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The tale of Orpheus is a tragic story of a love doomed from the beginning. It also comments on the fallacy of human emotion and how we can ruin things for ourselves that we want.

Orpheus was the son of Apollo⁽¹⁾ and the muse Calliope. Hailing from Thrace, Orpheus was divinely gifted in music⁽²⁾. He was amazing with the lyre and had a voice so powerful no one could resist the charm of its sound. It is said that even trees and stones seemed to move closer to him as he sang.

One day as he traveled in the forest he came across a wood nymph (dryad) named Eurydice. The two fell in love at first sight and soon became wed. However, the two were warned by the god of marriage, Hymenaios, that their union would not last long⁽³⁾.

One day as Eurydice traveled the forest, she came across a viper, a fatally poisonous snake, who bit her on the ankle, killing her instantly⁽⁴⁾. So overcome with grief, Orpheus came across the idea to head down to the Underworld and speak to Hades himself. He journeyed where no human had gone before alive, charming Charon, Cerberus, and the spirits of the dead⁽⁵⁾.

Orpheus arrives in the palace of Hades and pleads his case to get Eurydice back. It is said that the song he sang was so beautiful that Hades wept. Hades agreed to let Eurydice go with him back above ground, however, he was not allowed to turn around on his way out. He would have to trust that Hades upholds his end of the bargain and that Eurydice would be right behind him as he traveled.

And so, Orpheus began the long, arduous journey back to the mortal world. He walked and he walked and he walked. However, he was unable to hear Eurydice's footsteps and began to question whether or not she was actually behind him. Just as he reached the surface, Orpheus turned around and found Eurydice staring right at him⁽⁶⁾.

Orpheus tries to follow Eurydice down to the Underworld again but finds the entrance blocked as no mortal can enter the Underworld alive twice.

Overwhelmed with grief from the loss of Eurydice a second time, Orpheus traveled the world singing his song of mourning calling for death so he could join Eurydice again in the Underworld. In his grief, Orpheus shied away from the advances of girls seeking his affection. Enraged by his denial of their affection, Orpheus is brutally and fatally attacked by followers of Bacchus⁽⁷⁾⁽⁸⁾.

It is said that Orpheus' head survived the attack and floated along in the water still singing his music until it washed up on the island of Lesbos where it was rescued by the Muses and saved. Additionally, his lyre survived the attack and was placed in the sky as the constellation Lyra.

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This show does an amazing job of making social and political commentary in addition to exploring some of the themes below. Take a gander at some of these themes and/or commentary and specific moments in the text where they shine. The beauty of this show lies in the fact that it was written so long ago but still remains so applicable to our world.

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Right away, the script informs us that the set takes after the Great Depression Era. As we get into the music and storytelling of the piece we learn that the weather is constantly changing. We learn that the seasons are changing too fast. We learn that Hadestown is an industrial madhouse. All of these things negatively affect the characters of the piece and the way they interact with the environment.

"Don’t forget that times are hard. Hard times in the world of men." (pg.5- "Road to Hell")

"Weather ain't the way it was before, ain't no spring or fall at all anymore. It’s either blazing hot or freezing cold, any way the wind blows” (pg.8- "Any Way the Wind Blows")

"In the coldest time of year, why is it so hot down here? Hotter than a crucible, it ain't right and it ain't natural." (pg.36- "Chant"

It's important to note that the world is so out of town because Hades and Persephone are out of tune with each other.

It's also important to note that Persephone spends the majority of the show drunk because she is exhausted, miserable, and frankly doesn't want to face what's going on around her. She's been doing this cycle for hundreds if not thousands of years by this point. her husband is a jerk, and they've fallen out of love, and the alcohol helps her get through it all.

“Let’s not talk about Hard times! Pour the wine it’s summertime!” (pg. 21- "Livin' It Up on Top")

“Who says times are hard” (pg. 22- "Livin It Up on Top")

"Anybody want a drink?" (pg.23- "Livin It Up on Top")

“(hungover)” (pg. 28- stage directions)

“Gonna have to import some stuff just to entertain myself. Give me morphine in a tin. Give me a crate of the fruit of the vine. Takes a lot of medicine to make it through the wintertime.” (pg.30- "Way Down Hadestown")

“And lady’s Persephone’s blinded by a river of wine” (pg. 39- "Chant")

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In this show, Hades is the personification of capitalism and the effects it has on the little people. We see Hades play on the desperation of both Eurydice and Orpheus at various points and use that to their detriment. With Eurydice, he tricks her into signing her life away by promising her food and all the things she doesn't have in the mortal world. For Orpheus, he preys on the human emotion of doubt and the love Orpheus has for Eurydice.

"Looking low and looking high. There is no food left to find, it’s hard enough to feed yourself, let alone somebody else. I’m trying to believe, that the song he’s working on is gonna harbor me, from the wind, the wind, the wind" (pg. 40- "Chant")

"And sometimes you think, you would do anything, just to fill your belly full of food, find a bed that you could fall into, where the weather wouldn’t follow you.” (pg. 10- "Any Way the Wind Blows")

"Hey little songbird, let me guess. he's some kind of poet, and he's penniless. Give him your hand, and he'll give you his hand-to-mouth. He'll write you a poem when the power is out. Hey, why not fly south for the winter?" (pg.44- "Hey Little Songbird")

"Only one thing to be done, let them go but let there be some term to be agreed upon, some condition. Orpheus, the undersigned, shall not turn to look behind. She's out of sight, and he's out of his mind." (pg. 87- "His Kiss, The Riot")

This model of preying on the vulnerabilities and desperation of those lower on the social ladder is something we often see in today's world. We see it when companies walk over their employees because they know they can't afford to not be working. We see it in healthcare and insurance companies when they prey on citizens who don't have the finances or knowledge to buy a health insurance plan. There are an infinite number of examples.

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At a few points in the show, we talk about the changes we see in Hades from the once-loving man head-over-heels for Persephone to the industrial tycoon we know today. One can conclude that this change is because of the changes made inside Hadestown, and, as Hades becomes a man of industry he loses touch with his humanity.

"The River Styx is a river of stones. And Hades lays them high and thick, with a million hands that are not his own. With a million hands he builds a wall around all of the riches he digs from the earth. The pickaxe flashes, the hammer falls. And crashing and hounding, as rivers surround him, and drown out the sound of the song he once heard." (pg. 35- "Epic II")

“Lover, what have you become? Coal cars and oil drums. Warehouse walls and factory floors. I don’t know you anymore. In the meantime up above, the harvest dies and people starve, oceans rise and overflow. It ain’t right and it ain’t natural” (pg.42- "Chant")

When we talk about capitalism changing people, I'm often reminded of billionaires. When you think about it on a large scale, there's no real way to become a billionaire and make money as a billionaire, without someone suffering along the way. In modern-day, this is usually workers in sweatshops who produce massive amounts of goods for America's economy. A prime example would be clothing brands selling crochet clothing.

Crochet is an art form of making things with yarn similar to knitting. The big difference between the two is that you can recreate knitting via machine and there are crochet stitches/techniques that mimic knitting, but the reverse is not true. Crochet is a labor of love and cannot be recreated by machine. When stores sell "crochet" pieces", it is either fake crochet, or it is real crochet from a worker who was severely underpaid to make it.

Jumping back to the point of billionaires, because someone has to suffer along the way, the billionaire always ends up sacrificing their morals, altering their morals, or giving into greed entirely, because again if we keep everything on the up and up, 9/10 the billionaire isn't making any actual money. Therefore, capitalism has changed this billionaire.

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Continuing some of the commentary on capitalism and its effect, we see the exploitation of the souls of the Underworld. Even in death, Hades has them working, building a wall, and mining stone. They've become mindless, forgetting who they are and all they do is work to stay alive. These moments draw an interesting parallel with the real world. First, most people live below the poverty and live paycheck-to-paycheck. They barely have enough to pay bills, have groceries, and take care of themselves in today's economy. Some people have shied away from having children simply because they can't afford it. There's no room for people to actually live life when they're one bad check away from homelessness, and in that, it's easy to lose oneself in the ins and outs of working all day, such as the workers in Hadestown have.

Additionally, this working even in death concept is something we see in Sarah Ruhl's "Eurydice". There's a moment where we see Eurydice's father head out to work in a suit with his briefcase.

“Everybody hungry, everybody tired. Everybody slaves by the sweat of his brow. The wage is nothing but the work is hard, it’s a graveyard in Hadestown.” (pg.30- "Way Down Hadestown")

"The River Styx is a river of stones. And Hades lays them high and thick, with a million hands that are not his own." (pg. 35- "Epic II")

"The deal is signed? Yes. 'Bout time, get on the line." (pg.59- "Way Down Hadestown Reprise")

“Down in the river of oblivion, you kissed your little life goodbye. And Hades laid his hands on ya and gave ya everlasting life. And everlasting overtime in the mine, in the mill, in the machinery. Your place on the assembly line, replaces all your memories” (pg.61/62- "Way Down Hadestown Reprise")

“And the ones who deal the cards, are the ones who take the tricks. With their hands over their hearts, while we play the game they fix.” (pg.71/72- "If It's True")

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Something that I need to highlight is how the show demonstrates how powerful one's voice is. We see Orpheus blessed with these divine musical abilities and how he uses them to not only change the world but also challenge the systems of oppression set forth by Hades.

In the original myth of Orpheus & Eurydice, it is said that rocks and trees seemed to move closer to him when he sang. It was also said that in his journey to the Underworld, his voice calmed the three-headed dog Cerberus, distracted Tantalus from his hunger, and stopped Sisyphus from pushing his boulder up the hill. In the number "Come Home with Me Reprise", Orpheus himself says, "I sang a song so beautiful, the stones wept and they let me in." (pg.66)

Orpheus isn't the only personification of this theme; in "How Long?" we see Persephone talk to Hades and ask how long things are gonna go on like this. She expresses pity for Orpheus and urges Hades to let him go. The workers also speak and stand behind in "If It's True" and "Chant Reprise". The pressure from all sides is what ultimately forces Hades to give Orpheus one last chance to plead his case. Everyone just as easily could've kept quiet, but Orpheus' courage to question everything gave everyone else the courage they needed and that is the true power of one's voice.

"I believe that we are many, I believe that they are few…and it isn’t for the few to tell the many what is true." (pg. 72/73- "If It's True")

“Magic. The melody spontaneously produces a flower, surprising them both. ORPHEUS gives it to EURYDICE.” (pg.15- stage directions)

“Some flowers bloom, where the green grass grows, our praise is not for them. But the ones who bloom, in the bitter snow." (pg.102- "We Raise Our Cups")

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Something that stood out to me was how Orpheus' journey to find love brought the world back into tune. As previously said in this section, the world is out of tune because Hades and Persephone are out of tune with each other. It is their love that sparked and controls the seasons. They've fallen out of love with each other and the world suffers as a result. Orpheus reunites the two gods with the song that sparked their love in the first place and bridges the gap between them. In bridging this gap, he's made everything right with the world again.

It's also intriguing that love is found through the most trying times in this piece. Amidst climate change and poverty, Orpheus and Eurydice still seem to find each other. Hades and Persephone reconnect with each other just as the world is set to crumble around them.

"You take me in your arms and suddenly there's sunlight all around me. Everything bright and warm, and shining like it never did before. And for a moment I forget, just how dark and cold it gets. All I've ever known is how to hold my own. All I've ever known is how to hold my own, but now I wanna hold you..." (pg. 26- "All I've Ever Known")

"Orpheus was a poor boy, but he had a gift to give. This poor boy brought the world back into tune, is what he did. And Hades and Persephone, they took each other's hands. And brother you know what they did? They danced." (pg.82- "Epic III Instrumental")

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The original myth of Hades, king of the underworld, & Persephone explains why the seasons as we know them exist today. The myth also speaks to the relationship between life & death, and the cycle of rebirth.

In the myth, Persephone is the daughter of Demeter, goddess of agriculture and the harvest, and sister to Zeus⁽¹⁾. Persephone's father is Zeus, king of gods and ruler of the sky⁽²⁾.

Persephone and Demeter were practically inseparable. Demeter loved her daughter very much and was very protective of her. One day, Persephone was plucking flowers⁽³⁾ in her mother's field with a group of nymphs when Hades' saw her and became entranced by her beauty. He would wait until one of the rare times she wasn't with her mother, cracked open the earth, and burst from the Underworld in his chariot pulled by black horses. He took Persephone in his chariot and brought her to the underworld to be his queen. ⁽⁴⁾

Demeter came back to find the nymphs distraught and unable to offer anything on the whereabouts of Persephone. Demeter began her search for Persephone, neglecting her duty to grow crops as she does. Meanwhile, in the Underworld, Persephone slowly grew accustomed to life in the Underworld. She was given the power to rule alongside Hades as his equal, as opposed to his subordinate.

Back up above, Demeter comes across the goddess Hecate who is unable to offer any information but urges her to go to Helios, titan of the sun⁽⁵⁾⁽⁶⁾. Helios saw everything from his place in the sky and told Demeter everything that happened. Enraged she confronts Zeus on Mount Olympus and swears that nothing will grow on Earth, and the humans will starve and die so long as Persephone remains in the underworld. Seeing that she would hold true to her word, Zeus sends Hermes to go down and get Persephone. ⁽⁷⁾

Before she left Hades offered Persephone some pomegranate⁽⁸⁾⁽⁹⁾, and she ate some of its seeds.

Because she ate some of the fruit of the underworld, she unknowingly tied herself to the place and would be forced to return. Hades argued for her complete return since she ate some of the fruit, but Demeter objected, and so it was compromised that Persephone would stay in the Underworld for part of the year. One month per seed she ate⁽¹⁰⁾.

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(1): The gods have a unique way in which their romantic relationships work, given that titles like "Niece", "Uncle", etc. do not deter them from seeking out a partner they like. So in this story, Zeus is both Persephone's Uncle and Father. Hades is Persephone's uncle and husband. This is a common thread between godly relations, especially with Zeus, who married his sister, Hera.

(2): Some versions of the myth name her father as Zeus, while others do not name her father at all. Nonetheless, she is a daughter of Zeus for certain.

(3): Some sources note that Persephone was plucking narcissus flowers. Some also speculate that the flower was planted specifically for its sweet smell to be used as a lure to get her alone.

(4): Some sources claim that Zeus was a part of the abduction and that it is he who planted the narcissus flower. Other versions of the myth frame the abduction as something Hades down of his own accord.

(5): Titans ruled the world before the Olympians did. They are a result of the union between Gaia (Mother Earth and goddess of creation) and Uranus (god of the sky).

(6): Helios was the sun titan. He was charged with pulling the sun chariot across the sky every day. This journey of pulling the sun chariot is how the sun rises and falls every day. The Olympic god Apollo, would eventually take his place.

(7): Hermes is the messenger god. He is most known for delivering messages between Mount Olympus & the underworld, guiding souls to the underworld, and the winged sandals he would wear giving him the power of flight.

(8): In some versions of the Myth, Persephone discovers the pomegranate tree while wandering around the Underworld and is possessed by her hunger and eats from the tree.

(9): It is debated whether or not she is tricked into eating the pomegranate or eats it willingly. Either way, the important thing is that she does the pomegranate and that's what ties her to the Underworld.

(10): In some versions of the myth, I've seen it argued that she was only required to stay in the underworld for 1/3 of the year, 4 months, and 6 months. 6 months is the only correct answer. Persephone is above ground for Spring & Summer, and below ground for Fall & Winter. Each season is approx. 3 months long. Additionally, the length of time is referenced several times throughout the piece in the songs "Epic I", "Epic II", and "Way Down Hadestown" on pages 18, 28, and 35 respectively.

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Some notable things that were changed as the myth was adopted for "Hadestown"

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Some notable things that were changed as the myth was adopted for "Hadestown"

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1. We see little mention of her parents and the effect her kidnapping had on Demeter. Part of the reason the kidnapping affected Demeter so much was because of the tight-knit relationship she shared with Persephone. Also important to note that the whole reason we have seasons and the earth dies is because Demeter was so overwhelmed by grief that she couldn't grow anything with Persephone done. It's alluded to in "Epic I" on pg. 18, ("the lady loved him and the kingdom they shared, but without her above not one flower would grow.") However, we never outright make the connection to Demeter. Additionally, we don't see the journey Demeter goes through to find Persephone

2. We don't learn about the significance of pomegranate. As an audience, we never learn about why pomegranate is such a key thing to this story, and why Persephone loves it so much. "Epic I" alludes to the deal that was made in which Persephone splits her time between the two worlds, but doesn't explain that the deal was actually a loophole Hades found. Moreover, we never actually hear the word "pomegranate". The only fruit reference in the script is "fruit of the vine", which refers to grapes; this is a phrase commonly seen in Christianity where the fruit signifies the manifestation of one's purpose. However, in this context, it can be concluded that the phrase actually references wine. This conclusion can be drawn from the fact that Persephone is intoxicated for 2/3 of the script, and repeatedly says the lines "Anybody want a drink?" and "Pour the wine".

3. Persephone is older (and drunk). In "Hadestown", Persephone is much older than she was initially married to Hades. It's important for the story that she's older because so much time has passed that she's changed, Hades has changed, and because they've fallen out of sync with each other, the world is falling out of sync. Additionally, it's important to note she's drunk most of the time because she's miserable in this situation, and being drunk is her way of coping with it all.

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1. Hades and Persephone: Discover the Real Story (Updated 2023) (mythologysource.com)

2. Greek Myth Hades and Persephone: A Tale of Love and the Changing Seasons - Old World Gods

3. Hades and Persephone: A Tale of Love and Mythical Symbolism (history18.com)

4. 1. Persephone and Hades - BBC Teach

5. Greek Mythology: Hades and Persephone | Brave New World (psu.edu)

6. A Summary and Analysis of the Persephone and Hades Myth – Interesting Literature

7. https://www.biblestudytools.com/classics/murray-fruit-vine/fruit.html#:~:text=The%20fruit%20will%20be%20the,to%20him%20by%20Christ%20from

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The Rape of Persephone, musée Saint-Raymond, Toulouse, inv. Ra 152

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Additional source that shows the development of Greece. https://www.thoughtco.com/maps-of-ancient-greece-4122979

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(1): Apollo is most commonly known as the Greek god of the sun, music, poetry, prophecy, music, and dance. Apollo took over the task of driving the sun chariot after Helios became too old to do so.

