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The July crisis is the response to the assasination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand that ultimately triggers World War I.

The July Crisis: A chronology | OpenLearn - Open University

June 28:

Ferdinand, next in line to the Austrian throne, was assasinated by a Serbian nationalist, Gavrillo Princip.

July 5-6:

Austro-Hungary sends an envoy to Germany seeking support for any future actions against Serbia. Wilhelm/Bethmann Hollweg support Austria-Hungary's action against Serbia and provides them unconditional support through a "Blank Check".

July 20-23:

France visits Russia, establishing the commitment to their military alliance.

July 23:

Austria issues an ultimatum to Serbia, suggesting war if it is to be refused. These demands are seen to violate Serbia's autonomy. Serbia must respond in 48 hours. (The Austro-Hungarian Ultimatum to Serbia (English translation) - World War I Document Archive)

July 25:

Serbia surprisingly agrees to most demands, but Austria-Hungary breaks off relations regardless.

July 26:

Britain suggests mediating a solution, though neither Germany nor Vienna acknowledge this.

Russia, a supporter of Serbia, begins to mobilize.

July 28:

Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. Initially, Germany tries to suggests a "Halt in Belgrade," but upon hearing of Russia's mobilization, this is disregarded.

July 30:

Russia begins to mobilize fully.

August 1:

Germany declares war on Russia. France and Germany mobilize.

August 2:

Germany invades Luxembourg and issues an ultimatum to Belgium. Britain pledges to protect Belgium's neutrality.

Germany essentially begins its latest iteration of the Schleiffen Plan - its strategy to deal with the two simultaneous fronts of an anticipated war with France and Russia.

August 3:

Germany invades Belgium.

Germany delcares war on France.

Italy official stays neutral.

August 4:

Britain declares war on Germany in response to their invasion of Belgium.

August 6:

Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.

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The July Crisis: A chronology | OpenLearn - Open University

The opening battle of WWI, where Germany launches its unprovoked invasion of Neutral Belgium. This city was protected by a number of fortifications that were able to delay the German invasion of France, costing them time while Russian was mobilizing.

Despite the delay, Germany ultimately was able to emerge victorious thanks in large part to its use of two new strategies:

Air Tech: The battle featured the use of bombings by Zeppelins, the first use of this on a European city.

Land Tech: Germans brought in the heavy artillary - literally: 17 inch Austrian howitzer guns and "Big Bertha" were used to shell the heavily fortified forts.

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World War 1 Plans: Plan XVII - The History Junkie

Plan XVII was France's attempt to retake Alsace Lorraine during World War I. It was an example of France's offensive strategies that severely underestimated Germany's own offensive through Belgium. Rather than achieve France's goals, Plan XVII arguably brought more success to Germany's Shlieffen Plan - at least early on.

This was largely due to France's inability to plan for an mobilize enough troops to counter Germany's advance through Belgium (which it also hadn't considered).

Along with the Schlieffen Plan, Plan XVII provides another example of early offensive strategies that failed to materialize the gains they had hoped for.

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World War 1 Plans: Plan XVII - The History Junkie

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Plan XVII was the initial plan put in play by the French at the outset of World War 1. It would fall victim to German surprise and aggression.

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February 21 - December 18, 1916 - Battle of Verdun

Image: French troops in trenches or the ruins of Verdun.

Description: One of the longest and bloodiest battles of WW1, with over 700,000 casualties.

Significance: A symbol of French determination and sacrifice, it was a battle of attrition where neither side gained significant ground

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Description: The largest naval battle of the war, fought in the North Sea.

Significance: Although the battle was tactically inconclusive, the British retained control of the seas, limiting Germany's ability to conduct unrestricted submarine warfare.

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Beatty withdrew until Jellicoe arrived with the main fleet. The Germans, now outgunned, turned for home. The British lost 14 ships and over 6,000 men, but were ready for action again the next day. The Germans, who had lost 11 ships and over 2,500 men, avoided complete destruction but never again seriously challenged British control of the North Sea.

Although it failed to achieve the decisive victory each side hoped for, the Battle of Jutland confirmed British naval dominance and secured its control of shipping lanes, allowing Britain to implement the blockade that would contribute to Germany's eventual defeat in 1918.

