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Raster Image

Raster (or bitmap) images are generally what you think about when thinking of images. These are the types of images that are produced when scanning or photographing an object. Raster images are compiled using pixels, or tiny dots, containing unique color and tonal information that come together to create the imag

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David Em was born in Los Angeles and grew up in Colombia, Venezuela, and Argentina. He studied painting at the Pennsylvania Academy in Philadelphia, interdisciplinary art at Goddard College and film directing at the American Film Institute in Hollywood. He began producing computer art in the 1970s, and has worked as artist-in-residence at research laboratories including the Xerox Palo Alto Research Centre, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Apple Computer’s Advanced Technology Group. Aku was the first picture the artist made whilst working at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. During his residency at NASA he produced what is considered to be the first artist-made navigable virtual world. A raster image, also called a bitmap, is composed of pixels in a grid. Each pixel has a specific value that determines its colour. R-type prints are made from a positive slide or transparency projected onto colour reversal photographic paper. This develops a picture that has the same colour and saturation as the original image.

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Jeremy Gardiner studied Fine Art at Newcastle University (1975–79) and painting at the Royal College of Art (1980–83). Since 1982 he has incorporated digital media in his working process, exploring painting and emerging technologies. He was a founding member of the computer graphics program at Pratt Institute of Art and Design in New York, and Director of CyberArts at the New World School of the Arts in Miami. Gardiner has taught Computers in Printmaking at the Royal College of Art and was a program leader for MA Computer Art at the London College of Music and Media. This print is one of a set of four images of Stella Orsini, created in 1984 while Gardiner was a Harkness Fellow in the Visible Language Workshop (VLW) at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Orsini was writing a thesis on creative use of computers by artists, and Gardiner used the Visible Language Workshop’s SYS graphics computer system to combine photographs of her with images from the anatomical textbook Gray’s Anatomy. C-types are colour prints. They are traditionally made from negatives but can also be produced from digital images. They are created using a chromogenic process, characterised by a reaction between chemicals which form the colour dyes. The print material has at least three emulsion layers of light-sensitive silver salts. Each layer is sensitised to a different wavelength of light and records different information about the colour make-up of the image. During the development stage of the photographic process chemicals are added which cause correspondingly coloured dyes to form in each of the emulsion layers

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James Faure-Walker is an artist who combines painting, drawing and photography with digital technologies. He has incorporated computer graphics into his work since 1988, exploring the relationship between physical and digital paint. In addition to the painting and collage techniques, photography is an important element of his practice. Walker uses his digital camera in a snapshot photography style as a means of collecting the ‘everyday’ he encounters. The photographic elements within the paintings give a glimpse of the ‘real world’ in contrast to the otherwise abstract geometric patterns. Inkjet printers are the most commonly used type of printer for lowvolume printing, creating prints with small nozzles that spray very fine droplets of water-based ink onto paper or another printing surface. This digital inkjet print is a preparatory montage consisting of layers of drawing, painting and photography, all of which have been digitised. The artist used Fractal Design’s Painter program, a raster-based software application created to simulate the appearance and behaviour of traditional media. Raster graphics, also known as bitmap images, are comprised of pixels in a grid.

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This portrait of poet and musician Léo Ferré is composed entirely from the computer characters M, W, O and *. The print is an early example of ASCII art, a term that refers to images made by using letters, numbers or symbols from the ASCII character set. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) was created to standardise the representation of text and allow compatibility between different models and brands of computers. Early computer printers were not able to output graphical images so characters were used instead of pictorial marks. Traditionally ASCII art is formed from any number of printable characters out of a total of 95 possibilities, with overprinting using different characters utilised to define shading. The alternate light grey stripes of the background were a characteristic of early computer printing paper. They were designed to make it easier to follow lines when reading printed code or wording. Works such as this portrait were produced using an early form of impact printer, such as a daisy wheel printer. The daisy wheel printer housed a central disc with extended arms or ‘petals’ that contained raised characters. The printer would rotate to the correct character, which would then be struck by a hammer and forced onto the printer ribbon beneath. This left a printed impression on the paper. Daisy wheel printers were noisy and could only print around 10 to 75 characters per second. By the 1980s they had been replaced by inkjet and laser printers, which were cheaper and faster. Jaume (or Jaime) Estapà was born in Barcelona and grew up under the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, who repressed and discouraged the use of the Catalan language. The artist was baptised ‘Jaime’ but continued to sign his works ‘Jaume’, the Catalan version of his name by which his friends and family knew him.