(2): Orpheus received his musical gift from both parents; Apollo the god of music and his mother Calliope, whose name means music.

(3): In some versions of the myth, Hymen forgot to bless the union between Orpheus and Eurydice and that is how their love became doomed. In Greek myth, not receiving Hymen's blessing is just as bad as a negative forewarning.

(4): I've seen conflicting information around the actual circumstances behind the snake bite. In several retellings of the myth, Eurydice is running from unwanted advances by the shepherd Aristaeus. In others, Eurydice is wandering the forest with other dryads when she randomly steps on the viper. No matter what, the common thread is that she always dies via snake bite.

(5): Charon is the ferryman of the dead. He guides souls across the River Styx and provides safe passage into the Underworld. Cerberus is the fierce three-headed dog who guards the gates of the Underworld.

(6): In some versions, Orpheus actually makes it out of the Underworld and then turns around to greet his love, but she's a few steps behind still in the Underworld and thus becomes trapped.

(7): Each Greek god has a Roman form. Bacchus is the Roman incarnation of the Greek god Dionysus, god of wine-making, orchards, festivity, and more.

(8): The followers of Bacchus were also known as "Maenads" or "Bacchae". They would party with Bacchus and drink his wine to access a frenzied state in which they were said to be imbued with his strength.

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Some notable things that were changed as the myth was adopted for "Hadestown"

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Some notable things that were changed as the myth was adopted for "Hadestown"

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1. We see only vague references to Orpheus' parentage. We don't learn that he is Apollo's son, or that his mother is Calliope specifically. There's a vague reference to Orpheus being the son of a muse in "Road to Hell", but we don't learn anything else beyond that. It's important to note that this information is important so that we as an audience understand the depth and profoundness of Orpheus' musical ability.

2. The play is set in modern times. Per the script, the setting is inspired by New Orleans and the Americans Depression Era. This is an important thing because it speaks to the timelessness of this story and the lessons it teaches us.

3. Orpheus' lyre...is a guitar? In the actual staging of this musical, we see Orpheus use a guitar instead of a lyre. It's an interesting choice given that there are actual references to Orpheus' lyre in the song "Chant (Reprise)", but I believe it's smart given that we've modernized the myth, and having the actor play a lyre or something lyre-esque would be outside the continuity of the piece.

4. Orpheus is a busboy/waiter. Following the two previous points, in this myth Orpheus is characterized as a busboy/waiter with musical abilities, as opposed to just a wandering musician. This is a small change, but with a big impact as it upholds the continuity of the new setting.

5. Eurydice is a poor girl. In "Hadestown", we see Eurydice framed as a poor runaway girl looking for a place to stay and food to eat. She usually doesn't stay in one place but ends up staying because she fell in love with Orpheus. Her economic status is a key point in the reasoning as to why she ends up signing the deal with Hadestown. It also connects to some of the commentaries the show makes on capitalism and being cheated by the system, which is discussed in the section "Show Themes".

6. Eurydice signs her life away. In the original myth, Eurydice always dies by snake bite. However, in this production, she is tricked by Hades who's super focused on being industrious, and signs her life away to him.

7. We don't see or learn of what happens to Orpheus after losing Eurydice for the second time. The production finishes with "We Raise Our Cups" and we get a vague reference that Orpheus is traveling the world sad, but we don't learn anything else beyond that. "And spill a drop for Orpheus, wherever he is now" (pg. 102)

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1. Orpheus and Eurydice Summary - eNotes.com

2. Orpheus and Eurydice - Wikipedia

3. A Summary and Analysis of the Orpheus and Eurydice Myth – Interesting Literature

4. Myth of Orpheus and Eurydice - Greek Myths | Greeka

5. Orpheus and Eurydice (greekmythology.com)

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Adaptations of the Myth *Pulled from Wikipedia*

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Adaptations of the Myth *Pulled from Wikipedia*

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Literature

The Death of Eurydice episode which occurs in Book IV of Georgics by Virgil (29 BC) and Book X of Metamorphoses by Ovid (8 AD)

The poem "Orpheus and Eurydice" in The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius (594 AD)

Sir Orfeo, an anonymous narrative poem (c. late thirteenth or early fourteenth century)

The Tale of Orpheus and Erudices his Quene, a poem by Robert Henryson (c.1470)

"Orpheus. Eurydike. Hermes", a poem by Rainer Maria Rilke (1907)

Sonnets to Orpheus, an allusive sonnet sequence by poet Rainer Maria Rilke (1922)

The Song of Orpheus, part of volume 6 (Fables and Reflections) of the Sandman by Neil Gaiman (1990)

The Ground Beneath Her Feet, novel by Salman Rushdie (1999)

Veniss Underground, a novel by Jeff Vandermeer (2003)

"Hymn to Persephone", a poem by Craig Arnold in Made Flesh (2008)

"Eurydice's Footnote", a 1995 poem by A. E. Stallings

"A Song for Ella Grey", a 2014 novel by David Almond - also adapted for the stage in two different versions in 2017 and 2024 at Northern Stage

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Film and stage

The Orphic Trilogy, a series of films by Jean Cocteau (1930–1959)

Eurydice, a play by Jean Anouilh (1941)

Orfeu da Conceição, a play by Vinicius de Moraes (1956)

Orpheus Descending, a play by Tennessee Williams (1957)

Black Orpheus, a film by Marcel Camus (1959)

Evrydiki BA 2O37, a film directed by Nikos Nikolaidis (1975)

Parking, a film by Jacques Demy (1985)

Shredder Orpheus, a film by Robert McGinley (1989)

An episode of The StoryTeller: Greek Myths (1990)

Highway to Hell, a very, very loose adaptation film by Ate de Jong (1992).

What Dreams May Come, a film by Vincent Ward (1998)

Orfeu, film by Cacá Diegues (1999)

Moulin Rouge!, a film by Baz Luhrmann (2001)

Metamorphoses, play by Mary Zimmerman (2002)

Eurydice, play by Sarah Ruhl (2003)

Orpheus and Eurydice: A Myth Underground, a theatre production written by Molly Davies with music by James Johnston, Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds for the National Youth Theatre at the Old Vic Tunnels, directed by James Dacre (2011)

You Ain't Seen Nothin' Yet, a film by Alain Resnais (2012)

Jasper in Deadland, a musical by Hunter Foster and Ryan Scott Oliver (2014)

Paris 05:59: Théo & Hugo, a French film (2016) by Olivier Ducastel and Jacques Martineau, queering the myth[5]

Moulin Rouge! (musical), a theatrical production based on the film by Baz Luhrmann

Portrait of a Lady on Fire, a film by Céline Sciamma (2019) that uses the myth as a common thread

"The Fugitive Kind" (1960 film version of T. Williams' play "Orpheus Descending,") directed by Sidney Lumet, starring Marlon Brando, Anna Magnani, and Joanne Woodward.

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Music and ballet

Euridice, an opera by Jacopo Peri and Giulio Caccini with librettist Ottavio Rinuccini (1600)

Euridice, an opera by Giulio Caccini with librettist Ottavio Rinuccini (1602)

L'Orfeo, the first opera by Monteverdi (1607)

Orfeo, an opera by Luigi Rossi (1647)

Orpheus, an opera by Georg Philipp Telemann (1726)

Orpheus and Euridice, an ode by William Hayes (1735)

Orfeo ed Euridice, an opera by Christoph Willibald Gluck (1762)

Orfeo ed Euridice [it], an opera by Ferdinando Bertoni (1776)

Orpheus in the Underworld, an operetta by Jacques Offenbach (1858)

Orpheus und Eurydike, an opera by Ernst Krenek (1926)

Orpheus and Eurydice, a ballet choreographed by Dame Ninette de Valois with music by Gluck (1941)

Orpheus, a ballet made by choreographer George Balanchine to music by Igor Stravinsky (1948)

Orpheus in the Underworld, an album by Don Shirley (1956)

Orpheus and Eurydice, a rock opera album by Alexander Zhurbin (1975)

The Mask of Orpheus, an opera by composer Harrison Birtwistle and librettist Peter Zinovieff (1986)

Orpheus, a song by English singer-songwriter David Sylvian from the album Secrets of the Beehive (1987)

Metamorpheus, an orchestral album by former Genesis guitarist Steve Hackett (2005)

Hadestown, an album of songs, and a stage musical, from the folk opera of the same name by Anaïs Mitchell (2010)

Orpheus Alive, a ballet by Missy Mazzoli (2019)

Eurydice, an opera by Matthew Aucoin with librettist Sarah Ruhl (2020)

Orphee l'Amour Eurydice, opera created for the Dutch National Opera (2022)

Orpheus & Eurdice, a song cycle in two acts, by Ricky Ian Gordon (2001)

“Talk” a song by Hozier (2019)

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Visual arts

Orpheus Mourning the Death of Eurydice, 1814 painting by Ary Scheffer.

Orpheus glances back at Eurydice, 1806 oil painting by Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein Stub.

Orpheus and Eurydice, stone relief, second century, Šempeter, Slovenia

Orpheus and Eurydice, a painting by Titian (c. 1508)

Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice, a painting by Poussin (1650–1653)

Orpheus and Euridice, a painting by Federico Cervelli

Orpheus Mourning the Death of Eurydice, a painting by Ary Scheffer (1814)

Orpheus Leading Eurydice from the Underworld, a painting by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot (1861)

Orpheus and Eurydice, a painting by Edward Poynter (1862)

Orpheus and Euridice, a painting by Frederic Leighton (1864)

Orpheus and Eurydice, a sculpture by Auguste Rodin (1893)

Orpheus Searching Eurydice in the Underworld, a painting by the Antwerp school

Portrait of Cosimo I de' Medici as Orpheus, a painting by Agnolo Bronzino (c. 1537-1539)

Video games

Don't Look Back (2009), a Flash game and modern adaptation of the legend created by Terry Cavanagh, which follows a man who ventures into the underworld to guide the spirit of his deceased lover out of the caverns.

Hades (2020), an indie rogue-like game developed by Supergiant Games. The player, Zagreus, meets Eurydice and Orpheus, and is given the option of reuniting them.[8][9]

Titan Quest (2006) The player can accomplish quest "Eurydice and Orpheus" in Upper City of Lost Souls, and save Orpheus life using "Mirror of Psyche"

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1. Eurydice in Pop Culture | American Shakespeare Center

2. 10 Great Movies Inspired By The Myth Of Orpheus And Eurydice – Taste of Cinema – Movie Reviews and Classic Movie Lists

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Orpheus glances back at Eurydice, 1806 oil painting by Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein Stub

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Orpheus Mourning the Death of Eurydice, 1814 painting by Ary Scheffer.

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This is the constellation made after Orpheus' lyre.

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This is what a lyre looks like. it has a similar shape and function to a harp.

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The "not looking back" element of this story reminds me a lot of the story of Lot and his wife in the Bible. Lot lived in the city of Sodom, a city known for its sin and wickedness. God judged the city as wicked and sent two angels to the city to destroy it. Lot and his family were dragged out from Sodom by the angels and told not to look back at the city as it fell. Lot's wife looked back at the city⁽¹⁾ and was turned into a pillar of salt.

There's a clear similarity between the story of Lot and the myth of Orpheus & Eurydice in that, the act of looking back causes the loss of someone we love. Orpheus lost Eurydice. Lot lost his wife and the mother of his children. Both men were forced to go on suffering the loss of the women they loved.

(1): It's debated whether or not Lot's wife looked back at the city out of her love for sin and wickedness, or just sheer human curiosity. It's most likely the latter. Christianity (or more specifically some of its followers) has a history of using bells and whistles to make something bigger than what it means, so take any source denoting the former with a grain of salt.

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The Fates were also known as "The Moirai", "The Parcae" in Roman, and were closely synonymous with "The Norns" in Norse myth. The Fates are three sister goddesses responsible for the destiny, lifespan, and death of mortals. Clotho ("The Spinner") spun the golden thread of life. Lachesis ("The Measurer") measured out the length of the thread. Atropos ("The Inflexible"), would cut the thread, signaling the end of that life. Some sources claim them to be daughters of Nyx (goddess of the night), and others claim them to be daughters of Zeus (this guy gets around) and Themis (goddess of law & justice).

The Fates have the final say when it comes to destiny and the life of someone. Death waits for no one, and that is why Atropos is called "the inflexible". Not even the gods could change the fate of someone Only one god was able to change the fate of someone they cared for who the fates destined to die.

After learning the destiny of a beloved mortal, Apollo got them all drunk and bartered to save his life if he could find someone else worthy. Apollo was unable to find a replacement until the human's wife stepped forward and embraced death.

The Fates are usually depicted as older, stern women, however, they've been depicted as young, beautiful women, in some artworks. Both ways, they are usually depicted with a staff, spinning wheel, and thread.

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In "Hadestown", the Fates serve a similar purpose as they did in ancient Greek Myth. However, two major differences stand out to me.

First, they interact with the mortal world and the heroes of our story significantly. Usually, the fates are invisible. They may show up at the birth of a hero now and then, but that's it. In this piece, they guide the story just as much as (if not more than) Hermes. They push Eurydice to sign the deal with Hades. They gave Hades the idea of an ultimatum. One could argue that they're still doing their job by guiding the destiny of the story, but in past instances, they've been able to do so without having direct contact with the players in the story.

Secondly, following the points above, the Fates remind me significantly of "The Erinyes" or "The Furies". The Furies are three divine beings who seek out retribution and revenge. They can be commanded by the Fates to seek revenge if someone alters destiny. They are most commonly associated with the Underworld because it is them who take the bad souls down to Tartarus (the deepest part of the Underworld- see the "Death Practices.." section).

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The Fates also serve the role of the Greek chorus throughout various parts of "Hadestown", therefore, it is important that you get some background on the role of the Greek chorus. Below is a short summary, the link above holds more detailed information.

The Greek chorus is a dramatic mechanism most commonly used in Greek tragedies such as "Antigone" or "Medea". It has also been adapted for modern shows such as "Little Shop of Horrors" and Disney's "Hercules". The chorus originates from choral performances made up of 50 men who sung dithyrambs, which were lyrical hymns dedicated to the god of wine, Dionysus.

The dynamic of the Greek chorus changed as authors used them differently. Actors were introduced into the mix, and the number of chorus people were decreased. The role of the chorus was then shifted to mostly a commentarial role as actors became the main focus of productions.

The chorus serves mostly to draw the audience in, deliver exposition, expose principal characters' thoughts, and to give principal characters a moment offstage to change and/or take a break. Additionally, the chorus often represented a group of people and would serve to voice their thoughts (ex. the chorus of Corinthian women in "Medea").

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The role of the chorus in Greek theatre was integrally linked to the performance and the narrative. A staple component of Classical Greek dramas, the chorus typically consisted of a group of actors, traditionally ranging from 12 to 50 performers. The chorus was present throughout the entirety of a performance, except in cases where they were explicitly dismissed from the stage.

The fundamental function of the chorus was to provide commentary on the play's events, present a collective viewpoint, and reveal the broader social and ethical context in which the narrative unfolded. As a collective entity, the chorus could represent any multitude of groups relevant to the drama's narrative or setting, such as the elders of a city, a band of soldiers, or a group of women.

Role of the Chorus in Greek Theatre

1. Narrative Intermediary

As a narrative intermediary, the role of the chorus in Greek theatre was pivotal in bridging the gap between the audience and the characters on stage, ensuring that the audience could follow and comprehend the unfolding events and themes of the play. This function was executed through several key tasks.

1.1 Exposition and Contextualisation

One of the most important roles of the chorus was to provide exposition, often relating relevant past events or background information that shaped the current narrative but took place outside of the play's time frame. This sometimes involved recounting historical events, explaining a character's past actions, or describing off-stage actions, thus providing essential context to the audience.

Example

In Aeschylus' "Agamemnon," the chorus of Argive elders provides extensive exposition at the play's beginning, describing the Trojan War's events and Agamemnon's role in it. This contextualises the action of the play, which takes place upon Agamemnon's return to Argos.

1.2 Interpretation and Analysis

The chorus often offered an interpretation or analysis of the events occurring on stage, often unpacking the motivations or intentions of the characters, discussing the ethical implications of their actions, or exploring possible future consequences. This analysis deepened the audience's understanding of the play and promoted critical engagement with the narrative.

Example

In Sophocles' "Antigone," the chorus analyses and interprets the unfolding events, offering insights into the actions and motivations of the characters. For instance, they contemplate Creon's harsh law against Polynices' burial and Antigone's decision to defy it, helping the audience understand the moral complexities at hand.

1.3 Emotional Guidance

The reactions and sentiments of the Greek theatre chorus provided an emotional barometer for the audience, guiding them on how they should respond to the play's events. This emotional guidance, often rendered through song and dance, offered a lens through which the audience could view the narrative.

Example

In Euripides' "Medea," the chorus of Corinthian women plays a critical role in guiding the audience's emotional response to Medea's plight. Their sympathy for Medea elicits similar feelings in the audience, yet their horror at her ultimate actions in killing her children ensures that the audience's emotional response remains balanced.

1.4 Reflection of Societal Norms and Beliefs

The chorus also embodied societal norms and values, allowing the audience to comprehend the narrative within a broader social context. This often involved expressing popular moral perspectives, religious beliefs, or social customs of the period, providing an interpretive framework for the audience.

Example

In Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex," the chorus of Theban elders embody Theban society's traditional beliefs and values. Their reactions to Oedipus's transgressions, including his patricide and incestuous marriage, reflect societal norms and offer a moral measuring stick for the audience.