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Beatty withdrew until Jellicoe arrived with the main fleet. The Germans, now outgunned, turned for home. The British lost 14 ships and over 6,000 men, but were ready for action again the next day. The Germans, who had lost 11 ships and over 2,500 men, avoided complete destruction but never again seriously challenged British control of the North Sea.

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Description: A major British and French offensive, which resulted in more than 1 million casualties.

Significance: The first day of the battle saw 57,000 British casualties, one of the bloodiest days in British military history.

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First World War

The 1916 Somme offensive was one of the largest and bloodiest battles of the First World War (1914-18). The opening day of the attack, 1 July 1916, saw the British Army sustain 57,000 casualties, the bloodiest day in its history. The campaign finally ended in mid-November after an agonising five-month struggle that failed to secure a breakthrough.

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The 1916 Somme offensive was one of the largest and bloodiest battles of the First World War (1914-18). The opening day of the attack, 1 July 1916, saw the British Army sustain 57,000 casualties, the bloodiest day in its history. The campaign finally ended in mid-November after an agonising five-month struggle that failed to secure a breakthrough.

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February 21 - December 18, 1916 - Battle of Verdun

Technological Advancements:

Artillery: The Battle of Verdun highlighted the devastating power of artillery, with both the French and Germans using massive bombardments. Artillery pieces like the Big Bertha German super-gun (a massive howitzer) were capable of shelling cities and fortifications over vast distances.

Trench Mortars: The use of trench mortars became more common during Verdun, delivering high-explosive shells into enemy trenches, causing significant casualties.

Machine Guns: Machine guns were critical in defending entrenched positions, and their deadly accuracy helped shape the defensive nature of the battle.

July 1 - November 18, 1916 - Battle of the Somme

Technological Advancements:

Tanks: The Battle of the Somme was the first major battle where tanks were used in combat. The British deployed early models like the Mark I tanks. While they were slow and unreliable, they showed the potential to break the stalemate of trench warfare by crossing trenches and barbed wire.

Aircraft: Aircraft were increasingly used for reconnaissance, strafing, and bombing. Fighters like the British Sopwith Camel and the German Fokker Dr.I began to dominate aerial combat.

Artillery: Heavy artillery bombardments, including "creeping barrages" designed to soften up enemy positions just ahead of advancing infantry, were standard during this battle.

May 31 - June 1, 1916 - Battle of Jutland

Technological Advancements:

Dreadnought Battleships: The British Royal Navy and the German High Seas Fleet engaged each other with their most powerful battleships, such as the British HMS Queen Elizabeth and the German SMS Derfflinger. These "dreadnoughts" were equipped with large-caliber guns and armored hulls, making them dominant on the high seas.

Naval Guns and Torpedoes: Both sides utilized large naval guns, but torpedoes also played a critical role in sinking ships during this battle, highlighting the importance of submarine warfare.

Seaplanes: The British used reconnaissance aircraft to spot enemy ship movements, although these were still primitive and not yet as effective as later aircraft.

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New Technology in World War 1 Positive or Negative? Some technological advancments that occured during World War 1 were positive. Such advancements in my opinion were machine guns, and aircraft. However, if the invention of poison gas was not banned in the Geneva convention, then

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the Gallipoli Campaign was a joint British and French operation with Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) troops aiming to open up a sea route to Russia and knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war.

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Sharing the Story of the World War I Gallipoli Campaign

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Gallipoli sets a classic tale of innocence lost in war during the World War I (WWI) Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire (modern-day Turkey). One of the few Hollywood movies to illustrate that WWI took place not only on the Western Front in France, Gallipoli tells the story of this major campaign through the experience of several Australian young men who travel halfway around the globe to fight for their country.

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This was the first major battle in which the Germans used poison gas on a large scale. The Germans released chlorine gas against the French and Canadian troops, marking the beginning of chemical warfare.

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The Ypres salient saw brutal fighting throughout the First World War. It was created in 1914 when Allied forces fought the German advance to the Belgian coast to a standstill.

In 1915, the German Army launched its only offensive on the Western Front that year against the salient.

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What You Need to Know About the Second Battle of Ypres

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The Ypres salient was the focus of Germany's only Western Front offensive in 1915. Their attack on the salient included the first large scale use of chlorine gas - an act that changed the face of the First World War battlefield.