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Mark Wilson studied painting at Pomona College and Yale Art School, where he received his MFA in 1967. Wilson’s interest in geometry and technology led him to purchase a microcomputer in 1980 which he used to teach himself computer programming. He began writing algorithms, sets of instructions used to carry out a task, and experimenting with custom software to produce artwork. He has also created work using pen plotters, laser printers, laser engravers and large format archival inkjet printers. Wilson’s digital image making process uses different elements generated from multiple runs of his software. He selects and saves several of the most successful aspects, repeating the process until all the saved designs are drawn together and one final image is printed. Wilson’s final compositions reflect his fascination with layered complex geometric structures. This laser print is part of the artist’s portfolio ‘Lines: Vectors’. It is one of 24 monochrome prints exploring visual and textural possibilities. Laser prints are digitally stored images created with laser printers. A highly focussed beam of light is scanned across the printer’s photoreceptor, a revolving drum made out of photoconductive material. The light emitted creates an electrical charge on the printing drum which attracts and releases powdered pigment in the desired printing areas. The pigment is fixed onto the printing surface using heat and pressure.

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Man Ray "Tears" (1932)

Judging from his inclusion of this image in other photographic compositions, Man Ray must have considered Tears one of his most successful photographs. A cropped version of it with a single eye also appears as the first plate in a 1934 book of his photographs.

Like the emotive expression of a silent screen star in a film still, the woman's plaintive upward glance and mascara-encrusted lashes seem intended to invoke wonder at the cause of her distress. The face belongs to a fashion model who cries tears of glistening, round glass beads; the effect is to aestheticize the sentiment her tears would normally express. Man Ray made this photograph in Paris around the time of his breakup with his lover Lee Miller, and the woman's false tears may relate to that event in the artist's life.

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Single Image stereogram

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(art)n Laboratory was formed by Ellen Sandor (born 1942) and her peers from the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. The creation of the PHSCologram was inspired by the process-oriented works of the artists Man Ray, Marcel Duchamp and László Moholy- Nagy. A stereogram is a picture that conveys the optical illusion of depth by combining images of the same subject taken from slightly different views. The process is designed to create the visual effect of a three dimensional scene from a two dimensional image. An autostereogram is a single image stereogram. PHSCologram is a registered trademark for barrier-strip and lenticular autostereograms made by art collective (art)n Laboratory. The PHSCologram term was coined in 1983 by Ellen Sandor and is an acronym for photography, holography, sculpture and computer graphics. PHSCologram constructs images from objects sculpted with a computer graphics software application. The objects are digitally rendered and colour, lighting and texture are added. Once the digital scene is complete a series, of as many as 65 images, are photographed in (art)n’s proprietary art program. The photographs of the scene are rotated at different angles and these combined perspectives determine the viewing angle of the image.

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Harold Cohen trained as a painter at the Slade School of Art 1948–52. In 1966 he represented Britain at the Venice Biennale. In 1968 he moved to the States to become a visiting professor at the University of California at San Diego and was introduced to computer programming. From 1973 to 1975 he worked at the Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence at Stanford University, where he developed the computer program AARON. AARON was Cohen’s attempt to codify the act of drawing by producing software capable of generating its own original imagery. In its early years AARON could only produce monochrome line drawings but by the late 1980s the program was using a repertoire of real-world shapes to produce detailed line drawings. The imagery produced by AARON includes a number of human figures in outline, like the one shown above, as well as highly distinctive plant foliage. Many of the early prints were black and white, then handcoloured by the artist. Cohen later modified the program so that it chose and applied the colours itself.

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Oscilloscope

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Herbert W. Franke trained as a physicist in Vienna, receiving his doctorate in 1950. In 1971 he produced one of the first major written accounts of computer art, entitled Computer Graphics – Computer Art. He worked at the University of Munich (1973–1997), lecturing in computer graphics and computer art. In 1979 he co-founded Ars Electronica Festival in Linz, Austria, an annual event combining art and technology that continues to be held today. This screenprint is from a photograph taken in 1962 of a cathode ray oscilloscope screen. An oscilloscope is an electronic instrument that uses a cathode ray tube to show the wave shape of an electrical signal. A cathode ray tube is comprised of a vacuum tube with a fluorescent screen and shows a stream of electrons as a beam of light. Franke worked with a simple analogue computer, designed by physicist Franz Raimann, and connected it to the oscilloscope. The artist used the computer to manipulate and direct the electronic signal. He then overlapped the forms that appeared in real-time by using a mixing console. The only means of recording these images at the time was to photograph the monitor. A screenprint from the photographed image w

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Desmond Paul Henry using his machine art.