1.5 Transition Between Scenes

The chorus often facilitated smooth transitions between different scenes or acts, narrating the passage of time or shifts in location. This transitional role helped maintain the continuity of the narrative and ensured the audience could follow the progression of the story.

Example

In Euripides' "The Bacchae," the chorus of bacchants often functions as a transitional device, performing choral odes between episodes. Their performances provide both a narrative and physical transition, allowing for changes in time and place, while maintaining the drama's momentum and coherence.

2. Collective Character

The chorus's function as a collective character is of significant interest. The chorus contributed substantially to the narrative progression, dramatic tension, and thematic exploration of the play.

2.1 Unified Entity with Individual Presence

While the Greek theatre chorus consisted of multiple members, it often functioned as a singular, unified entity, speaking and reacting as one. This collective character often had a distinct identity tied to the setting of the play, such as the elders of a city, a group of citizens, or a band of soldiers, and was thus able to interact with the individual characters, either passively or actively.

Example

In "Antigone" by Sophocles, the chorus consists of Theban elders who collectively represent the societal order and the views of the city's citizens. They serve as a unified entity, commenting on the action, interpreting the unfolding events, and collectively interacting with the individual characters.

2.2 Participant in the Drama

As a collective character, the chorus was not merely an observer but a participant in the drama, with the ability to engage in dialogue with individual characters. The chorus's dialogue often took on the form of stichomythia (a rapid exchange of single lines), contributing to the dynamic interplay and rhythm of the scene. This active participation provided additional perspectives and responses to the unfolding events, adding depth and complexity to the narrative.

Example

In "The Eumenides" by Aeschylus, the chorus of the Furies plays a significant role in the drama, directly engaging with characters such as Orestes and Apollo, and participating actively in the trial at the heart of the play.

2.3 Reactive Role

The chorus also had a reactive role, responding collectively to the play's events. Their reactions could reflect the ideal or expected responses from the society they represent, thereby guiding the audience's understanding and emotional response to the events on stage.

Example

In "The Bacchae" by Euripides, the chorus of bacchants reacts emotionally to the tragic fate of Pentheus, thus intensifying the audience's response to his downfall.

2.4 Amplifier of Dramatic Tension

Through their collective reactions, the chorus sometimes amplifies the dramatic tension in the play. Their collective fear, joy, or sorrow, expressed through choral odes, often heightens these emotions in the audience, contributing to the overall dramatic effect.

Example

In "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles, the chorus of Theban elders enhances the dramatic tension throughout the play, particularly as Oedipus edges closer to discovering his true identity. Their reactions of fear and dread amplify the emotional intensity of the narrative.

2.5 Moral and Ethical Dimension

As a collective character, the chorus often embodied the moral or ethical norms of the society they represent. Their collective judgement, approval, or disapproval of the actions of the individual characters often underscores the moral or ethical implications of the narrative, thus serving a didactic purpose.

Example

In "Agamemnon" by Aeschylus, the chorus of Argive elders frequently comments on the moral implications of the characters' actions, particularly those of Clytemnestra. They underscore the tragedy of Agamemnon's murder and question the moral repercussions of Clytemnestra's act of revenge.

3. Reflection of Public Opinion

The role of the chorus in Greek theatre also included being the voice of the polis, or city-state, reflecting societal norms, moral codes, and public sentiment. This representation of collective public opinion significantly impacted the dramatic narrative and the audience's interpretation of the unfolding events.

3.1 Mirror of Societal Values

The chorus often embodied the prevalent values, traditions, and norms of the society they represented, whether it was the citizenry of a city, a group of soldiers, or a band of women. Their collective viewpoints provided an insight into the societal framework within which the narrative unfolded and the characters operated.

Example

In Euripides' "Medea", the chorus is comprised of Corinthian women who express the societal norms of the time. They sympathise with Medea's plight but also voice disapproval of her plans for revenge, mirroring societal expectations and moral codes.

3.2 Interpreter of Actions

By responding to the actions of individual characters, the chorus helped shape the audience's understanding and evaluation of those actions. Whether they expressed approval, disapproval, fear, or hope, their responses could reflect how society might judge the same actions, thus providing a moral and ethical barometer for the audience.

Example

In Sophocles' "Antigone", the chorus of Theban elders often comment on the actions of Antigone and Creon. They reflect societal views about the conflict between divine law (as represented by Antigone's actions) and man-made law (as represented by Creon's decree)

3.3 Expression of Collective Emotion

The chorus also served to reflect the collective emotional response of society to the unfolding events. Their shared emotional reactions, expressed through choral odes, often intensify these emotions in the audience, reinforcing the narrative's emotional impact.

Example

In "The Persians" by Aeschylus, the chorus is composed of Persian elders who express collective sorrow and despair over the Persian defeat at the Battle of Salamis, effectively conveying the national tragedy to the audience.

3.4 Representation of the Democratic Ideal

In the context of Athenian democracy, the chorus's reflection of public opinion held particular significance. The chorus represented the idea of 'kratos' (power) of the 'demos' (people), reflecting the democratic process of collective decision-making and public discourse.

Example

In Aristophanes' comedy "The Knights", the chorus is made up of Athenian citizens. Their critique of the protagonist, a thinly veiled satire of a contemporary Athenian political figure, reflects the democratic ideal of public discourse and criticism of the powerful.

3.5 Advisory Function

The chorus often served an advisory role, cautioning or counselling individual characters based on societal wisdom and experience. This function can be seen as a reflection of the collective wisdom of society.

Example

In "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles, the chorus of Theban elders frequently advises Oedipus, offering wisdom and urging caution. Their role as advisors reflects the societal expectation of elders imparting wisdom to younger generations.

4. Mood Setting and Foreshadowing

The role of the chorus in Greek theatre also included mood setting and foreshadowing, employing their unique collective voice and dramatic techniques to influence audience emotions, build suspense, and hint at upcoming events.

4.1 Mood Setting

The chorus was particularly effective in establishing a scene's emotional tone or mood. Using choral odes-structured songs often composed of strophe and antistrophe sections-the chorus could evoke a wide range of emotions in the audience, from fear and sorrow to joy and anticipation. The mood created by the chorus often reflected or contrasted with the emotional states of the individual characters, thereby enhancing the overall emotional texture of the narrative.

Example

In "Antigone" by Sophocles, the choral odes often set the emotional tone for the scene. One particular ode, known as the "Ode to Man," reflects on the achievements and the follies of mankind, setting a contemplative and sombre mood that underscores the play's tragic events.

4.2 Building Tension

The chorus often built suspense and tension, preparing the audience for significant dramatic moments. This was variously achieved through the rhythm and tempo of their songs, the intensity of their dances, and the urgency of their dialogue. By modulating these elements, the chorus escalates tension or provides relief, influencing the audience's emotional engagement with the drama.

Example

In Aeschylus's "Agamemnon", the chorus of Argive elders helps build tension through their dialogues and songs, particularly in anticipation of Agamemnon's return and the impending disaster they sense but cannot quite articulate.

4.3 Foreshadowing

The chorus often used their songs or dialogue to provide hints or warnings about impending events, a literary device known as foreshadowing. This often involves references to future calamities, prophecies, or ominous warnings. Foreshadowing heightened suspense and prepared the audience for future plot developments, ensuring dramatic events did not seem abrupt or unheralded.

Example

In "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles, the chorus frequently hints at future events. Their comments on the nature of prophecy and their fear of what Oedipus's investigation might foreshadow the tragic revelation of Oedipus's true identity.

4.4 Manipulation of Time

The Greek theatre chorus also had a unique capacity to manipulate perceived time within the narrative. Through their songs or dialogue, they could indicate the passage of time, creating anticipation for future events or a sense of retrospection for past actions. This time manipulation was critical in setting the mood and foreshadowing events.

Example

In Euripides' "The Trojan Women", the chorus of Trojan women sings of their past happiness and the recent siege, effectively indicating the passage of time and building a sense of retrospection that deepens the sense of tragedy.

4.5 Evoking Audience Empathy

The chorus's collective voice and emotional expressiveness evoked empathy in the audience. By mirroring or responding to the emotions of the individual characters, the chorus enabled the audience to share in the narrative's emotional journey, enhancing their emotional investment in the drama.

Example

In "The Bacchae" by Euripides, the chorus of bacchants elicits empathy from the audience through their passionate songs and dances. Their wild celebrations of Dionysian rituals and their lamentation for the suffering Dionysus contrast sharply with the rationalist views of Pentheus, inviting the audience to empathise with the god's followers and understand their perspective.

5. Rhythmic and Aesthetic Elements

The role of the chorus in Greek theatre also involved a rhythmic and aesthetic element. This role manifested through incorporating choral odes, dance, music, and poetry, which enhanced the narrative structure and contributed to the overall dramatic spectacle.

5.1 Choral Odes

The choral odes were a distinctive feature of Greek tragedy, characterized by their structured lyric poetry set to music. These odes were often composed of strophe and antistrophe sections, with the chorus moving in one direction during the strophe and in the opposite direction during the antistrophe. This alternating movement provided a rhythmic structure punctuating the drama and enhancing its momentum.

Example

In "Antigone" by Sophocles, the chorus sings the "Ode to Man," a renowned choral ode, between episodes. The rhythm and structure of this ode, alternating between strophe and antistrophe, provide a rhythmic pulse that punctuates the dramatic action.

5.2 Integration of Dance and Music

The chorus's role was not confined to the spoken or sung word. Dance was vital to their performance, bringing a kinetic dimension to the dramatic narrative. Choreographed movements in unison added to the spectacle and emphasized the chorus's collective character. Similarly, the use of music, whether instrumental or vocal, contributed to the rhythmic structure and mood of the play, evoking a range of emotional responses from the audience.

Example

In "The Bacchae" by Euripides, the chorus of bacchants frequently engages in ecstatic dances and songs in honour of Dionysus. Their dances and songs contribute to the rhythmic structure and mood of the play, creating a kinetic spectacle that enhances the dramatic narrative.

5.3 Aesthetic Appeal

The combination of music, dance, and poetry in the choral odes created an aesthetic experience that was visually, sonically, and intellectually engaging. This enriched the performance beyond the main narrative, providing a multi-sensory spectacle that amplified the dramatic impact.

Example

In "The Persians" by Aeschylus, the chorus of Persian elders adds to the aesthetic appeal of the performance with their lamentations for the Persian defeat at the Battle of Salamis. Combining poetic language, music, and movement, their choral odes create a visually and sonically rich spectacle.

5.4 Respite from Tension

The choral odes, performed between episodes of the main plot, offered a pause from the escalating tension of the narrative. This served to regulate the emotional intensity of the drama, providing moments of reflection, relief, or anticipation for the audience.

Example

In "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles, the choral odes serve as a pause from the escalating tension of Oedipus's investigation into the cause of Thebes's plague. These interludes offer the audience moments of reflection and anticipation, effectively regulating the emotional intensity of the drama.

5.5 Orchestration of Time and Space

The chorus's movements around the orchestra (the performing space) and their rhythmic chanting helped create the dramatic space and time. Their presence and performance underscored the rhythm of the unfolding drama and marked the passage of time within the narrative, thereby enhancing the sense of temporal and spatial continuity.

Example

In "Agamemnon" by Aeschylus, the chorus of Argive elders' movements around the orchestra and their rhythmic chanting help orchestrate the dramatic space and time. Their presence and performance underscore the rhythm of the unfolding drama and mark the passage of time within the narrative.

6. Moral and Philosophical Commentary

The chorus frequently provided moral and philosophical insights, often reflecting on the ethical implications of the character's actions and decisions. This aspect underscored the educative function of Greek drama, promoting reflection and discourse among the audience.

6.1 Ethical Evaluation

The chorus often provided an ethical lens through which the drama could be interpreted. They reacted to the actions of the individual characters, expressing approval, disapproval, or uncertainty, thereby providing an ethical evaluation of their choices and conduct. This assessment played a vital role in reinforcing or challenging the moral norms of society, engaging the audience in an exploration of ethical issues.

Example

In Sophocles' "Antigone", the chorus, comprised of Theban elders, often comments on the actions of Antigone and Creon. They question Creon's decision to deny Polynices a proper burial and Antigone's rebellious action, expressing uncertainty and concern about the ethical implications of their choices.

6.2 Philosophical Commentary

Beyond ethics, the chorus also contributed philosophical insights into the unfolding drama. They pondered on the nature of human existence, fate, the divine, justice, and other philosophical concepts that were woven into the narrative. Through their songs and dialogues, the chorus invited the audience to contemplate these profound themes, enriching the intellectual depth of the drama.

Example

In Euripides' "The Bacchae", the chorus of bacchants frequently reflects on the power and mystery of the gods, particularly Dionysus. Their songs praise the god's dual nature as both a bringer of joy and a terrifying force, encouraging the audience to contemplate the complex and unpredictable nature of the divine.

6.3 Didactic Function

The moral and philosophical commentary of the chorus underpinned the didactic function of Greek theatre. Greek drama was not merely a form of entertainment but was also a medium of education and social discourse. The chorus's commentary encouraged reflection and discussion among the audience, promoting ethical understanding and philosophical inquiry.

Example

In Aeschylus' "Agamemnon", the chorus of Argive elders reflects on the destructive consequences of hubris, as seen in Agamemnon's decision to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia and his arrogant behavior upon his return from Troy. Their commentary offers a didactic lesson on the dangers of excessive pride.

6.4 Collective Wisdom

The chorus often symbolized the collective wisdom of the community, a reflection of societal norms and expectations. Their commentary represented the communal voice, providing counsel, caution, or critique in response to the characters' actions. This communal perspective added a layer of societal validation or critique to the individual experiences depicted in the drama.

Example

In Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex", the chorus of Theban elders represents the community's collective wisdom. Their reactions to Oedipus's investigation into the cause of Thebes's plague provide a societal perspective, expressing caution and fear about the potential consequences.

6.5 Emotional Resonance

The chorus's moral and philosophical commentary resonated emotionally with the audience. Through their collective voice, they expressed feelings of fear, hope, sorrow, joy, and confusion in response to the moral and philosophical dilemmas presented in the drama. This emotional resonance helped the audience engage more deeply with the ethical and philosophical themes of the drama.

Example

In Euripides' "Medea", the chorus of Corinthian women expresses sympathy for Medea's plight as a foreign woman betrayed by her husband. Their emotional reactions resonate with the audience, encouraging empathy and deeper engagement with the drama's moral complexities.

7. Religious Function

The origins of the Greek theatre are closely connected to religious festivals, particularly those dedicated to Dionysus, the god of wine, agriculture, and fertility of nature, who was also the patron god of the Greek stage. The chorus maintained a religious tone and helped imbue the drama with a sense of reverence and ritual.

7.1 Dionysian Festivals

Greek theatre emerged from the Dionysian festivals, where choruses would sing and dance in honor of Dionysus. The chorus in the theatre maintained this link to the original Dionysian context. Their songs, dances, and dialogues contributed to the sacred atmosphere and served as a constant reminder of the theatre's religious origins.

Example

In Euripides' "The Bacchae," the chorus of bacchants, followers of Dionysus, perform hymns and dances in honor of the god, reminiscent of the Dionysian rituals that were the roots of Greek theatre. The chorus's ecstatic worship maintains the strong connection to the play's religious origins.

7.2 Ritual

The chorus's performance was inherently ritualistic. Their synchronized movements, rhythmic chants, and the cyclical nature of their odes had a mesmerizing, almost hypnotic effect. This ritualistic element, combined with their songs' spiritual content, helped create a reverential aura and connected the audience to the divine.

Example

In Aeschylus' "The Eumenides," the chorus of Furies provides a strong ritualistic element with their rhythmic chants and synchronised movements. Their haunting presence and ritualistic performance instil a sense of dread and reverence, emphasizing the sacred nature of their role as avenging spirits.

7.3 Religious Commentary

The chorus often provided religious commentary, reflecting on the role of the gods in human affairs, the nature of fate, and the moral and spiritual implications of the characters' actions. This commentary served to reinforce the religious themes woven into the drama and encouraged the audience to engage with the spiritual dimensions of the narrative.

Example

In Sophocles' "Antigone," the chorus of Theban elders frequently reflects on the role of the gods in human affairs, particularly the consequences of defying divine laws. Their reflections and comments imbue the drama with a strong sense of religiosity.

7.4 Representing the Divine

The chorus sometimes served as a mouthpiece for the gods, delivering divine messages, prophecies, or judgements. This function further underlined the religious function of the theatre, establishing a direct link between the divine realm and the dramatic action.

Example

In Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex," the chorus communicates the prophecies of the Oracle of Apollo to Oedipus, effectively serving as a messenger of the gods. Their role underscores the divine presence in the unfolding tragedy.

7.5 Catharsis

The chorus also contributed to the cathartic experience of the drama. The shared emotions expressed by the chorus, and the wisdom imparted through their commentary, facilitated a communal purging of emotions - a catharsis, that had spiritual significance. This cathartic function is a crucial part of the religious aspect of Greek theatre.

Example

In Euripides' "The Trojan Women," the chorus of Trojan women contributes to the cathartic experience of the drama. Their shared lamentations and reflections on the devastating consequences of war facilitate a communal purging of emotions, reflecting the spiritual dimension of catharsis in Greek drama.

Playwrights' Use of the Chorus

Ancient Greek playwrights each had unique styles and approaches to utilising the chorus in their works. There were differences in not only the number of chorus members but also the function and engagement of the chorus in the narrative.

Aeschylus

Known as the 'father of tragedy', Aeschylus was the first of the three great ancient Greek tragedians. In his early works, Aeschylus typically used a chorus of fifty, following the tradition of the Dionysia festival. However, he reduced this number to twelve in his later works. Aeschylus often made the chorus a central participant in the play's main action. For instance, in "The Persians", the chorus represents the council of Persian elders who react to the news of their army's defeat.