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The British ocean liner Lusitania was torpedoed by a German U-boat, killing 1,198 people, including 128 Americans. The attack caused a public outcry and increased anti-German sentiment in neutral countries, particularly in the United States

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On May 7, 1915, a German U-boat torpedoed the British-owned luxury steamship , killing 1,195 people including 128 Americans, according to the Library of Congress. The disaster immediately strained relations between Germany and the neutral United States, fueled anti-German sentiment and set off a chain of events that eventually led to the United States entering World War I.

Lusitania, owned by the Cunard Shipping Line, was launched in 1906 to carry passengers on transatlantic voyages. The British Admiralty subsidized the ship's construction with the understanding it would be pressed into military service if war broke out. After World War I began in 1914, Lusitania remained a passenger ship, although it was secretly modified for war.

By February 1915, German naval commanders knew British merchants were arming their ships and that both merchant and passenger ships were transporting weapons and supplies from the United States to Europe.

As a result, Germany declared the waters surrounding the British Isles a war zone and stopped following international naval "prize laws," which warned ships of a submarine's presence. This break from naval protocol angered and troubled the United States and the European Allies.

Germany Attacks a Ship With Civilian Passengers

Days before Lusitania was scheduled to leave New York for Liverpool in early May 1915, the Imperial German Embassy in Washington D.C. placed ads in American newspapers reminding Americans that Britain and Germany were at war. They warned potential travelers that "vessels flying the flag of Great Britain or of any of her allies are liable to destruction" and should be avoided.

Since it was assumed Germany would still allow passengers to get into lifeboats prior to an attack, the cautions were largely ignored.

On May 7, 1915, six days after leaving New York for Liverpool, Lusitania took a direct hit from a German U-boat submarine-without any warning-and sank within 20 minutes.

Attack Triggers Anti-German Sentiment in America

As word spread about Lusitania's tragic fate, so did the outrage. American citizens were saddened and stunned but not ready to rush to war. President Woodrow Wilson wanted to proceed with caution and remain neutral while former President Theodore Roosevelt demanded swift retaliation.

Germany defended its aggression, claiming Lusitania had carried weapons and war supplies and was therefore fair game. As they continued to divert blame, British propaganda against them snowballed. Throngs of vengeance-seeking Brits rushed to enlist, and anti-German riots broke out in London.

Said Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, "The poor babies who perished in the ocean struck a blow at German power more deadly than could have been achieved by the sacrifice of 100,000 men."

The U.S. Issues a Warning

In August 1915, a German submarine sunk the British ocean liner S.S. Arabic and claimed self-defense. The event further strained diplomatic relations between the United States and Germany. President Wilson warned Germany that if it was determined they'd sunk the ship without cause, the United States may cut diplomatic ties and enter the war.

Germany caved, and in September announced they'd no longer sink passenger ships without warning. Satisfied, at least for the moment, President Wilson chose not to declare war on Germany despite being encouraged otherwise by some of his cabinet members.

The Zimmerman Telegram Becomes the Final Straw

The sinking of Lusitania was a public relations nightmare for Germany as public opinion in the United States turned against them. But President Wilson still wasn't ready to take his country to war.

Then, in early 1917, Britain intelligence intercepted a telegram from German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmerman to the German Minister to Mexico Henrich von Eckhardt.

The Zimmerman telegram stated that Germany planned to return to unrestricted submarine warfare and would sink all ships-including those carrying American passengers-located in the war zone. The telegram also proposed an alliance between Germany and Mexico should the United States decide to join the European Allies.

President Wilson was outraged but still didn't enter the war. However, when Germany officially resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, Wilson and the American public had had enough. In April 1917, the United States Congress voted to declare war on the Central Powers and entered World War I.

The U.S. Readies for War

The sinking of Lusitania didn't directly cause the United States to enter the war. It did, however, fuel virulent anti-German sentiment in Britain and the United States and hinder diplomatic relations between Germany and the United States.

It also showed the world that Germany was willing to do almost anything to win the war, which incited the Allies to fight harder and signaled to the United States that permanent neutrality was likely futile.

