest report on plastic pollution suggests that over 14 million tons of microplastic have accumulated on the world's ocean floor and this amount is significantly increasing every year and posing a great threat to animals, ecosystem, and people. Hence, neither animal leather nor vegan leather can be considered environmentally friendly. However, plant-based leather might be a suitable replacement candidate, as it is both animal-free and plastic free.

Plant-based leather: the most environmentally-friendly alternative

Innovative and sustainable solutions present a variety of plant-based leather materials made from mushrooms, pineapple and corn to coconut, banana, apple, cactus, green tea, coffee grounds and many more. Plant-based leather addresses most of the issues animal leather and vegan leather create. It is bio-degradable, cruelty-free, and generates fewer carbon emissions than its predecessors. In fact, some of the plant-based leathers are as durable as animal leather, while being attractive and even give a feel and appearance similar to animal leather ( Kim et al., 2021).

In recent years, many innovative companies have researched, developed and marketed exciting plant-based leather alternatives made from various resources (mushroom, pineapple, cactus, coconut, grapes etc.). Some of which already proved their materials emit less carbon than animal leather.

Carbon footprints comparison

Cattle farming for food and leather generates considerable amounts of GHG emissions. According to a UNIDO Report on Leather Carbon Footprint, 1 m ² of cow leather generates roughly 110 kg of CO2e where 93 kg CO2e comes only from raising the cattle and the rest comes from tanning and other operations along with its scope 3 emissions. Emissions from cow leather throughout the supply chain are shown below.

However, GHG emissions from vegan leather are considerably low compared to animal leather, as emissions from vegan leather generally amount up to roughly 7-15.8 kg CO2e/ m2 (Leather Carbon Footprint Review of the European Standard EN 16887:2017, 2017; Locker & Theregowda, 2022; Study Indicates INSQIN's PU Is a More Sustainable Option, n.d.).

Being produced on small scales and plant-based materials still being in their infancy stages, further information on the environmental performance of different plant-based leathers is still needed, but recent LCA studies on different plants based leather showed that the ghg emissions for plant based leather are in the range of 0.8 to 8.8, which are significantly lower than both of animal leather and vegan leather ( HULTKRANTZ, 2018; Williams et al., 2022; Assessing Our Impact: The Carbon Footprint of MIRUM®, n.d. and MOEA LCA RESULTS, n.d.). Comparison of CO2e for different types of leather are shown in the table below.

Thus it becomes evident that animal leather may not be the wisest choice in terms of climate impact of a company. Even more as businesses are expected to carry the direct and indirect costs of their emissions one way or another, weakening the single pro argument of cost-effectiveness.

How can plant-based leather help companies reduce their scope 3 emissions?

The comparison of GHG emissions from these three different types of leather shows that the plant-based leather is the only solution for our environment and animal welfare. Not only famous fashion companies but also automobile companies like Mercedes Benz and Bentley are integrating plant-based leather products in their portfolio to reduce their scope-3 emissions. On the occasion of its 100th anniversary, company Bentley even designed an electric car with all plant-based leather interior.

As mentionned in the beginning of this article, the demand for leather materials will increase in various industries like fashion and automotive. However, the increasing societal and governmental pressure on companies to make their products animal-free, and environmentally-friendly pushes industries to seriously consider more sustainable alternatives to leather for their products, among which plant-based leathers seem like the least climate-damaging alternatives.

As a leading verified provider of carbon emissions data, sustamize helps companies measure the emissions of their products. Understanding the composition and emissions of materials is critical to achieving a comprehensive view. Our data takes this into account and allows companies to visualize which types of leather are best suited to meet the climate goals set for their products, and helps achieve greater supply chain transparency.

Related to this article:

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Animal, Vegan and Plant-Based Leather: What Is Truly More Climate-Friendly?

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Leather and Its Alternatives: Historical, Technical, and Ethical Perspectives | MPIWG

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Leather and Its Alternatives: Historical, Technical, and Ethical Perspectives | MPIWG

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Our recent meeting of the "Curating Proteins and Fibers" reading group delved deep into leather-a material renowned for its malleability, versatility, and durability, among other notable qualities. Our reading group discussion, however, focused on leather and artificial leather alternatives to situate current interests within the textile industry in using alternative materials. Of course, not only do alternatives or "artificial leather" have different properties from the material they are intending to mimic; the turn away from animal-based materials also presents different limitations to scaling up the material. As historians of science, we sought to understand what factors have motivated the search to replace animal skin over the longue durée.

We identified three items to read together, spanning from primary sources, through museum conservation, to a historical research article from the Global South. We started with Prakrati Bhargava's article, "Modernization of Leather Industry and Chequered History of Technical Education in Colonial Kanpur," which describes the historical process of leather production in India and explains the ways leather demanded the creation of professionals and institutions adept at developing the industry. Although the text deals with leather, apart from a quick mention, there is a gap when it comes to the animal species raised in this production system. Additionally, the traditional and local system of leather production is sometimes described as "backward," creating a certain dichotomy between Traditional x Industrial, Modern x Outdated, which the reading group members viewed with reservations.

We read David J. Vandyke-Lee's text, "Skin and Leather, Reasons for Deterioration and Conservation," a technical text from the 1970s aimed at solving the most common problems in leather conservation. This is a valuable primary source from the field of museum conservation that illustrates a tendency of the time, that is, to demonstrate state of the art scientific techniques-even though they are considered harsh and harmful to the material, and thus obsolete by today's standards. The way leather interacts with the environment and can be worn down by it might partially explain why materials scientists and the materials' industry have sought ways to replace it. Our discussion also covered Tom Hogarth's "Have 'Vegan' Materials Shot Themselves in the Foot?" from the International Leather Maker. Approached as a primary source, the article presents an unfiltered view into the leather industry's reservations about the feasibility of substituting animals in production. While emphasizing the ethical and environmental imperatives to find alternatives to natural leather, it underscores the market's disappointment with innovations like mushroom-made leather, which led to notable financial repercussions. In general, the discussion combined with the readings made us reflect on:

What are the social and cultural reasons behind the search for new animal-based materials besides leather?

Which properties of animal-based materials could not be mimicked by the industry?

How does a deeper understanding of leather amplify our comprehension of animal fibers?

To what extent does thinking through leather sharpen our analyses of animal fibers?

Isabela Dornelas Sources:
Bhargava, Prakrati. "Modernization of Leather Industry and Chequered History of Technical Education in Colonial Kanpur." Indian Journal of History of Science 57, no. 2 (2022): 102-114.

Hogarth, Tom. "Have 'Vegan' Materials Shot Themselves in the Foot?" International Leather Maker, July 17, 2023, https://internationalleathermaker.com/have-vegan-materials-shot-themselves-in-the-foot/.

Vandyke-Lee, David J. "Skin and Leather, Reasons for Deterioration and Conservation." Newsletter (Museum Ethnographers Group), no. 8 (1979): 25-32.
Back to Curating Proteins and Fibers

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Leather and Its Alternatives: Historical, Technical, and Ethical Perspectives | MPIWG

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Historically, what drives the quest for alternatives to leather, an age-old, animal-derived material?