Sophocles

Sophocles was the second of the three renowned Greek tragedians. He made significant innovations in Greek theatre, including reducing the traditional chorus from fifty (as was often employed by Aeschylus) to fifteen members, a convention that became standard in later Greek tragedies. This change perhaps allowed for more focus on individual characters. Sophocles often used the chorus to explore the philosophical implications of the dramatic action, as seen in "Oedipus Rex" where the chorus reflects on the mystery of human life and destiny.

Euripides

Euripides, the third of the great tragedians, continued to use a chorus of fifteen members, following the convention set by Sophocles. However, he often employed the chorus in a significantly different way. While the chorus had been an integral part of the action in the works of Aeschylus and Sophocles, in Euripides' plays, they were often more detached from the plot, serving more as observers and commentators. Euripides frequently used the chorus to convey the emotional atmosphere and provide philosophical commentary. In "The Bacchae", for instance, the chorus of bacchantes often intensifies the atmosphere of wild religious ecstasy.

Aristophanes

Aristophanes was a comic playwright whose approach to the chorus was distinctly different from the tragedians. His plays often incorporated a chorus of twenty-four members, which was typical for Old Comedy. Aristophanes creatively employed the chorus not only as commentators but also as active participants in the comedy. The choruses in Aristophanes' plays are diverse and could be composed of clouds, wasps, birds, or even frogs, as seen in his play "The Frogs".

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The Role of the Chorus in Greek Theatre: 39 Critical Facts - The Drama Teacher

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The role of the chorus in Greek theatre was integrally linked to the performance and the narrative. A staple component of Classical Greek dramas, the chorus typically consisted of a group of actors, traditionally ranging from 12 to 50 performers.

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TRANSLATOR'S NOTE

Students, teachers, artists, and members of the general public may download and distribute this document without charge and without permission. They may also freely edit and adapt the text to suit their requirements. Drama companies may use this text (or a version of it) to mount a production, provided they inform Ian Johnston of a few details of the production (dates, places, name of the company). Commercial publication, however, is forbidden without the consent of the translator).

Note that in the following translation the numbers without brackets refer to the English text, while the numbers in square brackets refer to the Greek text. In numbering the lines, the translator has normally counted a short indented line with the short line immediately above. The stage directions and explanatory endnotes have been provided by the translator.

In this translation, possessives of words ending in -s are usually indicated in the common way (that is, by adding -'s (e.g. Zeus and Zeus's). This convention adds a syllable to the spoken word (the sound-iz). Sometimes, for metrical reasons, this English text indicates such possession in an alternate manner, with a simple apostrophe. This form of the possessive does not add an extra syllable to the spoken name (e.g., Pentheus and Pentheus' are both three-syllable words; whereas, Pentheus' s has four syllables).

BACKGROUND NOTE

Jason was born the son of Aeson, king of Iolcus, a city in Thessaly (on the eastern coast of mainland Greece). When his father lost the kingship, Jason was secretly sent away and put into the care of the famous centaur Chiron, who raised him. As a young man Jason returned to Iolcus. The king, Pelias, who had deprived Aeson of the kingship, persuaded Jason to set off on an expedition to capture the Golden Fleece, the pure gold skin of a ram, which was in a sacred grove in Colchis (a barbarian region to the east of the Euxine sea, the Greek name for the Black Sea), where it was guarded by a dragon.

Jason put together a band of adventurers called the Argonauts. They took their name from the ship they sailed in, the Argo. The heroes had a number of adventures on the way to Colchis. When they arrived in Colchis, king Aeetes set Jason a number of tasks, including yoking two fire-breathing bulls, ploughing a field with them, sowing the field with the teeth of a dragon, and then fighting the warriors who arose from the sown teeth. He also had to confront the dragon guarding the fleece.

To complete these tasks Jason enlisted the help of Medea, daughter of king Aeetes. She fell in love with Jason and used her magic to help him complete the tasks set by Aeetes and to steal the Golden Fleece. She then escaped with Jason, killing her brother in order to scatter his body on the sea, so that Aeetes would have to hold up his pursuit. Jason and Medea returned to Iolcus, where Medea's magic restored Jason's father, Aeson, to youthful health. Medea also tricked the daughters of king Pelias into killing their father by giving them ineffective medications and persuading them to try a course of treatment which was fatal. Because of their culpability in the death of Pelias, Jason and Medea were forced to leave Iolchus. They moved to Corinth, where, after a few years, Jason decided to leave Medea and marry the daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. The story of the play begins immediately after Jason's marriage to his new bride.

DRAMATIS PERSONAE

NURSE

O how I wish that ship the Argo
had never sailed off to the land of Colchis,
past the Symplegades, those dark dancing rocks
which smash boats sailing through the Hellespont.
I wish they'd never chopped the pine trees down
in those mountain forests up on Pelion,
to make oars for the hands of those great men
who set off, on Pelias's orders,
to fetch the golden fleece. Then my mistress,
Medea, never would have sailed away 10
to the towers in the land of Iolcus,
her heart passionately in love with Jason.
She'd never have convinced those women,
Pelias' daughters, to kill their father,
and she'd not have come to live in Corinth [10]
with her husband and her children-well loved
in exile by those whose land she'd moved to.
She gave all sorts of help to Jason.
That's when life is most secure and safe,
when woman and her husband stand as one. 20
But that marriage changed. Now they're enemies.
Their fine love's grown sick, diseased, for Jason,
leaving his own children and my mistress,
is lying on a royal wedding bed.
He's married the daughter of king Creon,
who rules this country. As for Medea,
that poor lady, in her disgrace, cries out, [20]
repeating his oaths, recalling the great trust
in that right hand with which he pledged his love.
She keeps calling to the gods to witness 30
how Jason is repaying her favours.
She just lies there. She won't eat-her body
she surrenders to the pain, wasting away,
always in tears, ever since she found out
how her husband has dishonoured her.
She's not lifted her eyes up from the ground,
or raised her head. She listens to advice,
even from friends, as if she were a stone,
or the ocean swell, except now and then
she twists that white neck of hers and weeps, 40 [30]
crying to herself for her dear father, her home,
her own land, all those things she left behind,
to come here with the man who now discards her.
Her suffering has taught her the advantages
of not being cut off from one's homeland.
Now she hates her children. When she sees them,
there is no joy in her. And I'm afraid
she may be up to some new mischief.
Her mind thinks in extremes. I know her well.
She'll not put up with being treated badly. 50
I worry she may pick up a sharp sword
and stab her stomach, or else she'll go [40]
into the house, in silence, to that bed,
and kill the king and bridegroom Jason.
Then she'll face an even worse disaster.
She's a dangerous woman. It won't be easy
for any man who picks a fight with her
to think she's beaten and he's triumphed.
[Enter Medea's and Jason's CHILDREN with their TUTOR.]
TUTOR

Old slave from my mistress's household,
why are you here, standing by the gate, [50]
all alone, complaining to yourself
about what's wrong? How come Medea
is willing to stay inside without you?

NURSE

TUTOR

Unhappy lady! Has she stopped weeping yet?

NURSE

Stopped crying? I envy your ignorance. [60]
Her suffering has only just begun-
she's not even half way through it.

TUTOR

NURSE

What's that, old man? Don't spare me the news. 80

TUTOR

Nothing. I'm sorry I said anything.

NURSE

TUTOR

NURSE

TUTOR

NURSE

TUTOR

But listen-the time's not right 100 [80]
to let your mistress know about these things.
So keep quiet. Don't mention anything.

NURSE

TUTOR

What mortal man is not? Don't you know yet
all men love themselves more than their neighbours.
And some are right to do that-while others
just want some benefit. But this father, 110
with his new wife, has no love for his children.

NURSE
[To the TUTOR]
NURSE

My dear children, you hear your mother's cry.
Her heart's upset. Her anger's growing, too.
So quickly now, run off inside the house. [100]
Stay out of sight. Don't try to go and see her.
She's fierce, headstrong by nature. Take care.
So go now-inside as quickly as you can.
[The TUTOR and CHILDREN enter the house.]
It's obvious the cloud of bitter grief
rising inside her is only just the start. 130
As her temper grows even more intense,
it will soon catch fire. She's a passionate soul,
hard to restrain. What will she do next,
now her heart's been bitten by these injuries? [110]

The pain of this suffering-this intense pain.
Am I not right to weep? O my children,
cursed children of a hateful mother-
may you die with your father and his house,
may it all perish, crash down in ruins!

NURSE

O the sorrow of it all. Poor woman! 140
Why link your children with the nasty things
their father's done? Why do you hate them so?
I'm terrified the children will be hurt.
The pride of rulers is something to fear-
they often order men, but seldom listen, [120]
and when their tempers change it's hard to bear.
It's better to get used to living life
as an equal common person. Anyway,
I don't want a grand life for myself-
just to grow old with some security. 150
They say a moderate life's the best of all,
a far better choice for mortal men.
Going for too much brings no benefits.
And when the gods get angry with some home,
the more wealth it has, the more it is destroyed. [130]
[Enter the CHORUS of Corinthian women.]
CHORUS LEADER

I heard her voice, I heard the cries
of that sad lady here from Colchis.
Has she not calmed down yet? Old nurse, tell me.
I heard from some household servant in there
that she's been screaming. I find no pleasure 160
in this house's suffering. We've been friends.

NURSE

This house is finished-already ruined.
For Jason's bound by his new marriage tie [140]
to the king's daughter. As for my mistress,
her tears are washing away her life in there,
inside the house. She finds no consolation
in the words of any of her friends.

O why can't a bolt of lightning strike me?
What point is there in living anymore?
I want death to come and sweep me off! 170
Let me escape this life of suffering!

CHORUS

O great Themis and noble Artemis, [160]
do you see what I am having to endure,
when I'm the one who bound that cursed man,
my husband, with strong promises to me? 190
O how I want to see him and his bride
beaten down, destroyed-their whole house as well-
for these wrongs they dare inflict on me,
when I've done nothing to provoke them!
O father and city, I left you behind
in my disgrace when I killed my brother.

NURSE

Do you hear what's she's saying, how she calls
to Themis, who hears our prayers, and Zeus,
who guards, they say, the promises men swear. [170]
She's bound to do something quite serious 200
before this rage of hers comes to an end.

CHORUS LEADER

NURSE

All right, though I'm afraid I won't persuade
my mistress. Still, as a favour to you,
I'll see what I can do. Right now she glares
at servants when they come close to her
to tell her something. She's just like a bull
or lioness with cubs-that's how she looks.
Those men from long ago-you'd not be wrong [190]
to call them fools without much wisdom.
They thought up songs for celebrations,
feasts and banquets, bringing to human life 220
delightful music. But they found nothing
in music or the lyre's many strings
to end the bitterness of human life,
the pain in living, sorrows bringing on
deaths and horrifying calamities
that destroy whole families. What a blessing
it would be for human beings if music
could cure these sorrows. When people feast, [200]
why should people sing? It's a waste of time.
People who eat well are happy anyway- 230
they've enjoyed the pleasure of the meal.
[NURSE exits into the house.]
CHORUS
[Enter MEDEA with the NURSE.]
MEDEA

CHORUS LEADER
[Enter Creon, with armed attendants.]
CREON

You there, Medea, scowling in anger
against your husband. I'm ordering you
out of Corinth. You must go into exile,
and take those two children of yours with you.
Go quickly. I'm here to make quite sure
that this decree is put into effect.
I'm not going back into the palace 320
until I've cast you out beyond our borders.

MEDEA

CREON

MEDEA

CREON

CREON

Your words are useless. You won't persuade me.

MEDEA

CREON

MEDEA

O my homeland! How I'm thinking of you now.

CREON

MEDEA

Alas, 390
love's a miserable thing for mortal men. [330]

CREON

I think events determine if that's true.

MEDEA

CREON

MEDEA

CREON

MEDEA

No, don't do that. I beg you, Creon . . .
[Medea seizes Creon's hand.]
CREON

Woman, it seems you're trying to provoke me. 400

MEDEA

CREON

Then why squeeze my hand so hard and not let go?

MEDEA

CREON
[Exit Creon with his attendants.]
CHORUS LEADER

Alas for you, unfortunate woman-
how wretched your distress. Where will you turn?
Where will you find someone to take you in?
What country, what home will you ever find
to save you from misfortune? [360]

MEDEA

CHORUS

The waters in the sacred rivers [410]
are flowing in reverse.
And all well-ordered things
are once more turning on themselves. 490
Men's plans are now deceitful,
their firm trust in the gods is gone.
My life is changing-common talk
is giving me a better reputation.
Honour's coming to the female sex.
Slander will no longer injure women. [420]
[Enter Jason.]
JASON

Now is not the first time I've observed
how a harsh temper can make all things worse-
impossibly so. It's happened often.
You could have stayed here in this land and house,
if only you'd agreed to the arrangements
and showed some patience with those in command.
Now you're exiled for your stupid chatter. 530 [450]
Not that I care. You don't have to stop
calling Jason the worst man in the world,
but when you speak against the ruler here,
consider yourself very fortunate
that exile is your only punishment.
I've always tried to mollify the king-
he has a vicious temper-and have you stay.
But you just would not stop this silly rage,
always slandering the royal house.
That's why you have got to leave the country. 540
Anyway, I won't neglect my family.
I've come here, woman, looking out for you, [460]
so you won't be thrown out with the children
in total need and lacking everything.
Exile brings with it all sorts of hardships.
Although you may well despise me now,
I could never have bad feelings for you.

MEDEA

CHORUS

When members of a family fight like this, [520]
rage pushes them beyond all compromise. 620

JASON

CHORUS LEADER

MEDEA

I'm very different from many others,
in all sorts of ways-in my opinion,
the unjust man who speaks so plausibly 690 [580]
brings on himself the harshest punishment.
Since he's sure his tongue can hide injustice,
he dares anything. But he's not that clever.
So you should not parade before me now
your clever words and specious reasoning.
One word demolishes your argument:
if you were not corrupt, you'd ask me first,
get my consent to undertake this marriage,
but you did not even tell your family.

JASON

O yes, if I'd told you of the wedding, 700
I'm sure you would have lent me fine support.
Even now you can't stand to set aside
that immense rage in your heart. [590]

MEDEA

JASON

Get this straight-
this royal bride I have, I did not marry her
because of any woman. As I told you,
I wanted to save you and have children,
royal princes, with the same blood as my sons.
That way my house has more security. 710

MEDEA

JASON

Do you think [600]
you can change that prayer and sound more sensible?
You should not consider this advantage
painful or pretend to be so wretched
when things are going well for you.

MEDEA

JASON

That's what you've chosen. The blame rests with you. 720

MEDEA

What did I do? Marry and desert you?

JASON

MEDEA

And I'm a curse against your family, too.

JASON

I'm not arguing with you any more [610]
about all this. But if you want me
to provide some money, some assistance
for you and the children in your exile,
just ask. I'm prepared to give you some,
and with a generous hand. I'll send my friends 730
introductory tokens, so they'll treat you well.
You'd be mad not to accept this offer.
Woman, stop being so angry. If you do,
things will turn out so much better for you.

MEDEA

JASON

All right, but I call the gods to witness
I'm willing to help you and the children. [620]
But you reject my goods and stubbornly 740
push away your friends, and for that reason
you'll suffer still more pain.

MEDEA

Get out of here.
For someone so in love with his new bride
you're spending far too long outside her home.
Go act married. The gods will see to it
your marriage changes into one of those
that makes you wish you had rejected it.

CHORUS

Erotic love with too much passion
brings with it no fine reputation,
brings nothing virtuous to men. 750
But if Aphrodite comes in smaller doses, [630]
no other god is so desirable.
Goddess, I pray you never strike me
with one of those poisoned arrows
shot from your golden bow.

I pray that moderation,
the gods' most beautiful gift,
will always guide me.
I pray that Aphrodite
never packs my heart with jealousy 760
or angry quarreling.
May she never fill me with desire
for sex in other people's beds.
May she bless peaceful unions, [640]
using her wisdom to select
a woman's marriage bed.

O my country and my home,
I pray I never lack a city,
never face a hopeless life,
one filled with misery and pain. 770
Before that comes, let death,
my death, deliver me,
bring a fatal end to all my days.
For there's no affliction worse [650]
than losing one's own land.

I say on this based on what I've seen,
not on what other people say.
For you are here without a city-
you have no friends to pity you,
as you suffer in this misery, 780
suffer in the harshest way.
The man who shames his family, [660]
who does not open up his heart
and treat them in all honesty-
may he perish unlamented.
With him I never could be friends.
[Enter Aegeus, king of Athens.]
AEGEUS

MEDEA

AEGEUS

I've just left Apollo's ancient oracle.

AEGEUS

MEDEA

In the gods' name, have you lived so long [670]
without ever having any children?

AEGEUS

Not one. Some god is doing this to me.

MEDEA

Do you have a wife? Or have you stayed unmarried?

AEGEUS

No, I am married. My wife shares my bed.

MEDEA

So what did Apollo say about it? 800

AEGEUS

Words too wise for human understanding.

MEDEA

It is appropriate for me to learn them?

AEGEUS

Of course. They need a clever mind like yours.

MEDEA

AEGEUS

MEDEA

AEGEUS

". . . until you come back to your hearth and home."

MEDEA

What were you looking for when you sailed here?

AEGEUS

A man called Pittheus, king of Troezen. 810

MEDEA

He's Pelops' son. They say he's a very holy man.

AEGEUS

I want to share the god's prophecy with him.

MEDEA

He's a wise man and skilled in things like that.

AEGEUS

And the friendliest of all my allies.

MEDEA

Well, good luck. I hope you find what you desire.

AEGEUS

Why are your eyes so sad, your cheeks so pale?

MEDEA

O Aegeus, my husband has been cruel- [690]
of all men he has treated me the worst.

AEGEUS

MEDEA

Jason's abusing me. I've done him no harm.

AEGEUS

What has he done? Give me more details.

MEDEA

AEGEUS

MEDEA

AEGEUS

MEDEA

A new love match-he's betrayed his family.

AEGEUS

Leave him, then, since, as you say, he's worthless. 830

MEDEA

His passion is to marry royalty.

AEGEUS

Who's giving her to him? Tell me the rest.