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How the Sinking of Lusitania Changed World War I | HISTORY

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A German U-boat torpedoed the British-owned steamship Lusitania, killing 1,195 people including 123 Americans, on May 7, 1915. The disaster set off a chain of events that led to the U.S. entering World War I.

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Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria

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The Allies described the wartime military alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire as the 'Central Powers'. The name referred to the geographical location of the two original members of the alliance, Germany and Austria-Hungary, in central Europe. The Ottoman Empire joined the alliance in November 1914 and the last member of the quartet, the Kingdom of Bulgaria, entered the war on the side of the Central Powers in October 1915.

As well as providing the alliance with its name, the geographical position of the German and Austro-Hungarian empires also gave the Central Powers at least one very important strategic advantage over the Allies they were fighting. It was much easier for the Germans and Austro-Hungarians to move troops, equipment and supplies from one battle front to another because they could do much of this on their domestic railway networks.

For example, the Germans could move 10 infantry divisions from the Eastern Front to the Western Front via a relatively straightforward journey across Germany. It was no more difficult for the Austro-Hungarians to move five infantry divisions from the Eastern Front to the Italian Front, or to the Salonika Front in the Balkans.

Compare this situation with the difficulties faced by the Allies in moving men, equipment and supplies from one battle front to another. This usually involved long circuitous routes across or around multiple countries, each with different rail networks and logistical procedures. It was also likely to require transport by sea, which posed its own set of risks, notably from German and Austrian submarines. So while it could take two or three weeks to transport a British Army unit and its equipment from the United Kingdom to the Salonika Front, the Austro-Hungarians, and the Germans if need be, could move reinforcements there in less than a week.

The military term for this strategic advantage of the Central Powers is 'operating on interior lines'. It was used to most dramatic effect in early 1918, when the rapid transfer of large numbers of German divisions from the Eastern Front to the Western Front enabled the great German spring offensive in the west.

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The Allies described the wartime military alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire as the 'Central Powers'. The name referred to the geographical location of the two original members of the alliance, Germany and Austria-Hungary, in central Europe.

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The battle was marked by relentless rain, turning the battlefield into a quagmire of mud. The soldiers struggled to advance, and the battle became synonymous with the horrors of trench warfare. The Allies eventually captured the ridge, but at the cost of over 200,000 casualties, with no decisive strategic gain.

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First World War

On 31 July 1917, the British and French launched a massive offensive in the area around Ypres in the Belgian province of Flanders. The Third Battle of Ypres, known in later years as Passchendaele, was not as bloody as the Somme the year before, but would achieve its own notoriety.

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In July 1917, the British and French launched a massive offensive near the Belgian city of Ypres. The bitter struggle that followed came to symbolize the horrors of trench warfare.

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The Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in a second revolution. The Bolsheviks promised "peace, land, and bread" and quickly moved to withdraw Russia from the war. In December 1917, Russia signed the Armistice of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers, effectively exiting the war and marking the beginning of the Russian Civil War.

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Russian Revolution: Causes, Timeline & Bolsheviks | HISTORY

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The Russian Revolution was a series of uprisings from 1905 to 1917 led by peasants, laborers and Bolsheviks against the failed rule of the czarist Romanovs.

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The United States Enters the War (April 6, 1917)

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The United States Enters the War (April 6, 1917)

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On April 6, 1917, the United States formally declared war on Germany, entering World War I on the side of the Allies. The U.S. had been providing material support to the Allies since 1915, but it had remained neutral up to this point

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On April 2, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson went before a joint session of Congress to request a declaration of war against Germany. Wilson cited Germany's violation of its pledge to suspend unrestricted submarine warfare in the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean, as well as its attempts to entice Mexico into an alliance against the United States, as his reasons for declaring war. On April 4, 1917, the U.S. Senate voted in support of the measure to declare war on Germany. The House concurred two days later. The United States later declared war on German ally Austria-Hungary on December 7, 1917.

Germany's resumption of submarine attacks on passenger and merchant ships in 1917 became the primary motivation behind Wilson's decision to lead the United States into World War I. Following the sinking of an unarmed French boat, the Sussex, in the English Channel in March 1916, Wilson threatened to sever diplomatic relations with Germany unless the German Government refrained from attacking all passenger ships and allowed the crews of enemy merchant vessels to abandon their ships prior to any attack. On May 4, 1916, the German Government accepted these terms and conditions in what came to be known as the "Sussex pledge."