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Desmond Paul Henry was born in Huddersfield. He served in the Second World War as a technical clerk in the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, after which he took a degree in Philosophy at the University of Leeds. He went on to teach at the University of Manchester, where he remained until his retirement in 1982. Henry had attended evening art classes prior to the war and was fascinated by both art and technology. During the 1960s he converted an army surplus analogue bombsite computer into three drawing machines. These computers were a type of analogue device for calculating data, used during the Second World War by aircraft pilots to accurately aim their bombs. Henry was fascinated by the swinging motion of the machines and adapted them to accommodate pen and paper. He created three drawing machines which were operated electronically but could not be programmed. An article in The Guardian in 1962 described Henry’s work as ‘quite out of this world’ and ‘almost impossible to produce by human hands’. His work was included in the Cybernetic Serendipity exhibition held at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in 1968.

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Hewlett Packard and Tektronix produced small, desktop-sized flatbed plotters in the late 1960s and 1970s. The pens were mounted on a traveling bar, whereby the y-axis was represented by motion up and down the length of the bar and the x-axis was represented by motion of the bar back and forth across the plotting table.

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Roman Verostko was born in Western Pennsylvania. A painter in his early career, he also studied as a Benedictine monk at Saint Vincent Seminary from 1952 to 1968. Verostko creates work using algorithms, sets of instructions used to carry out a task, that he has developed himself. He is a member of The Algorists, a group of artists who share an interest in the use of bespoke software to generate art. A pen plotter is a mechanical device that holds a pen or brush linked to a computer which controls its movements. The plotter guides the pen or brush across the drawing surface. Some plotters instead use a static pen and move the paper underneath. Pen plotters can be used to draw complex line art, including text, but do so very slowly because of the mechanical movement of the pens. The artist made this work using a paintbrush attached to the pen plotter’s drawing arm controlled by Hodos, the computer software developed by Verostko. Hodos takes it name from the Greek word meaning path or way. The work is hand stamped with a red seal given to the artist during his time teaching in China.

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Peter Struckyen - Live work

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Untitled - Sculpture International Rotterdam

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As night falls one cannot miss Peter Struycken’s art work in the colonnade under the Netherlands Architecture Institute. Every ten minutes another sequence of colours illuminates the 170-metre-long series of concrete pillars. A computer program controls the red, green and blue lamps in order to create a shifting pattern of primary and secondary colours. Struycken […]

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Litography

Lithography is a planographic printmaking process in which a design is drawn onto a flat stone (or prepared metal plate, usually zinc or aluminum) and affixed by means of a chemical reaction.

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Peter Struckyen

Computer Structures 1–1a, 2a, 3a, 4 Holland 1969 Offset lithographs on board Museum no. E.171-2008

Peter Struycken was born in The Hague. He studied at Koninklijke Academie van Beeldende Kunsten and painted figurative works until 1962 when he began working with geometric abstraction, experimenting with form and colour relationships. In 1968 he began to incorporate computers into his practice. Struycken welcomed the computer’s ability to calculate endless visual alternatives for the arrangement of a series of different squares across the picture plane. The computer also enabled him to investigate the role of chance in the creative process, whilst also retaining some measure of control. These six offset lithographs are smaller versions of a series of enamel on Perspex paintings created by Peter Struycken, which originally measured 150 x 150 cm. Struycken created the paintings from a series of computer-generated images produced using a computer program he wrote. The first image in the top left corner, entitled ‘PROGRAM’, is an example of the code. Offset lithography is a process of printing on a flat surface. The image is rendered onto a printing plate before being chemically treated so that only image areas will accept ink. Water and ink are applied to the plate, ensuring that only the ink adheres to the image areas. The plate is then rolled onto a rubber cylinder and the image is applied to the paper. The process is described as ‘offset’ as the printing plate does not come into direct contact