MEDEA

Creon, who rules this land of Corinth.

AEGEUS

MEDEA

AEGEUS

By whom? You're speaking now of some new trouble.

MEDEA

AEGEUS

With Jason's full consent? I find that disgraceful. 840

MEDEA

AEGEUS

Lady, I'd like to grant this favour to you,
for many reasons. First, there's the gods. [720]
Then, for the children you say I'll produce.
For there I've lost all sense of what to try.
Here's what I'll do. If you get to my country,
I'll strive to treat you as a foreign guest-
that's the proper thing for me to do. 860
But, Medea, I'll give you fair warning:
I won't plot to get you out of Corinth.
If you can reach my household on your own,
you may stay there in safety. Rest assured-
I won't surrender you to anyone.
But you must make your own escape from here.
I don't want my hosts finding fault with me. [730]

MEDEA

AEGEUS

Don't you trust me? What in this still bothers you? 870

MEDEA

AEGEUS

MEDEA

AEGEUS

MEDEA

Never to cast me out from your own country.
And if some enemy of mine asks you [750]
if he can take me off, you'll not agree,
not while you're still alive.

AEGEUS

MEDEA

AEGEUS

MEDEA

All is well. Now, go your way in peace. 900
I'll come to your city as quickly as I can,
once I've completed what I mean to do,
and my plans here have been successful.
[Exit Aegeus.]
CHORUS LEADER

May Hermes, noble son of Maia,
go with you on your return, Aegeus. [760]
I hope you'll get what your heart's so set on,
for in my eyes you are a worthy man.

MEDEA

CHORUS LEADER

MEDEA

CHORUS LEADER

But, lady, can you stand to kill your children?

MEDEA

Yes. It will be a mortal blow to Jason.

CHORUS LEADER

But as a woman it will devastate you. 970

MEDEA
[MEDEA goes to door of the house and calls inside.]
You in there . . .
[Enter NURSE from the house.]
. . . go and fetch Jason here. [820]
When I need to trust someone, I choose you.
If you like your mistress and are a woman,
tell him nothing of what I mean to do.
[MEDEA goes into the house, and the NURSE moves off stage.]
CHORUS

Since ancient times, Erechtheus' sons
have been especially blessed,
children of the sacred gods,
from a holy country never conquered, 980
never ransacked by its enemies.
Fed on glorious fruits of wisdom,
they stride lithely through the sunlit air, [830]
where, so the story goes, the Muses,
nine maidens of Pieria, gave birth
to golden-haired Hermione.
And people celebrate how Aphrodite,
while drawing water from the stream,
the flowing river of the lovely Cephissus,
breathes down upon the land 990
sweet, temperate winds, [840]
while she binds within her hair
garlands of sweet-smelling roses,
sending Love to sit at Wisdom's side,
to foster all fine things.
How will this city of sacred streams,
this land of strolling lovers,
welcome you-a murderess
who slaughtered her own children,
an unholy woman-among its people? 1000 [850]
Consider this-the killing of your children.
Consider the murder you are going to do.
By your knees we beg you,
in every way we know,
do not butcher your own children.

Where will your hands and heart
find the strength, the courage
to dare this dreadful action?
How will you look at them, [860]
your children, and not weep 1010
for their murderous fate?
When they kneel before you,
and implore your mercy,
you'll find it impossible
to steel your heart,
then soak your hands
in your own children's blood.

[Enter MEDEA from the house and, from the side, JASON with the NURSE.]

JASON

MEDEA

Jason, I ask you to forgive me
for what I said before. My anger [870]
you should be able to put up with,
since we two have shared many acts of love.
I've been debating with myself. I realize
I've been in the wrong. I tell myself,
[MEDEA goes to the door of the house and calls inside.]
Children, come out here-leave the house.
[Enter the CHILDREN with the TUTOR.]
Come on out. Welcome your father here-
talk to him with me. You and your mother
will end the bad blood in this family.
We've patched things up, and no one's angry now.
Take his right hand. O it's harsh to think [900]
of what the future hides.
[MEDEA hugs her children.]
CHORUS LEADER

JASON

Lady, I approve of what you're saying now.
Not that I blame you for what went on before.
For it's quite natural in the female sex
to get angry when their husbands set up
secret schemes for another secret marriage. [910]
But your heart has changed now for the better. 1070
Although it took a while, you understand
the wiser course of action. In doing so,
you're acting like a woman of good sense.
Now, as for you, my children, your father
has not been neglectful. With the gods' help,
I've made secure provision for you both.
At some future date, you'll be leaders here,
in Corinth, alongside your new brothers.
But first you must grow up. As for the rest,
your father and the god who smiles on him 1080
will take care of that. I pray I see you [920]
mature into fine young men, victorious
over all my enemies.
[MEDEA starts to weep.]
MEDEA

JASON

MEDEA

JASON

But why be so tearful with the boys?

MEDEA

JASON

MEDEA

JASON

A good idea. I think I can persuade her.

MEDEA

You will, if she's a woman like the rest. 1110
And I'll give you some help. I'll send her gifts,
by far the finest human gifts I know,
a finely woven gown, a diadem
of twisted gold. The boys will take them.
One of my servants will fetch them here- [950]
[MEDEA gestures to a SERVANT.]
You-bring me those presents right away.
[The SERVANT goes into the house.][The SERVANT returns with the gifts. MEDEA takes them and hands them over to the CHILDREN.]
JASON

What are you doing, you foolish woman,
disposing of these things of yours? Do you think
the royal house lacks clothes or gold? Keep them. [960]
Don't give them away. If my wife values me,
she'll set more store on what I want to do 1130
than on rich possessions. I'm sure of that.

MEDEA
[Exit JASON and the CHILDREN, with the NURSE and TUTOR.]
CHORUS
[Enter the TUTOR with the CHILDREN.]
TUTOR
[MEDEA starts to weep.]
MEDEA

Alas . . .

TUTOR

An odd response to the report I bring.

MEDEA

All I can say is that I feel so sad . . . .

TUTOR

MEDEA

TUTOR

MEDEA

TUTOR

MEDEA

TUTOR

MEDEA
[TUTOR exits into the house. The CHILDREN remain with MEDEA.][The CHILDREN move toward the house but remain at the door.][MEDEA moves to the CHILDREN near the door, kneels down and hugs them.][MEDEA shepherds the CHILDREN into the house, leaving the CHORUS alone on stage.]
CHORUS

My friends, I've long been waiting in suspense
to see what's happening in the royal house.
Now I see one of Jason's servants coming. 1320
His frantic breathing indicates to me
he brings fresh news of some catastrophe. [1120]
[Enter the MESSENGER, coming from the royal palace.]
MESSENGER

MEDEA

What's happened that I have to run away?

MESSENGER

MEDEA

What really splendid news you bring. 1330
From now on, I'll consider you a friend,
one of my benefactors.

MESSENGER

What's that?
Are you in your right mind, lady, or insane?
To commit this crime against the royal house, [1130]
and then be happy when you hear the news,
without being terribly afraid?

MEDEA

I have some remarks to offer in reply.
But, my friend, don't be in such a hurry.
Tell me of their deaths. If you report
they died in pain, you'll double my rejoicing. 1340

MESSENGER

"My poor child, what god has been so cruel
to destroy you in this way? Who's taken you
away from me, an old man near my death?
O my child, I wish I could die with you." [1210]
[Exit MESSENGER.]
CHORUS LEADER

This is the day, it seems, 1450
the god tightens troubles around Jason,
and justly so. O poor Creon's daughter,
how we pity your misfortune. You're gone,
down into Hades' home-the price you pay
for marrying Jason.

MEDEA
[Exit MEDEA into the house.]
CHORUS

Help me . . . help . . .

CHORUS

SECOND CHILD

CHILD

Yes-for the love of gods, stop this! And hurry!

SECOND CHILD

The sword has almost got us-like a snare!

CHORUS

You hard and wretched woman,
just like stone or iron-
to kill your children, [1280]
ones you bore yourself, 1520
sealing their fate with your own hands.
Of all women that ever lived before
I know of one, of only one,
who laid hands on her dear children-
and that was Ino,
driven to madness by the gods,
when Hera, Zeus's wife,
sent her wandering in a fit
away from home,
that sad lady leapt into the sea, 1530
because she'd killed her sons
a most unholy murder.
She walked into the surf
at the sea's edge, perishing
so she could join in death
her own two children.
But what horror still remains
after what's happened here?
A woman's marriage bed- [1290]
so full of pain-how many evils, 1540
has it brought on humankind?
[Enter JASON with attendants.]
JASON

CHORUS

JASON

What is it? Does she plan to kill me, too?

CHORUS

Your boys are dead, killed by their mother's hand. 1560

JASON

No. What are you telling me? Woman, [1310]
you have destroyed me.

CHORUS

JASON

Where did she do this? Inside or outside?

CHORUS

You slaves in there,
remove the bar from this door at once,
withdraw the bolts, so I may see two things-
my dead sons and their murderer, that woman
on whom I shall exact revenge. 1570
[JASON shakes the doors of the house, which remain closed. MEDEA appears in a winged chariot, rising above the house. The bodies of the two CHILDREN are visible in the chariot.]
MEDEA

JASON

MEDEA

JASON

You have your own share of pain and sorrow.

MEDEA

JASON

MEDEA

JASON

At least it was not my hand that killed them.

MEDEA

No. It was an insult-your new marriage.

JASON

Was it right to murder them for that?

MEDEA

JASON

Yes, I do, 1630
to a woman with good sense. But to you
it is completely evil.

MEDEA

JASON

MEDEA

The gods are aware who began this fight.

JASON

Yes, they well know your detested heart.

MEDEA

Keep up your hate. How I loathe your voice.

JASON

MEDEA

JASON

Let me bury these dead boys and mourn them.

MEDEA

JASON

MEDEA

JASON

You polluted wretch! Child killer!

MEDEA

JASON

MEDEA

JASON

O such loving children!

MEDEA

Their mother loved them. You did not.

JASON

And yet you killed them?

MEDEA

Yes, to injure you.

JASON

MEDEA

JASON

MEDEA

No. Your words are wasted.

JASON
[MEDEA'S chariot takes her and the CHILDREN up and away from the scene. Exit JASON.]
CHORUS
[Exit CHORUS.]
ENDNOTES

(1) The Symplegades were two rocky outcrops at the entrance to the Black Sea that clashed together and destroyed ships. Jason and his crew had to sail past them on their way to and from Cholchis. [

(2) Pelion was a mountain in Thessaly whose trees had provided the wood to construct Jason's boat, the Argo. [

(3) When Jason and Medea sailed away from Colchis with the Golden Fleece, Medea's father, king Aeetes, sailed in pursuit of them. To slow down her father's forces, Medea killed her brother Absyrtus and scattered his remains on an island, because she knew Aeetes would have to stop to collect his son's body. [

(4) Apollo's ancient oracle was his shrine at Delphi. The navel stone in the temple there was believed to be the central point of the earth. [

(5) Erechtheus was a legendary king of Athens, founder of the polis. Erechtheus' sons is a phrase that commonly denotes citizens of Athens. [

(6) Ino was a mortal queen of Thebes, daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia. She helped to nurse the infant god Dionysus, Zeus' child born to her sister Semele. Zeus' divine wife, Hera, enraged at the birth of Dionysus, drove Ino and her husband, Athamas, mad, so that they killed their two sons (accounts differ as to how the children died). [

A NOTE ON THE TRANSLATOR

Ian Johnston is an Emeritus Professor at Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, British Columbia. He is the author of The Ironies of War: An Introduction to Homer's Iliad and of Essays and Arguments: A Handbook for Writing Student Essays . He also translated a number of works, including the following:

Most of these translations have been published as books or audiobooks (or both)-by Richer Resources Publications, Broadview Press, Naxos, Audible, and others.

Ian Johnston maintains a web site where texts of these translations are freely available to students, teachers, artists, and the general public. The site includes a number of Ian Johnston's lectures on these (and other) works, handbooks, curricular materials, and essays, all freely available.

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TRANSLATOR'S NOTE Students, teachers, artists, and members of the general public may download and distribute this document without charge and without permission. They may also freely edit and adapt the text to suit their requirements.

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In Greek myth when one dies, it is said that your soul leaves your body in a tiny puff of breath. Your family gives you a proper burial and places two coins over your eyes. Your soul travels to the Underworld, guided by Hermes⁽⁵⁾.

In the Underworld, you are first greeted by Charon, the ferryman of the dead, who takes you across the River Styx. You pay him with the coins buried with your body in the real world⁽¹⁾.

Once you've been transported across the river, you are escorted to the gates of the Underworld, where you will meet Cerberus- the three-headed dog responsible for guarding the gates and keeping spirits inside.

After entering the gates, you are taken to the judgment pavilion where the three judges of the Underworld judge your soul and decide where you need to go. Good souls go to Elysium⁽²⁾. Souls neither good nor bad go to the fields of Asphodel and will reside there for the rest of eternity. Souls who were extremely bad or just enemies of the gods would go to the Fields of Punishment, or Tartarus⁽³⁾.

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(1): It is said that if you were not buried properly, or not given coins at burial then your soul would be stranded on the shores of River Styx.

(2): Elysium is the Greek concept of Heaven. There's no actual heaven because good and bad souls all go to the Underworld. There's a special section of Elysium called the "Isle of the Blest" or "Island of the Blessed". The island is reserved for those who have been reincarnated and sent to Elysium three times in a row. Most people choose to stay in Elysium rather than risk reincarnation and living a bad life.

(3): There are some competing sources between whether or not the Fields of Punishment and Tartarus are the same thing, however, they serve as the same purpose: to store the bad souls and enemies of the gods. Sisyphus was cursed to push a giant boulder up a hill for all eternity. Just before the boulder reached the top of the hill, it would roll back down and he would have to start over. Tantalus was cursed with eternal hunger, and was cursed to be near a giant feast of food he could never reach.

(4): In the show we see Hades give Eurydice two coins, right before she goes down to the Underworld.

“Hades gives Eurydice two coins. Rattlesnakes sound” (pg.44- stage directions)

(5): In this production, instead of being guided by Hermes down to the Underworld, you take a train. This change was made to uphold the continuity of the piece that Hadestown is now an industrial wasteland.

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In death, it is common to forget the life you had above. Most commonly this is done via the fields of Asphodel. However, it can also be done via the River Styx or the River Lethe. The river Lethe is the official river of forgetfulness, however, if one comes in contact with the River Styx, one risks losing themselves all the same. It is unclear which one Eurydice is dipped in, in this piece⁽¹⁾.

Regardless, I thought it was important that this be discussed because the concept of forgetting who you are is so prominent in not only this piece but also the mythology behind the piece. Further, the concept of Eurydice forgetting who she is, is best personified in Sarah Ruhl's "Eurydice", an adaptation of the original myth where Eurydice gets to spend more time with her father in the Underworld. She encounters Hades who realizes she still has self-awareness and says to her "We'll have to dip you in the river again and make sure you're good and dunked." (pg.28).

(1): Also important to note, there are some exceptions to coming in contact with River Styx. Heroes like Achilles for instance, were able to bathe in the River and be imbued with invincibility and strength.

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Achilles | Myth, Meaning, Significance, & Trojan War

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Achilles, in Greek legend, was the son of the mortal Peleus, king of the Myrmidons, and the Nereid, or sea nymph, Thetis. Homer’s Iliad describes Achilles as the greatest warrior in the army of Agamemnon in the Trojan War and recounts how his rage affects the outcomes of the epic conflict.

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Take a look at these sources and get a deeper understanding for the development process!

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Take a look at these sources and get a deeper understanding for the development process!

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500-ISH BC

It started as a boy-meets-girl story, as so many do. Once upon a time in Greece, Orpheus met, fell in love with and married Eurydice, a beautiful wood nymph. He was such a gifted musician, it is said, he could charm all living beings, not to mention gods and even stones. On their wedding day, according to one version of the myth, Eurydice was bitten by a snake and died. Grief-stricken, Orpheus traveled to the Underworld to get his wife back. His father, Apollo, called ahead to convince Hades to listen to his son's plea.

When Orpheus sang and played his lyre, Hades wept, and his wife, Persephone, totally lost it. She persuaded Hades to allow Eurydice to follow Orpheus back to the land of the living. But, jerk that he was, the king of the Underworld included one condition: If Orpheus turned back to look at Eurydice before they were both in daylight, she would be lost forever.

Now, Orpheus was a brilliant musician, but he was not so good at being responsible or following instructions. Near the end of their long journey, he glanced back to see if Eurydice was following him, and she was immediately hauled into the Underworld, never to return. The distraught Orpheus proceeded to reject all other women, which turned out to be a poor decision, as well. But that's another story.

2006

Fast-forward about two and a half millennia. Vermont singer-songwriter Anaïs Mitchell was in the middle of recording her first album, The Brightness, for the label Righteous Babe when strange songs began to come to her.

ANAïS MITCHELL: It started in the random, cosmic way most art things start, I'd say: A few lines came into my head while I was on a long drive. I was just kinda getting going as a touring singer-songwriter then, and mostly playing solo. [The songs] seemed to be about the Orpheus myth.

The song "Hades & Persephone" appeared on The Brightness, which was produced by Vermont musician-composer Michael Chorney in the Bristmill studio in Bristol.

Another of Mitchell's early collaborators was Ben t. Matchstick, a longtime theater artist and Bread and Puppet Theater alum. As he accompanied Mitchell on one of her long drives, they began to envision some kind of a show - a whole performance based on the stories of Orpheus and Eurydice and Hades and Persephone.

BEN T. MATCHSTICK: Crack in the Wall was the initial idea for a title. A week later, Anaïs said "Hadestown," and it brought a flood of all these images - a company town, labor history, Depression-era stuff. I started gravitating to characters who embodied these things. It's hard to say what came first, the lyrics or the images.