By January 1917, however, the situation in Germany had changed. During a wartime conference that month, representatives from the German Navy convinced the military leadership and Kaiser Wilhelm II that a resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare could help defeat Great Britain within five months. German policymakers argued that they could violate the "Sussex pledge" since the United States could no longer be considered a neutral party after supplying munitions and financial assistance to the Allies. Germany also believed that the United States had jeopardized its neutrality by acquiescing to the Allied blockade of Germany.

German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg protested this decision, believing that resuming submarine warfare would draw the United States into the war on behalf of the Allies. This, he argued, would lead to the defeat of Germany. Despite these warnings, the German Government decided to resume unrestricted submarine attacks on all Allied and neutral shipping within prescribed war zones, reckoning that German submarines would end the war long before the first U.S. troopships landed in Europe. Accordingly, on January 31, 1917, German Ambassador to the United States Count Johann von Bernstorff presented U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing a note declaring Germany's intention to restart unrestricted submarine warfare the following day.

Stunned by the news, President Wilson went before Congress on February 3 to announce that he had severed diplomatic relations with Germany. However, he refrained from asking for a declaration of war because he doubted that the U.S. public would support him unless he provided ample proof that Germany intended to attack U.S. ships without warning. Wilson left open the possibility of negotiating with Germany if its submarines refrained from attacking U.S. shipping. Nevertheless, throughout February and March 1917, German submarines targeted and sank several U.S. ships, resulting in the deaths of numerous U.S. seamen and citizens.

On February 26, Wilson asked Congress for the authority to arm U.S. merchant ships with U.S. naval personnel and equipment. While the measure would probably have passed in a vote, several anti-war Senators led a successful filibuster that consumed the remainder of the congressional session. As a result of this setback, President Wilson decided to arm U.S. merchant ships by executive order, citing an old anti-piracy law that gave him the authority to do so.

While Wilson weighed his options regarding the submarine issue, he also had to address the question of Germany's attempts to cement a secret alliance with Mexico. On January 19, 1917, British naval intelligence intercepted and decrypted a telegram sent by German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann to the German Ambassador in Mexico City. The "Zimmermann Telegram" promised the Mexican Government that Germany would help Mexico recover the territory it had ceded to the United States following the Mexican-American War. In return for this assistance, Germany asked for Mexican support in the war.

The "Zimmermann Telegram"

Initially, the British had not shared the news of the Zimmermann Telegram with U.S. officials because they did not want the Germans to discover that British code breakers had cracked the German code. However, following Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in February, the British decided to use the note to help sway U.S. official and public opinion in favor of joining the war. The British finally forwarded the intercepted telegram to President Wilson on February 24. The U.S. press carried the story the following week.

Despite the shocking news of the Zimmermann Telegram, Wilson still hesitated asking for a declaration of war. He waited until March 20 before convening a Cabinet meeting to broach the matter-almost a month after he had first seen the telegram. The precise reasons for Wilson's decision to choose war in 1917 remain the subject of debate among historians, especially in light of his efforts to avoid war in 1915 after the sinking of the British passenger liners Lusitania and Arabic, which had led to the deaths of 131 U.S. citizens.

However, by 1917, the continued submarine attacks on U.S. merchant and passenger ships, and the "Zimmermann Telegram's" implied threat of a German attack on the United States, swayed U.S. public opinion in support of a declaration of war. Furthermore, international law stipulated that the placing of U.S. naval personnel on civilian ships to protect them from German submarines already constituted an act of war against Germany. Finally, the Germans, by their actions, had demonstrated that they had no interest in seeking a peaceful end to the conflict. These reasons all contributed to President Wilson's decision to ask Congress for a declaration of war against Germany. They also encouraged Congress to grant Wilson's request and formally declare war on Germany.

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Milestones: 1914-1920 - Office of the Historian

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The tank, which had been introduced in the Battle of the Somme in 1916, continued to evolve in 1917. By the end of the year, tanks had become a more effective and organized part of the British and French arsenals, and their use in the Battle of Cambrai demonstrated their potential as a weapon to break through entrenched positions

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How Britain Invented The Tank In The First World War

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The concept of a vehicle to provide troops with both mobile protection and firepower was not a new one. But in the First World War, the increasing availability of the internal combustion engine, armour plate and the continuous track, as well as the problem of trench warfare, combined to facilitate the production of the tank.