Things evolved very quickly. Mitchell wrote more songs, and Matchstick developed characters and visual design. He rounded up a group of friends and, with just two weeks' rehearsal, mounted a bare-bones production of Hadestown at Barre's Old Labor Hall. Mitchell played Eurydice; Matchstick was Hermes, a messenger for Hades. Chorney's then-current band, Magic City, supplied the orchestration. In a recent interview, Matchstick remembers this stage of the production as "raw" and "euphoric."

MITCHELL: There are aspects of the world of Hadestown that simply wouldn't exist if not for Ben. I think it was he who suggested the role of "the Fates." These are three fearsome women who comment darkly on everything. He's a very politically committed artist and always pushed for the highlighting of the sociopolitical story alongside the love story. Mainly, in the early days, the inspiration for creating the piece was as much about the magic of the collaboration between myself, Ben and Michael as anything else. I wouldn't have written it at all if I weren't massively inspired by those guys and their artistry.

2007

The Brightness was released in February. Later in the year, Mitchell obtained a creation grant from the Vermont Arts Council that facilitated a slightly more developed version of Hadestown. It was performed eight times in several Vermont locations, as well as in Somerville, Mass. Dan Bolles wrote about the "sprawling folk opera" in a cover story for Seven Days. He noted that Hadestown featured some of Mitchell's finest songwriting to date - but also some of her least accessible.

Mitchell told Bolles that creating the show was "a songwriter's wet dream," but she admitted that parts of it were abstract. While she didn't want to sacrifice the work's "poetic beauty," she acknowledged that developing the characters and streamlining the story would enable the audience to better grasp the concepts. "I love to be invested in a story," Mitchell said, "and musical theater has that power, because music expresses something that you can't say in words or even show onstage."

Chorney's genius as a composer and arranger contributed greatly to that expression, fleshing out Mitchell's song demos and giving each of them distinct sounds.

MITCHELL: In 2007, in addition to me adding more songs, Michael added the viola to the orchestra, and Ben went deep into the postapocalyptic aspect of the world ... [It] was more sophisticated in terms of sets, lighting, props and staging concepts.

After the Vermont shows, Mitchell's career as a singer-songwriter accelerated. She toured extensively, sometimes with Chorney. Still, she kept working on Hadestown. And then came the recording.

2010-2012

In March 2010, Hadestown was released on Righteous Babe as a "concept album." Alongside Mitchell as Eurydice, its 20 songs featured a gallery of well-known artists: label founder Ani DiFranco as Persephone, Bon Iver's Justin Vernon as Orpheus, Greg Brown as Hades, Ben Knox Miller as Hermes and the Haden Triplets as the Fates. New York musician Todd Sickafoose produced the album at Brooklyn Recording. As always, Chorney supplied orchestral arrangements.

The album won international raves. In its wake, Hadestown went on an unusual concert tour: Mitchell, Chorney and the band traveled to some 60 cities in the U.S., Canada and the UK, finding local singers in each location to perform the vocal roles.

MITCHELL: The album ushered in another, different chapter of the project, the "music world" chapter. We were trying to figure out how to tour behind the album, and hit upon the idea of working with different guest singers and presenting the show as a concert. We did "New York City Sings Hadestown," "California Sings Hadestown," Colorado, Virginia, Alberta, Boston, Pacific Northwest, London and Glasgow. I might be forgetting some! Every time, we had seven new singers joining us onstage who had literally just learned their parts ... There was certainly some mayhem.

There was a lot of great spirit, there was never enough money, and there were always just insane logistics. But I can say in hindsight, on balance, those shows were very magical, joyous occasions, and there are friendships and relationships and collaborations still going that began during those travels.

At one of those tour stops, Mitchell met Dale Franzen. A former opera singer and then director of the Broad Stage in Santa Monica, Calif., Franzen had heard the studio album of Hadestown and seen the concert version. As Mitchell puts it, Franzen "became committed to the idea of developing it into a full-length professional theater piece."

MITCHELL: Other producers had reached out after the album's release, but Dale was special - very passionate, very determined, ready to be in it for the long haul. She later partnered with Mara Isaacs, a New York-based producer, and the two of them partnered with New York Theatre Workshop for this developmental version of the show.

DALE FRANZEN: I had been sent the CD and found myself listening to it and sharing with others, and we all loved the sound and couldn't stop listening to it. After I saw Anaïs at McCabe's [Guitar Shop] in Santa Monica, I knew this could become a show, and it turned out she was already thinking that way, so we began working together.

I had performed the opera L'Orfeo and so was very familiar with the myths and the power of retelling these stories. I wanted nothing more than to bring this original, brilliant talent into the world of theater, where Anaïs wanted to roam. It has been a deep and gratifying pleasure to see her grow so uniquely with this new challenge.

2013-2016

Developing Hadestown for a potential off-Broadway show took "a lot more time, work and personnel than I could have imagined," says Mitchell. In 2013, she began collaborating with Rachel Chavkin, an Obie-winning director, dramaturge and artistic founding director of Brooklyn-based company the TEAM. Suffice it to say they clicked. In Chavkin, Mitchell found a collaborator deeply immersed in the world of New York theater and musical-theater production. A number of sessions at the nonprofit New York Theatre Workshop ensued.

MITCHELL: Most of the workshops were fully cast in terms of actor-singers, and then there'd be a stripped-back version of the music - often just a music director accompanying on a piano. For each workshop, I'd be asked to do a bunch of writing and rewriting in response to feedback. That feedback came primarily from Rachel, but also from a professional dramaturge named Ken Cerniglia, whom the theater brought on board. And also from the producers, the theater and the actors - a lot of feedback!

But I think all the folks involved recognized that Hadestown was never going to fit a conventional model for musical theater. They were excited about taking it as far as it could go narratively without messing with its identity as a piece that is "more poetry than prose."

RACHEL CHAVKIN: Anaïs and I started with the album. We began by looking at what work was already being done by the extant songs, including character and story development, but also emotional and political themes. She was very clear this was a poetry versus a prose piece, and so it really was a question as to how little was necessary to carve the story.

The two forms are so fundamentally different in terms of how time is experienced and how much moment-to-moment change is desirable.

And then I led the selection of the design team and led multiple developmental workshops where we tried out the evolving score with performers.

One workshop, which took place at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre in California, focused on instrumentation and enabled Chorney to try out ideas for arrangements. Sickafoose became involved and began assembling a band for the New York show. It would include Chorney on prepared guitar, as well as Vermont bassist and longtime Chorney bandmate Robinson Morse.

Finally, the New York Theatre Workshop deemed Hadestown production worthy - but not quite ready. Chavkin led the team through a new series of creative talks and preparations for staging, sets, costumes and props - the last of which would become the responsibility of another theater professional from Vermont, Noah Mease.

One result of the long workshop process, Mitchell notes, was a "dream team" of actors who were familiar with the material. Among them was the fifth Vermont participant in Hadestown, singer-actor Shaina Taub, who plays one of the Fates.

CHAVKIN: We were looking for actors with unusual instruments. Each voice you hear in the show is profoundly different and quite unique [and distinct] from the more polished sound you might expect to hear in a musical. There's more gravel, more sense of wear. I'm more moved by someone whose voice is wholly their own than strictly perfect technique. And Anaïs was definitely skeptical of any choices, including casting, that might push the project towards a more homogenized, shiny feel.

Some of the steps in the making of the musical can be seen in so-called Casebook sessions, which the NYTW details for the public on its Tumblr, complete with video footage. The mission is "to feed your curiosity and continue the conversation beyond the theatre walls."

In one such Casebook session, the creative team assesses the dramatic functions of Mitchell's Hadestown songs, even grouping them on a chart "according to emotions and themes." That classification "later proved to be a pivotal moment in establishing the arc of the piece," reads the blog post.

The entire development period required a lot from Mitchell. Not only did she need to learn the ropes of professional musical theater, but she churned out more songs - the show now has 34, compared with the album's 20 - and created more connective tissue for the story.

MITCHELL: At first, I thought, OK, if we're going to go further with this thing, all I've gotta do is write more songs. I'm a songwriter, so that was a familiar task. But at some point it became abundantly clear that new songs were not enough. Audiences were craving more story information from moment to moment. So one big change was to develop the Hermes character as a narrator. It's a natural role for him, as he is, mythologically speaking, a "guide." And it was really useful to have a character be able to simply explain what was happening.

Summer 2016

opened at New York Theatre Workshop on May 23. The media notices were immediate and positive. New York Times critic Charles Isherwood called the show a "gorgeously sung, elementally spare production."

CHARLES ISHERWOOD: Ms. Mitchell's lovely music and well-turned lyrics are tightly bound together, and recall traditional folk music with a distinctive Southern flavor (although she hails from Vermont) ... The orchestrations, by Michael Chorney and Todd Sickafoose, are simultaneously rich and spare, deftly echoing the sounds of traditional folk music while also having an indie-pop flair.

In a June 9 feature in the Times - titled "Anaïs Mitchell Hopes to Change the World With Her First Musical" - Alexis Soloski calls the play "theatrically frisky and musically daring." The Village Voice opines that " Hadestown is an underworld you won't want to leave."

Other coverage has touched on the show's timely aspects. In a recent interview in Vogue, Mitchell notes that she began writing Hadestown in response to George W. Bush's reelection, which she viewed as a demoralizing turn of events. Little did she know that audiences in 2016 would hear her song "Why We Build the Wall" and immediately associate it with another political figure, Donald Trump. A more recent review in London's the Guardian spells out that resonance clearly: "Mitchell's hit off-Broadway show about a tyrannical billionaire building a wall to 'keep out the enemy' was written in 2006 but could hardly be more topical."

The show's run has been extended twice - it's currently set to conclude on July 31 - and the performers are put to the test with eight shows a week. Asked if that schedule is grueling, Chorney says no. "I wondered if it would be," he admits, "but there are enough variables. The actors are so incredible - they try new things and mix it up. And the audience reaction has a huge impact."

Friday, June 17, 2016

There's nothing quite like sitting in the audience and witnessing that reaction first-hand, as this writer did last Friday. To a viewer who has seen a previous, Vermont incarnation of Hadestown, both evolution and continuity were evident in the production on New York's Lower East Side.

Director Chavkin and NYTW cleverly configured the company's theater in the round for Hadestown, populating its tiered seating area with a motley collection of vintage chairs and cushions (one of prop master Mease's tasks). The result is an intimate experience for the audience, as well as for the performers, who use the aisles and first tier in their staging. (Viewers in the front row need to watch their toes.)

As Chorney indicates, Hadestown mixes things up - and in a dizzying number of ways. The songs, dispatched by a veteran ensemble of seven musicians and directed by Liam Robinson, are variously rendered in the style of indie folk, rollicking New Orleans jazz, soaring ballads and edgy 1930s-style tunes that recall The Threepenny Opera.

The Guardian review suggests that the show has a more "serious sheen" than the earthier album. That may be true, but it's to be expected in an off-Broadway-maybe-going-to-Broadway show for which audiences pay fat ticket prices. In this viewer's opinion, the music of Hadestown now is even more engaging and, at times, utterly thrilling.

Costumes cross eras, too: a pastiche in which vintage accoutrements mix with modern ones such as Eurydice's Keds sneakers and Hermes' hipster watch chains. (Note: Absolutely no one is clad in Grecian robes.) The set is exceedingly minimal - more like a circus ring into which drama, dancing and singing are thrust.

Then there are the historical overlays. Hadestown is based on ancient myths, yet it reimagines Hades - the place - as a clanking steel town with oppressed workers and an authoritarian overlord. The era is intentionally ambiguous, yet the parameters of greed and power fit any age.

The lack of linear storytelling in Hadestown may be disconcerting to those who like their narratives neat, their endings happy. But the performances are ample compensation for any lapses in logic.

Hades the king, nattily clad all in black and performed with sexy chill by New York stage veteran Patrick Page, has an impossibly deep voice. Think Leonard Cohen meets Tommy Lee Jones. Persephone, a thoroughly enchanting Amber Gray, matches her king with saucy attitude (and, occasionally, a bottle of hooch), even if she is his captive most of the year.

The Fates - Taub, Jessie Shelton and Lulu Fall - deliver flawless harmonies with glee, while Chris Sullivan nearly steals the show as a shuffle-dancing, growly-voiced Hermes.

Nabiyah Be and Damon Daunno, as Eurydice and Orpheus, play the sweetly flawed lovers, and both have luminous, angelic voices. Ironically, their characters' love story is the least interesting of all Hadestown's threads, even if their sad fate is the show's denouement. Perhaps their story absorbs us less because its conclusion is foregone; we know that Orpheus will always look back.

It's hard not to notice that the central female characters, Eurydice and Persephone, are totally screwed - one by a romantic slacker, the other by an abductor. This Underworld depicted as a workers' hellhole is none too cheery, either.

Hadestown was never meant to be a feel-good musical - the ending you know is coming is still a stab in the heart because, you know, hope springs eternal. Even so, working with dark material as old as drama itself, Mitchell, Chavkin and company have elevated this Hades to a little slice of heaven.

CHAVKIN: The production has been carefully calibrated to keep one foot in the concert world and one foot in the dramatic. In a sense it's the recitative, and particularly the storyteller Hermes, that allows the piece to transcend pure concert and take on dramatic form ... I love what we made, and there's always work to do.

MITCHELL: It was the magic of the collaboration with other artists, from the get-go, that kept the wind in the sails of Hadestown for long enough to be up off-Broadway 10 years later.

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The Making of Anaïs Mitchell's Hadestown

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500-ISH BC It started as a boy-meets-girl story, as so many do. Once upon a time in Greece, Orpheus met, fell in love with and...

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Anaïs Mitchell, an award-winning independent artist known globally for her individualistic folk-driven tunes, has indeed embarked on an extraordinary journey with her brainchild musical - . A brilliant combination of her distinctive musical instincts and the timeless appeal of Greek mythology, Hadestown is no less than an Odyssey in itself. It's astounding to trace back Hadestown's genesis from a humble 2010 concept album growing into a compelling, Tony® award-winning Broadway powerhouse. This reimagination of two mythological tales, with a culturally significant narrative woven with soulful rhythms and melodies, truly underscores Mitchell's artistic prowess.

Raised in the stunning landscapes of Vermont, Anaïs Mitchell spent her idyllic childhood on a farm. From riding horses across the sprawling meadows to the adventurous sojourns into the woods with her older brother, her early days were brilliantly imbued with nature's bounties. Reminiscent of her namesake, Anaïs Nin, she used to journal prolifically, translating her experiences onto paper with a brilliant touch of creativity. The verdant farmlands, captivating woods, picturesque horizons, and the tranquility of nature shaped young Mitchell's sensibilities, contributing significantly to her artistic flair. Mitchell's first foray into the music industry was with her debut album, The Song They Sang... When Rome Fell - a poignant acoustic tale with exquisite melodies that marked her distinct identity in music.

The roots of Hadestown can be traced back to Mitchell's profound affinity toward the Greek mythological character, Orpheus. In many ways, she saw a reflection of herself in Orpheus. "He is this idealist and dreamer who then is put up against the way the world is," said Mitchell, "I loved getting into that story and the idea that the dreamer also has something to offer and can try to do the impossible thing." This natural resonance between Mitchell and Orpheus transformed Hadestown from a musical rendition of a Greek myth to a deeply personal, relatable human narrative.

Mitchell independently released the concept album in 2010, striking an uncanny balance between age-old tales and contemporary sounds. The incorporation of Orpheus's and Eurydice's tales of love, loss, and longing quickly made the album a word-of-mouth sensation, resonating with audiences across the globe.

The transformation of Hadestown from a concept album into a stage musical was a voyage of its own, marked by numerous challenges that tested Mitchell's strength. Before the show made its Broadway debut, it started out as a much more abstract experiment brought to life in the cozy corners of Vermont. It was here that Mitchell, deeply ensconced in her creative realm, created the first version of Hadestown. This early version was far more abstract and consisted of many long musical sequences.

Transitioning Hadestown into a full-scale musical from an abstract, local production was a venture teetering on the brink of uncertainty for Mitchell. Her main concerns revolved around finding the right partners who would understand and respect her musical's potent intimacy while molding it into a grand Broadway spectacle.

One of the significant breakthroughs that aided the process was Mitchell's collaboration with director Rachel Chavkin. Chavkin's knack for inventive staging and storytelling helped in constructing a solid dramatic structure, pushing Hadestown to become the iconic show we know and love today while keeping the raw, honest parts of the original album.

This journey was a steep learning curve for Mitchell but served a paramount purpose - it transformed her from a singer-songwriter to a bona fide musical theatre artist, shaping Hadestown into the musical sensation that it is today.

The creative process behind Hadestown was a blend of tireless labor, unbridled creativity, and a passionate pursuit of musical glory. At its heart lies Mitchell's songwriting prowess. She tailored and refined every bit, breathing life into the narrative through soul-stirring melodies. Each song was deeply intertwined with the storyline, character growth, and the unfolding of their complicated relationships - a testament to Mitchell's profound understanding of her characters and the overall narrative.

Key collaborations greatly enhanced the creative development of Hadestown. Mitchell teamed up with exceptional talents like Rachel Chavkin, Rachel Hauck, and Michael Krass. Each played a pivotal role in bringing Mitchell's vision to life, helping shape Hadestown into an immersive experience that transcends standard musical theatre boundaries.

The task of shaping the otherworldly atmosphere of Hadestown was taken up by set designer Rachel Hauck. Known for her excellence in creating visually compelling and thematic sets, Hauck admitted that Hadestown was the hardest show she had worked on. It was the element of abstraction and the metaphorical nature of the show that posed a significant challenge - how does one materialize a poetic idea into a concrete, real-world setting?

The challenge notwithstanding, Hauck's relentless efforts, coupled with Chavkin's distinctive vision, ultimately shaped the extraordinary set of Hadestown. The result: an immersive underworld that oscillates between the mythical and the modern. The staging of Hadestown artfully intertwines elements of a Greek amphitheater and the aesthetics of New Orleans during the Great Depression era. This fusion generates an electrifying ambiance that effectively transports the audience into a mythical world deeply rooted in human experiences and earthly realities.

The journey of Hadestown to the illustrious Broadway stage was filled with significant milestones, each providing a stepping stone for the musical to grow, evolve, and ultimately soar. What began as a local Vermont production slowly gathered momentum. Post the initial staging in Vermont, Hadestown began to make larger strides. It started with an off-Broadway run in the renowned New York Theatre Workshop in 2016.

Before embracing the Broadway lights, the show also had a pre-Broadway run as part of the 2017/2018 season at Citadel Theatre in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, as well as a foray into the stage of the Olivier Theatre in London. With international audiences and critics witnessing the show, Hadestown was one step away from being Broadway-ready.

Finally, the opulent Broadway stage beckoned in 2019. Hadestown debuted at the Walter Kerr Theatre, a significant leap in its remarkable journey. The reception of Hadestown was beyond encouraging. Critics and audiences were all praising the show for its groundbreaking narrative, stunning performances, and unforgettable music. The musical was lauded for its inventive retelling of ancient Greek myths, its fascinating characters, and its enchanting world. Receiving a slew of accolades, Hadestown swept the Tony® Awards that year, winning a monumental eight awards, including the coveted Best Musical Award.

Reflecting on Anais Mitchell's journey with Hadestown, it's palpable that the heart of this musical is powered by her sheer determination, unyielding belief, meticulous creativity, and a deep-rooted love for storytelling. From her earliest musings penned down on the heartland of Vermont to weaving an intricate narrative exploring human fallacies and virtues, Mitchell successfully translated her rich imagination into an unforgettable musical. If the roots of Hadestown lay in the bucolic beauty of Vermont, its branches unfolded to the glittering marquee lights of Broadway, a testament to Mitchell's unwavering commitment.

Hadestown, a debut Broadway venture for a singer-songwriter, blossomed into a sweeping success because it dared to venture into unexplored terrains and audaciously stitched together fragments of the ancient and the contemporary. Its impact on Broadway is significant, reinterpreting a classic mythology tale for a modern audience and walking away with a haul of prestigious awards.

The magic of Hadestown is an experience best lived in a theatre, where every note resonates through the hall, every emotion plays out live, and where the audience is transported to a different realm. However, the concept album and Broadway's cast album are equally enthralling, delivering the quintessential sound of the musical in a sonic masterstroke.

Now playing at the Walter Kerr Theatre, Hadestown is waiting to whisk you away to its mesmerizing world. So don't wait - book your tickets, take your seat, and let this story sweep you away on a remarkable journey of love, hope, and the relentless spirit of humanity.

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Anais Mitchell's Journey: From Concept Album to Broadway Success with Hadestown

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Anaïs Mitchell, an award-winning independent artist known globally for her individualistic folk-driven tunes, has indeed embarked on an extraordinary journey with her brainchild musical - . A brilliant combination of her distinctive musical instincts and the timeless appeal of Greek mythology, Hadestown is no less than an Odyssey in itself.

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(Jenny Anderson / Getty Images)

Anais Mitchell has been living in "Hadestown" for 15 years. The indie folk singer-songwriter never intended to linger so long, writing a musical that would travel - slowly - to Broadway and rack up 14 Tony Award nominations.

"I had no idea that it would have as long a life as it's had," says Mitchell, now 38. And because "Hadestown" has been shaped in the digital age, its evolution has been very exposed. Reviews of the work-in-progress have been posting online for years, and tracks from its twoearly albums continue to collect streams on Spotify even though the original Broadway cast recording still has not been released (more on that later).

"This development has been very public, and all of these drafts have been out there in the world," Mitchell says. "What's tricky now is, these days, everything is recorded, and there's not a lot of privacy. People have really been witness to the creation of this thing."

In other words, the very vulnerable process of writing and revising has been done for all to see - critics, colleagues, fans, haters - in real time, for years and years, in a way that is remarkable even for risk-averse, tryout-happy Broadway.

"That's just part of the world we live in now," Mitchell says, shrugging at the new reality of creating and re-creating in the time of social media. "I guess we just have to get comfortable with it."

"Hadestown" reimagines the Orpheus and Eurydice myth during a post-apocalyptic depression, when jobs and optimism are scarce. Though the sensible singer Eurydice has fallen for the idealistic musician Orpheus, she longs for the financial prosperity promised in the titular factory town, cruelly ruled by industrial magnate Hades and loathed by his wife, Persephone.

The epic is simultaneously a narrative musical and a howling blues concert, with its seven-piece band positioned on a stage reminiscent of New Orleans' Preservation Hall. The lyrics, loaded with metaphors and aphorisms, fire off honest observations about art versus commerce, pragmatism versus idealism, and the struggle to love amid jealousy and doubt.

While also touching on climate change and labor unionizing, "Hadestown" most movingly reframes the Greek tragedy as a tale of hope: Even after repeated failure, the human inclination is to get up and try again.

Fitting this feast of themes in a two-and-a-half-hour musical is an arduous ask for any composer-lyricist, especially one who insists on a nearly five-octave vocal sprawl. Yet such were the ambitions of "Hadestown" when it first sprouted in Mitchell's mind in 2004, while the Vermont native was making her second album.

With the help of musician friends, she debuted "Hadestown" as a song cycle in 2006, packing a few props and set pieces into a silver-painted school bus to perform across the state. A studio recording - with Ani DiFranco and Bon Iver frontman Justin Vernon in the cast - was released in 2010, earning a Grammy nomination for its packaging and a growing cult following.

"I'd receive mail from people who had a relationship with the songs that I would've never expected," Mitchell says. "More than one person who was dealing with addiction, or working with people dealing with addiction, talked about how the story resonated with them. It's fascinating."

That concept album also became a magnet for key collaborators. It resonated with Rachel Chavkin, the Tony-nominated director of "Natasha, Pierre & the Great Comet of 1812," who began developing the musical with Mitchell in 2012, as well as with Patrick Page and Amber Gray, who chased down roles in the off-Broadway staging.

"There's something so magical about it that right after listening to it for the first time, I immediately replayed the whole thing again while reading the lyrics," says Gray, who nabbed the role of Persephone, the goddess of nature who begrudgingly spends half of the year in the underworld with her husband, Hades.

"I was just floored - I had never heard anything like that on a stage before," says Page, who auditioned for Hades. "The score has the lowest G [note] on the piano - wow, that's extraordinarily daring writing! Similarly with the incredibly high notes she gives Orpheus. Anyone composing on the piano would call that crazy, but luckily she wrote this on the guitar and put down what she had in her head."

But what she had in her head, though "gorgeously sung," was "static," as "there is little in 'Hadestown' that qualifies as specific action," wrote the New York Times of that 2016 production. New York Magazine agreed, calling it "more of an illustrated pop concert. ... The songs are sung and the story is told, but rarely are the two things one."

So Mitchell continued to modify, clarifying the plot without compromising the poetry. She routinely revised in a solitary drum closet in the Gowanus neighborhood of Brooklyn. Inevitably, doubt came in.

"It's very joyful to collaborate with Rachel and these actors and designers, but most of the time, it's me alone in there all day, and I'm very slow," Mitchell says. "I'd maybe make one good rhyme - which means two lines - and feel like, 'OK, that was a good day.'

"I definitely had thoughts like, 'I should do something else. Anything else would be better for the world, because this is ridiculously hard,'" she says. "It's a privilege to make art, and it's no fun to listen to any artist complain about how hard it is to make art, but it is hard. Behind that big smile on opening night is thousands of hours of frowning alone in the trenches of their mundane craft."

As the production traveled after its off-Broadway run to Canada and England, some songs got only minor adjustments. "Why We Build the Wall," in which Hades explains how building a border is the secret to a region's wealth, was written a decade before the Trump presidency, "and I'd like to think that song won't be relevant in another 10 years," Mitchell says.
HEIDI SCHRECK: How she's turning over 'What the Constitution Means to Me' to another actor "
Other numbers get major overhauls. "The 'Epic' songs were the bane of my existence!" she says, laughing. "I've rewritten those songs hundreds of times. I should make a book, because there are dozens and dozens of stanzas that didn't get used."

She drafted those tracks when she was younger, she says. "There are definitely things I wrote in my 20s - when there's no editor in you yet, and it's all just flowing out - that I would never write now."

Revisions have always been part of the stage musical. Unlike a movie or a TV show, which is traditionally unveiled as a final product on a specific date, theater pieces usually debut in stages - as readings, workshops and out-of-town tryouts before ultimately being brought to Broadway.

That development process, aimed at ensuring a polished production that can attract up to 2,000 ticket holders per show, is often coupled with an original cast recording to promote sales and to be logged for posterity. In the digital age, these phases - and the changes along the way - are more public than ever.

Longtime fans first met Page's Hades and Gray's Persephone in the off-Broadway live recording. What if they prefer that version's Orpheus and Eurydice, now played by different actors?

Which last line of "Road to Hell" reigns supreme: "It's a love song about someone who tries," as sung by Chris Sullivan in 2016, or "We're gonna sing, we're gonna sing it again," as sung by André De Shields on Broadway?

Even Michael Chorney, who first arranged Mitchell's music for his seven-piece band Magic City and still plays in the band on Broadway, mourns lost songs from a decade ago, including "Everything Is Written," a poetic meditation of how one's fate is written in the stars.

"I'm kind of a musical packrat, so it's like, 'No, not that one!'" he says with a laugh. "There is some gorgeous music that's just no longer part of this show, but those sacrifices had to be made. And Anais is a serial reviser. She worked on this until literally the very last minute before the show got locked."
REVIEW: In Lucas Hnath's new 'Dana H.,' a kidnapping survivor's truth hides in the shadows "
Mitchell's instinct to tweak makes "Hadestown" a piece of meta theater, according to its arranger and orchestrator, Todd Sickafoose. "It's a show about telling stories over and over again, and the main character is writing a song and has all these different versions of it as he goes, just like Anais has," he says. "Plus, it's a story from Greek mythology, and there's no definitive version of those stories either."

Rather than feeling self-conscious or apologetic about fans' comparisons between the various versions, Mitchell is empathetic and even excited by such intimate conversations about the music.

"I'll see people on Instagram or Twitter saying, 'What happened to 'Epic III?!'" she says. "I completely get that people have a relationship with the old stuff, and if anyone who prefers a song from off-Broadway instead can listen to that version if they want to. They have options."

That final option - the original Broadway cast recording - is still in the works. Rather than debuting all 40 numbers of the musical at once, 13 tracks will be available digitally by this Friday, ahead of the Tony Awards on Sunday. Collections of songs will be released throughout the summer, in batches, centered on a particular character, until the entire album is available.

This unusual strategy was not the initial release plan. However, after three days of ambitious studio sessions - in a room subdivided into individual transparent booths, allowing musicians to be recorded separately and still see one another while performing - the meticulous step of mixing is taking longer than anticipated.

"We decided to delay the release of the complete album because we felt it's really important to get the sound right," says David Lai, the album's producer. "With these recordings, it's easy to capture the fidelity of quality sound and intimate vocals, but not the truth of a live musical. We're trying to get the best of both worlds: a visceral performance with studio-album quality that conveys the emotional impact of the show, as if you were at the Walter Kerr Theatre."

Mitchell knows it will be worth the wait, especially for a sung-through show. "I love the democratic nature of it, that any kid can get a hold of that soundtrack and listen to it, learn from it and be moved by it," she says. "A lot of people are not going to have the money to see it in the theater, but they can still experience it as if they were there."

After 15 years of living there, "Hadestown" isn't an easy place to leave. "I'm proud of how much the work has been, how hard it's been and how long it's been," Mitchell says, humbled by those who stand in line for tickets overnight and dress up as characters to visit the stage door.

"The show is so much bigger than me, bigger than any of us who have worked on it, and it belongs to everyone now," she says. "It's given meaning to my life for so long, which is the trippy thing about being done with it. It is a little scary to look out at, well, what's next?"

Well, besides new solo music and performances as part of folk supergroup Bonny Light Horseman, Mitchell says she may never be completely finished with "Hadestown."

"I'm still gonna rewrite those 'Epic' songs," she says, laughing. "Maybe for a national tour, I'll change a few things. Rachel Chavkin knows. She's horrified."
THE CRITIC'S TAKE: Why 'Hadestown' deserves the Tony for best musical "

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Anais Mitchell on the very public evolution of 'Hadestown' in the digital age

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The women behind "Hadestown," Part 1: The show's creator on revising her work for 15 long years - while critics, fans and social media haters chime in.

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How Hadestown Grew From Community Theater Project to Broadway

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The mythic folk musical took the long route from concept album to Broadway.

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Evolution of Hadestown

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How dramaturgy helped harness the power of a Broadway hit

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It was the chorus of "Wait for Me" that set me on the road to Hadestown. I was early in my career as a singer-songwriter and driving a lot; back then I'd drive a ridiculous distance, alone, for a tip gig, and that's what I was doing when that melody came, along with these words:

Wait for me, I'm coming / In my garters and pearls /
With what melody did you barter me / From the
wicked underworld?

The first two lines had to do with my own love life. I met Noah when I was just 19 and had the sense early on that I was going to marry him. I was young, though, and ambitious to become a touring singer-songwriter, so I was asking him to "wait" while I did some literal and figurative "running around."

The next two lines were mysterious, a free association, but they seemed to point to the story of Orpheus and Eurydice, which had been a favorite myth of mine as a kid. Interestingly, neither the melody nor the lyrics appeared in the 2006 version of the show.

In 2007 I wrote the version of the chorus that audiences would recognize today, but it was intercut with these dialogue-style verses between Hermes and Hades:
Verse 1:
Hades: Hermes! / Hermes: Hades! / Hades: Back in
town ! / Please, sit down / Please, relax / You've been
around the world and back / Haven't you, Hermes? /
Hermes: I have / Hades: How's the weather? / Hermes:
Worse than ever / How's your wife? / Hades: My wife is
fine / Hermes: You've been spending a lot of time
together / Haven't you, Hades?
Verse 2:
Hades: What have you brought? / Hermes: The latest
crop / Hades: The freshest cut? / Hermes: A cut above /
Hades: How many of them, a lot? / Hermes: A lot /
Hades: A few too many, perhaps / What's this? / Why
have you brought me Orpheus? / I know I never
ordered that / It seems you've gone behind my back /
Haven't you, Hermes?
Verse 3:
Hades: What was that? / Hermes: What was what? /
Hades: I heard a voice / Hermes: I heard it not / Hades:
Someone singing / Hermes: I heard nothing / Hades:
Some kind of song / Hermes: You could be wrong / It
could have been the wind / Hades: The wind? /
Hermes: It could have been the rain / Hades: The rain?
/ Hermes: It could have been the train . . . (the train / the train / the train / the train...)

*

I rewrote the verses of "Wait for Me" entirely for the studio album. I remember feeling that our 2007 production had skewed too "dark," and part of it was that our "coyote" Hermes seemed to have joined the dark side. I wanted him to be more of a mythological helper, Joseph Campbell's "mentor" figure in the "hero's journey." I worked on the new verses on the first tour I opened for Bon Iver.
The other note we'd received fairly continuously was that Orpheus's journey to the underworld didn't seem too tough on him.
It was Europe in 2008, the first time I'd met Justin (Vernon). I was in search of an Orpheus; I'd already asked a few people who'd turned it down. This turned out to be for the best, because the moment Justin opened his mouth on the first night of the tour, my heart exploded. I thought, It has to be Justin! But I was shy to ask him, having just met him, and he was already doing me a great favor by having me support the tour. I'll wait till the end of tour, and then ask, I thought.

But a couple nights later we were on a ferry from Scotland to Scandinavia; I'd had a bit of wine and couldn't contain myself. "I'm writing a folk opera," I blurted out all in a rush. "We're making a record, Ani DiFranco and Greg Brown are on it, I need you to sing the role of Orpheus." He said simply, "Sure." It was on another ferryboat during that same tour that I wrote most of the new verses of "Wait for Me."

The band and crew had flown somewhere on a day off for a television taping, so it was just me and the bus driver on the long drive to Dublin for the end of the tour. Because I was with the driver, I got to enjoy the section of the ferry devoted to "lorrymen," including a little sleeper cabin, where I worked on the new verses. The off-Broadway and Edmonton versions of "Wait for Me" were the same as the album version.

*

At some point before London, we started to become aware that Orpheus had almost no songs that ended on a "button" that gave the audience permission to applaud for him. I don't think it was arbitrary. There was something in his poetic nature that leaned toward musical suspensions and away from "zazzy" resolutions. But we started to worry that by not allowing the audience to applaud for their hero, we might be undermining their ability to fall in love with him.

At the same time, I remember a book-writer friend watching a pre-London workshop performance and saying: "You could use an eleven o'clock number!" To me, that moment of bring-down-the-house-style energy capable of revitalizing us for the show's denouement had to be "Wait for Me Reprise."

But as it stood, neither of the "Wait for Me" numbers had a button; both ended on a suspension. This is where the London and Broadway outros of those two songs- I'm coming, wait for me / I hear the walls repeating . . . -came from.

The other note we'd received fairly continuously was that Orpheus's journey to the underworld didn't seem too tough on him. We didn't witness what Joseph Campbell called the "road of trials" in real time, only heard Hermes's ominous instructions about it. At the same time, Ken had tasked me with finding a way for Orpheus to "go a few rounds" with the Fates over the course of the show, so that by the time we got to "Doubt Comes In" we were witnessing a familiar, inevitable struggle.

It turned out to be the simplest thing in the world to add a bridge to the song. In it, the Fates confront Orpheus, and we're introduced to the "Doubt Comes In" theme for the first time. This is countered by Orpheus, who sings his "Epic" melody, which is picked up by the Workers in a choral moment that succeeds in "cracking" the wall of the underworld. It was almost infuriatingly simple.

The music-theater lesson for me had two parts: One, music is emotional shorthand. It took only a few bars of "Doubt" followed by "Epic" to make the point. Two, bridges are a music-theater writer's best friend. A musical departure and return signifies travel-real and psycho-emotional-and travel is what's required in order to feel we've arrived someplace at the end of a scene.