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 The End of the Ottoman Empire’s Military Involvement 

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 The End of the Ottoman Empire’s Military Involvement 

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1917 saw significant events involving the Ottoman Empire. British forces, led by General Edmund Allenby, captured Jerusalem in December 1917, a key victory in the Middle East that symbolized the weakening of Ottoman control in the region. The Ottoman Empire would continue to struggle on multiple fronts, especially as the Arab Revolt (supported by the British) continued to destabilize Ottoman rule in the Arab provinces

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At its peak in the 1500s, the Ottoman Empire was one of the biggest military and economic powers in the world, controlling an expanse that included not just its base in Asia Minor but also much of southeastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. The empire controlled territory that stretched from the Danube to the Nile, with a powerful military, lucrative commerce, and impressive achievements in fields ranging from architecture to astronomy. But it didn't last.

Why Did the Ottoman Empire Fall?

Though the Ottoman Empire persisted for 600 years, it succumbed to what most historians describe as a long, slow decline, despite efforts to modernize. Finally, after fighting on the side of Germany in World War I and suffering defeat, the empire was dismantled by treaty and came to an end in 1922, when the last Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed VI, was deposed and left the capital of Constantinople (now Istanbul) in a British warship. From the Ottoman Empire's remains arose the modern nation of Turkey.

What caused the once awe-inspiring Ottoman Empire to collapse? Historians aren't in complete agreement but below are some factors.

It was too agrarian.

While the industrial revolution swept through Europe in the 1700s and 1800s, the Ottoman economy remained dependent upon farming. The empire lacked the factories and mills to keep up with Great Britain, France and even Russia, according to Michael A. Reynolds, an associate professor of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. As a result, the empire's economic growth was weak, and what agricultural surplus it generated went to pay loans to European creditors. When it came time to fight in World War I, the Ottoman Empire didn't have the industrial might to produce heavy weaponry, munitions and iron and steel needed to build railroads to support the war effort.

It wasn't cohesive enough.

At its apex, the Ottoman Empire included Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Hungary, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel and the Palestinian territories, Macedonia, Romania, Syria, parts of Arabia and the north coast of Africa. Even if outside powers hadn't eventually undermined the empire, Reynolds doesn't think that it could have remained intact and evolved into a modern democratic nation. "The odds probably would have been against it, because of the empire's tremendous diversity in terms of ethnicity, language, economics, and geography," he says. "Homogenous societies democratize more easily than heterogeneous ones."

The various peoples who were part of the empire grew more and more rebellious, and by the 1870s, the empire had to allow Bulgaria and other countries to become independent and ceded more and more territory. After losing the 1912-1913 Balkan Wars to a coalition that included some of its former imperial possessions, the empire was forced to give up its remaining European territory.

Its population was under-educated.

Despite efforts to improve education in the 1800s, the Ottoman Empire lagged far behind its European competitors in literacy, so by 1914, it's estimated that only between 5 and 10 percent of its inhabitants could read. "The human resources of the Ottoman empire, like the natural resources, were comparatively undeveloped," Reynolds notes. That meant the empire had a shortage of well-trained military officers, engineers, clerks, doctors and other professions.

Other countries deliberately weakened it.

The ambition of European powers also helped to hasten the Ottoman Empire's demise, explains Eugene Rogan, director of the Middle East Centre at St. Antony's College, Oxford. Russia and Austria both supported rebellious nationalists in the Balkans to further their own influence. And the British and the French were eager to carve away territory controlled by the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East and North Africa.

It faced a destructive rivalry with Russia.

Neighboring Czarist Russia, whose sprawling realm included Muslims as well, developed into an increasingly bitter rival. "The Russian Empire was the single greatest threat to the Ottoman Empire, and it was a truly existential threat," Reynolds says. When the two empires took opposite sides in World War I, though, the Russians ended up collapsing first, in part because the Ottoman forces prevented Russia from getting supplies from Europe via the Black Sea. Tzar Nicholas II and his foreign minister, Sergei Sazanov, resisted the idea of negotiating a separate peace with the empire, which might have saved Russia.