__________________________________

From Working on a Song: The Lyrics of Hadestown by Anaïs Mitchell, published by Plume, an imprint of The Penguin Publishing Group, a division of Penguin Random House LLC. Copyright © 2020 by Anaïs Mitchell.

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The Story Behind One of Hadestown's Most Beloved Songs

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It was the chorus of "Wait for Me" that set me on the road to Hadestown. I was early in my career as a singer-songwriter and driving a lot; back then I'd drive a ridiculous distance, alone, for a t...

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We spend most of the first half of the production above ground. We meet the players of the game, and learn the circumstances of the world, as well as, the inciting action that has jump started this story.

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This song kicks us off. We get to meet all the characters involved in this story (and the band!), and hear little facts about them. There's a bit of breaking the fourth wall that happens here because it starts with some call and response between Hermes and the band/ensemble, and then Hermes and the audience. Further, when we get introduced to the ensemble, the introduction seems more about honoring their contributions to the production as ensemble members, and less about the roles they each play. In this context, it gives a lot of humanity to the piece and gives the audience more buy-in.

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Eurydice sings about the weather changes happening, and how the world seems to have fallen apart. We learn about how much she struggles to survive and how desperate she is given her circumstances. We also learned a bit more about the Fates and the fact that they are always floating around and guiding the story, like a little earworm. We also glean more information from Hermes about why he sort of adopts Orpheus.

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Orpheus is introduced to Eurydice and sings to get her to come with him.

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Orpheus and Eurydice discuss the feasibility of their relationship. Eurydice is skeptical given that times are hard they're both dirt poor essentially, but Orpheus poetically tells her that it will all work out and the earth will give them what they need. Eurydice teases him about the song he's working on and forces him to sing the song. Orpheus does and produces a flower, which he gives to Eurydice. Seeing the power of his music, Eurydice falls in love with him and urges him to finish the song.

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Hermes helps Orpheus remember where the song he's singing comes from by having him recount the story of Hades & Persephone. We learn that this song is a melody Hades sung when he was younger and saw Persephone for the first time. The song essentially was birthed out of their love for one another. We also learn the reasoning behind why Persephone splits half her time each year between the mortal world and the Underworld.

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We hear more about the changing climate of the world of the play. We see Persephone come back to the mortal world and the start of Spring as the fruit ripens, everyone gets drunk and parties, and the sun is brighter. The song also talks about how they don't have much in the mortal world, but Persephone provides them enough so they aren't suffering drastically.

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"All I've Ever Known Intro"/"All I've Ever Known"

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"All I've Ever Known Intro"/"All I've Ever Known"

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We gain some more exposition as we learn that Eurydice chronically runs away from the places she visits and never truly stays in one spot. We also learn that Orpheus has lots of hope, but also some naivety as he holds the innate ability to make you see the world in the way he imagines it could be despite how bad it actually is. We learn that Eurydice didn't intend to fall in love with Orpheus, but she does nonetheless. We see the pair fall in love with each other and we see how quickly their connection deepens

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It's the end of summer! Time for Persephone to head back underground, however, Hades is early, why is that? We also learn some exposition about the state of Hadestown, how much of a dictator Hades is, and how much Persephone does not like going to Hadestown.

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Now that Persephone has left early, the weather is changing too fast. Orpheus gets so caught up in working on his song as he tries to fix what's wrong with the world, that he starts to ignore Eurydice. Eurydice tries to fend for herself but is unaware things are gonna get a lot worse.

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In Epic II, we've moved on from learning about the past of Hades & Persephone to the present. We learn that Hades grows jealous during the spring and summer months with Persephone gone, so he focuses on building his wall using the enslaved spirits of the dead in his realm. He's prompted by his loneliness and ends up consumed by his greed that he forgets the song he once sung to Persephone.

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There's a lot that happens in this song. For the first time, we see both the mortal world and Hadestown onstage relatively at the time. While this isn't the first time this happens, it's the first time the worlds are really feeding into each other.

Down in Hadestown, Persephone sees the changes Hades made while she was away and begins to question why things are the way they are. She tells Hades that she doesn't recognize who he's become, and that things are horrible for the humans above them while he spends his time bolstering his industrial empire.

Meanwhile, in the mortal world, Orpheus figures out that the world is in disarray because the relationship between Hades & Persephone is in disarray. Orpheus continues to ignore Eurydice and miss the signs of a storm gathering around them. Eurydice begins to lose faith in the song Orpheus is working on.

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Hades sings to Eurydice, enticing her down to the Underworld. He tempts her by making a case that Orpheus hasn't been doing anything for her, and can't actually provide for her if something goes wrong.

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"When the Chips Are Down Intro"/"When the Chips Are Down"

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"When the Chips Are Down Intro"/"When the Chips Are Down"

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Hades gives Eurydice a ticket to the Underworld. The Fates sing to her about the choices she has to make, and essentially tells her that she's exhausted all her options and there's not much left of anything she can do except use the ticket.

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Eurydice talks about how much she wanted to stay with Orpheus, but she grew desperate and hungry. The fates have another breaking the fourth wall moment, as they sing to the audience and essentially tell them not to judge Eurydice for they would do what she did just to have food, housing, etc.

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Hermes informs Orpheus of the death of Eurydice, which occurred while he was off composing the song. We see Hermes offer a secret way into Hadestown and send Orpheus on his journey. Orpheus sings of his journey into the Underworld, guided by his love and need to be reunited with Eurydice again. The Fates sing as they question his ability to actually make this journey, and his importance as no human has made this journey alive before.

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"Why We Build The Wall"/"Why We Build The Wall Outro"

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"Why We Build The Wall"/"Why We Build The Wall Outro"

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We get a sneak peek into the mind of Hades and why he has turned Hadestown into this super industrial giant. There's some amazing political commentary in this song that's explained in the "Show Themes" section.

At the end of the song, we see Hades take Eurydice in his office to sign a contract. We end Act I with a sneak peek of Persephone and what happens when Hades isn't looking at her.

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This is notated in the script as an "entr'acte", which is something that is performed in between Acts. This song does just that. We get a solo from Persephone as sings about missing the mortal world, how draining it is being in Hadestown, and drinking.

That's a really simplified summary, but pretty much the premise of the song. It's arguably my favorite, and not just because of the musical ability we see from whoever plays Persephone. This song spends the entire time teetering the fourth wall. As Persephone sings out directly to the audience it becomes this immersive experience, and for the duration of the song we are in the Underworld with her. We are the souls of the dead hanging out and drinking with Persephone. Additionally, this song adds so much humanity to the character and if you're paying attention enough to the song, you get a much deeper understanding of why she drinks and the effects that her marriage with Hades has taken on her.

We completely break the fourth wall towards the end of the song and we get introduced to the band! It's such a beautiful moment in the song because of the audience participation.

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We jump back into the storyline. Eurydice has just signed the deal with Hades and joins the other souls of the damned in building Hades' empire. Eurydice is confused as to why everyone looks so dead and no one pays attention to her. The Fates inform her that everyone around her has forgotten who they were before death and that Eurydice will share the same fate.

At the end of the song, we have a little breaking-the-fourth-wall moment, and the Fates sing that for Hadestown to keep working, the souls of the dead must continue to be broken and exploited.

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Eurydice sings about what it's been like since dying. She sings about how she just wanted to not suffer and ended up dead. She sings about being tricked by Hades, dealing with the consequences, and vaguely remembering Orpheus and the life she left behind.

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Orpheus and Eurydice reunite!!!

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Hades confronts Orpheus, telling him he doesn't belong in the Underworld. Persephone tries to jump to Orpheus' defense but Hades shuts her down. Orpheus tells Hades that he's not going home without Eurydice. Hades laughs at the challenge and tells him that Eurydice signed a deal and she can't leave Hadestown even if she wanted to.

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Fight scene between Orpheus and the other workers. Instrumental underscores.

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Fates sing about how pointless it is to go against the system and how you're always gonna lose.

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Orpheus sings out his sorrow. He questions the world as he knows it and begins to lose faith in everything he knows. This is one of his lowest points in the piece.

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Persephone, who has finally had enough of Hades' antics, questions how long things are going to go on like this. She takes pity on Orpheus and urges Hades to let him go. Hades counters that things will go on like this as long as he's king of the Underworld. He tells her that giving in to Orpheus threatens his kingdom and condemns her for her pity and tells her he has no place for it.

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The workers echo the song Orpheus sings and have a moment of realization. They come to his defense against Hades and start to question what they've been taught by Hades. Hades confronts Orpheus. He tells Orpheus that he used to sing when he was younger but grew up to realize that machinery was better and more dependable. He also indirectly claims that he has more power than Orpheus because he controls so much of Hadestown. Because Persephone holds so much care for Orpheus, Hades allows him the chance to sing once more before Hades kills him forever.

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Orpheus sings the tale of Hades & Persephone once again, pleading to Hades that his love for Eurydice is just like the love Hades had for Persephone when they first met. Orpheus questions what happened to the caring, loving version of Hades.

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Reminded of their love and the song that represents it, Orpheus sings as Hades & Persephone dance and embrace each other again.

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Eurydice congratulates Orpheus for finishing the song, and urges him to take her home now. Orpheus questions why she would want to go back into the mortal world. He wasn't able to uphold any of the promises he made her when they first fell in love. Eurydice claims she doesn't need all of that stuff so long as she has the basic necessities and Orpheus' love. They agree to brave the future together no matter what happens.

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Orpheus and Eurydice ask Hades if they can leave to which he replies that he is unsure. The Fates sing into his head and lay out the situation. If he lets them go then the rest of the workers won't take him serious. If he says no then he's just a harsh king. Neither option is okay. They plant the seed that if given the chance Orpheus will screw up on his own accord.

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Hades contemplates what to do about Orpheus and Eurydice. He knows that if he gives into Orpheus then he'll lose complete control over his domain. He sings about his journey into power and how he didn't make it all this way just to fail against Orpheus. Following the fates' advice, he tells Hermes that they can go but Orpheus can't look behind him lest Eurydice be returned to Hadestown. He revels in the fact that this loophole will drive Orpheus mad.

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"Wait for Me Reprise Intro"/"Wait for Me Reprise"

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"Wait for Me Reprise Intro"/"Wait for Me Reprise"

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Intro: Hermes delivers the ultimatum from Hades to Orpheus and Eurydice. Everyone is startled and confused (rightfully). Hermes assures them that this isn't a trap but a test, and that they must trust each other if they plan to make it out of the Underworld.

Reprise: Hermes opens with a warning about one's thoughts and how the thoughts in our head can be what's most dangerous for us in the long run. Orpheus and Eurydice start their journey, encouraged by the workers who long to find their way back to the surface world. Persephone prepares to head back to the mortal world to start Spring, her and Hades vow to give their love another try when she returns in the fall.

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Orpheus and Eurydice journey back to the surface. Orpheus grows weary of whether or not Eurydice is behind him. he questions why Hades would let him win, or what's stopping Hades from agreeing to let Eurydice go, only to do the opposite. The Fates also sing to Orpheus feeding his doubt. Eurydice sings to Orpheus, telling him she's right behind him, but he can't hear her. He grows more weary as they walk, and eventually turns around. He's greeted with Eurydice' face right before she heads back into Hadestown, failing the test.

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We end up back where we started. Hermes sings about how the tale of Orpheus and Eurydice is so old, but it's one we sing again and again. It's a tragic love story, but one that is so old that we can't rewrite it. We can speculate about why it ends the way it does, but no one truly has the answers. He talks about the hope that he learned from Orpheus as the reason he continues to tell this story. Curtain. End of play.

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This is notated in the script an encore. The entire cast sings as wine is dished out. They raise a glass for Orpheus and for those like him who thrive even in dark conditions. They wish everyone a good night, and share a drink. Everyone exits, end of play.

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"Hadestown" follows a similar timeline journey to Naomi Iizuka's "Anon(ymous)". Anon(ymous) follows the hero's journey, albeit an altered version. Some of the stages of the hero's journey are out of order, and some just don't exist within the storyline.

Additionally just as it is in "Anon(ymous)", Hadestown features multiple timelines which intersect and overlap. Sometimes things are happening simultaneously in both, and other times things happen in one timeline and then we transition over to the other timeline and things continue from there.

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Click here to read up on the stages of the hero's journey!

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The Hero’s Journey - Mythic Structure of Joseph Campbell’s Monomyth

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How to structure your story with Movie Outline script writing software following the mythic structure template of Joseph Campbell’s Hero’s Journey Monomyth.

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Click here to read the hero's journey in action as we explore the stages in connection to the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice

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The Hero's Journey is a framework that scholar Joseph Campbell came up with that many myths and stories follow. Many storytellers and story-readers find it a useful way to look at tale. (That's actually putting it lightly. Some people are straight-up obsessed.) Chris Vogler adapted Campbell's 17 stages of a hero's journey, which many screenwriters use while making movies. Vogler condensed Campbell's 17 stages down to 12, which is what we're using. Check out a general explanation of the 12 stages.

The story of Orpheus and Eurydice doesn't fit perfectly into the Hero's Journey structure, but we're giving it a shot. As the gross old saying goes, there's more than one way to skin a cat. Here's how we've diced up the story:

Ordinary World

In the beginning, Orpheus and Eurydice are living Thrace, a mountainous region in northern Greece. They're in love and are going about their lives as any happy couple would: chillin' in meadows, listening to sappy music, and making doe eyes at each other. They even have a perfectly normal, uneventful wedding, where the most exciting thing that happens is that the god of marriage (Hymen) refuses to smile. Ho hum.

Call To Adventure

And then Eurydice gets bit by a snake and, um, dies. It's not exactly a "call to adventure," but it is the incident that disrupts the couple's happy lives. This event eventually leads to Orpheus' journey to the Underworld.

Refusal Of The Call

For a while, Orpheus doesn't do much except wander around Thrace, strumming on his lyre and crying about Eurydice. The thought that he should go down to Hades and rescue her hasn't occurred to him yet. Again, he isn't exactly "refusing" a call (because none has been explicitly issued), but he certainly isn't taking steps towards making his adventure happen.

Meeting The Mentor

In most adaptations of the myth, Orpheus decides on his own to travel to Hades. But a few versions say that the gods advised Orpheus to go down to the Underworld, because they were sick of all his moaning.

Crossing The Threshold

In order to get to the Underworld, Orpheus has to cross a few thresholds. First, he enters the cave that serves as the portal from earth to the Underworld. Then he crosses the River Styx (threshold between the living and the dead), and makes it past the gates of Hell, which are guarded by Cerberus, the three-headed dog. Yeesh.

Tests, Allies, Enemies

As he searches for Hades and Persephone, the King and Queen of the Underworld, Orpheus passes by many of the sad, scary denizens of Hades. Lucky for him, he's able to charm them all with his beautiful music. His songs calm down Cerberus, who stands slack-jawed when he hears the music, instead of barking his head off, like usual. Then Orpheus enchants all of the shades, makes the Furies weep, causes Sisyphus to sit idle on his rock, and distracts the vultures from picking at Tityus' liver. He's basically a one-man band who tames all of these potential threats with music.

Approach To The Inmost Cave

Finally, Orpheus finds Hades and Persephone. The authors of the myth don't say where he finds them, but the couple usually hangs out in Hades' palace, deep within the Underworld.

Ordeal

Using his enchanting music and persuasive speaking skills, Orpheus attempts to convince Hades and Persephone to let Eurydice go. According to Ovid, he gives a whole long speech, during which he reminds Hades that (a) even he, Hades, knows the power of love, having fallen for Persephone once, (b) Orpheus and Eurydice would both be dead eventually, so why not let Eurydice live a little longer?

Reward

Orpheus melts the hearts of Hades and Persephone, which is no small feat, considering they're the King and Queen of Death. They decide to let Eurydice go, under the condition that she follow Orpheus during the couple's trip back to the upper world (aka, the land of the living). Orpheus is also not allowed to look at his wife as they ascend. No matter what.

The Road Back

Orpheus and Eurydice travel towards the upper world. Orpheus can hear Eurydice's footsteps behind him but he isn't 100% sure that she's actually there.

Resurrection

Okay, usually in this stage, the hero confronts death for a final time during an epic battle: this only sort of happens in the Orpheus and Eurydice myth. As the couple nears the exit of the cave, Orpheus sees sunlight from the upper world. He is either so excited that he forgets his instructions from Hades, or he is suddenly overcome with extreme doubt about whether or not Eurydice is behind him. Either way, he spins around to look at her, which sends poor Eurydice plummeting back to Hades.

Orpheus reaches out to Eurydice, but he's just grabbing at air. So sad. He then tries to follow her back to the Underworld a second time, but the Ferryman on the River Styx won't let him pass this time.

Return With The Elixir

Normally, this is where the hero emerges triumphant with his "prize"... but that doesn't happen in this myth. At all. Instead, Orpheus loses Eurydice forever. For a while, he wanders around Thrace, crying over his lost love. And then, one day, a pack of wild women called the Maenads show up and tear him limb from limb. They throw his head in the river and call it a day. So yeah, no prize.

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Orpheus and Eurydice The Hero's Journey | Shmoop

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Our The Hero's Journey analysis in Shmoop's Orpheus and Eurydice study guide will helping you understand everything in a fun way.

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Original Concept Album

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This is the most current version of this music.

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Hadestown (Original Broadway Cast Recording)

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Hadestown (Original Broadway Cast Recording)

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Some sources to read up on if you're curious about other ways this myth has been adapted!

https://symbolsage.com/persephone-and-hades-myth/

https://www.bookavatar.com/books-about-hades-and-persephone/

https://www.lindseyh.be/2021/11/10-books-to-read-if-you-love-hades-persephone-retellings/

https://persephoneloveshades.weebly.com/modern-references.html

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These beloved bulbs mainly bloom in late winter and early spring, breaking the spell of winter with their large blossoms saturated in cheery tones.