It picked the wrong side in World War I.

Siding with Germany in World War I may have been the most significant reason for the Ottoman Empire's demise. Before the war, the Ottoman Empire had signed a secret treaty with Germany, which turned out to be a very bad choice. In the conflict that followed, the empire's army fought a brutal, bloody campaign on the Gallipoli peninsula to protect Constantinople from invading Allied forces in 1915 and 1916. Ultimately, the empire lost nearly half a million soldiers, most of them to disease, plus about 3.8 million more who were injured or became ill. In October 1918, the empire signed an armistice with Great Britain and quit the war.

If it weren't for its fateful role in World War I, some even argue that the empire might have survived. Mostafa Minawi, a historian at Cornell University, believes the Ottoman Empire had the potential to evolve into a modern multi-ethnic, multi-lingual federal state. Instead, he argues, World War I triggered the empire's disintegration. "The Ottoman Empire joined the losing side," he says. As a result, when the war ended, "The division of territories of the Ottoman Empire was decided by the victors."

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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Six Reasons Why the Ottoman Empire Fell | HISTORY

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The Ottoman Empire was once among the biggest military and economic powers in the world. So what happened?

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The German Spring Offensive (March – July 1918)

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The German Spring Offensive (March – July 1918)

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In an attempt to win the war before the full strength of American forces could arrive, Germany launched a series of offensives known as the Kaiserschlacht ("Kaiser’s Battle") in the spring of 1918. The Germans attacked in several phases, aiming to split the British and French forces and achieve a decisive breakthrough.

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21 March: Germans launch spring offensive

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1918: spring offensive and advance to victory

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In 1918, a series of major German and Allied offensives broke the stalemate of trench warfare on the Western Front, resulting in the collapse of the German Army and the end of the war within the year. New Zealand units played an important part in the Allies’ final push for victory.

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The Allied Counteroffensive (July – November 1918)

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The Allied Counteroffensive (July – November 1918)

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After the failure of the German offensives, the Allies, with the support of fresh American troops, launched a series of successful counterattacks. The Allies began to push the Germans back, regaining the ground they had lost earlier in the year

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From the largest naval battle, and the longest battle, to the most painful and infamous battle, and the battle that marked the end of mobile warfare on the Western Front, discover 10 significant battles of the First World War that took place between 1914-1918.

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From Amiens to Armistice: The Hundred Days Offensive

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From the largest naval battle, and the longest battle, to the most painful and infamous battle, and the battle that marked the end of mobile warfare on the Western Front, discover 10 significant battles of the First World War that took place between 1914-1918.

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The Battle of Amiens (August 8-12, 1918)

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The Battle of Amiens (August 8-12, 1918)

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A pivotal Allied victory that marked the beginning of the Hundred Days Offensive, the Battle of Amiens was a surprise attack that caught the Germans off guard. The British, Canadian, Australian, and French forces, supported by American troops, made significant advances

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On August 8, 1918, the Allies launch a series of offensive operations against German positions on the Western Front during World War I with a punishing attack at Amiens, on the Somme River in northwestern France.

After heavy casualties incurred during their ambitious spring 1918 offensive, the bulk of the German army was exhausted, and its morale was rapidly disintegrating amid a lack of supplies and the spreading influenza epidemic. Some of its commanders believed that the tide was turning irrevocably in favor of Germany's enemies; as one of them, Crown Prince Rupprecht, wrote on July 20, "We stand at the turning point of the war: what I expected first for the autumn, the necessity to go over to the defensive, is already on us, and in addition all the gains which we made in the spring-such as they were-have been lost again." Still, Erich Ludendorff, the German commander in chief, refused to accept this reality and rejected the advice of his senior commanders to pull back or begin negotiations.

Meanwhile, the Allies prepared for the war to stretch into 1919, not realizing victory was possible so soon. Thus, at a conference of national army commanders on July 24, Allied generalissimo Ferdinand Foch rejected the idea of a single decisive blow against the Germans, favoring instead a series of limited attacks in quick succession aimed at liberating the vital railway lines around Paris and diverting the attention and resources of the enemy rapidly from one spot to another. According to Foch: "These movements should be exacted with such rapidity as to inflict upon the enemy a succession of blows....These actions must succeed each other at brief intervals, so as to embarrass the enemy in the utilization of his reserves and not allow him sufficient time to fill up his units." The national commanders- John J. Pershing of the United States, Philippe Petain of France and Sir Douglas Haig of Britain-willingly went along with this strategy, which effectively allowed each army to act as its own entity, striking smaller individual blows to the Germans instead of joining together in one massive coordinated attack.
READ MORE: World War I Battles: Timeline
Haig's part of the plan called for a limited offensive at Amiens, on the Somme River, aimed at counteracting a German victory there the previous March and capturing the Amiens railway line stretching between Mericourt and Hangest. The British attack, begun on the morning August 8, 1918, was led by the British 4th Army under the command of Sir Henry Rawlinson. The German defensive positions at Amiens were guarded by 20,000 men; they were outnumbered six to one by advancing Allied forces. The British-well assisted by Australian and Canadian divisions-employed some 400 tanks in the attack, along with over 2,000 artillery pieces and 800 aircraft.

By the end of August 8-dubbed "the black day of the German army" by Ludendorff-the Allies had penetrated German lines around the Somme with a gap some 15 miles long. Of the 27, 000 German casualties on August 8, an unprecedented proportion-12,000-had surrendered to the enemy. Though the Allies at Amiens failed to continue their impressive success in the days following August 8, the damage had been done. "We have reached the limits of our capacity," Kaiser Wilhelm II told Ludendorff on that "black day." "The war must be ended." The kaiser agreed, however, that this end could not come until Germany was again making progress on the battlefield, so that there would be at least some bargaining room. Even faced with the momentum of the Allied summer offensive-later known as the Hundred Days Offensive-the front lines of the German army continued to fight on into the final months of the war, despite being plagued by disorder and desertion within its troops and rebellion on the home front.

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On August 8, 1918, the Allies launch a series of offensive operations against German positions on the Western Front during World War I with a punishing attack at Amiens, on the Somme River in northwestern France.

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The Collapse of the Eastern Front (March 1918)

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The Collapse of the Eastern Front (March 1918)

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With Russia having exited the war in 1917 due to the Bolshevik Revolution, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (signed in December 1917) officially ended Russia’s involvement in the conflict. The treaty, which recognized the loss of vast territories to Germany and Austria-Hungary, gave the Central Powers a significant advantage on the Eastern Front

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The German Spring Offensive saw mobile warfare return to the Western Front. Despite early gains, the Germans exhausted themselves, setting the stage for a successful Allied counter-offensive.

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 The German Collapse and the Armistice (November 11, 1918)

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 The German Collapse and the Armistice (November 11, 1918)

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By the fall of 1918, the Central Powers were on the brink of collapse. The German military was exhausted, their economy in ruins, and morale had shattered. On November 9, the German Kaiser, Wilhelm II, abdicated, and the German Republic was proclaimed.

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In the autumn of 1918, Germany and its allies were exhausted. Their armies were defeated and their hungry citizens were beginning to rebel. As early as 29 September German General and Stategist Erich Ludendorff decided that a cessation of hostilities must be sought. The need became more urgent as Germany's allies began to drop out of the war.

The German government approached the United States with a request for an armistice. They hoped that this would be based on the 'Fourteen Points' laid down in January 1918 by US President Woodrow Wilson as a foundation for 'peace without victory'. By October however, with their troops bloodily engaged on the Western Front, American attitudes had hardened.

The armistice negotiations were not in fact conducted by the Allied governments, but by their commander-in-chief, Ferdinand Foch. He ensured that its conditions made it impossible for the German Army to recommence fighting.

The abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II and the formation of a democratic government in Germany were necessary adjuncts to the armistice. The generals ensured that the new Socialist government was tarnished with the humiliation of the defeat for which they themselves were responsible.

The signing of the armistice was greeted with varied responses. In many Allied towns and cities - especially those freed from enemy occupation - there were scenes of happiness. However, the celebratory mood was tempered by the grief of the many thousands who mourned for the war dead. Away from the Western Front, the signing of armistices did not necessarily mean an end to conflict. Fighting continued while peace negotiations got under way.

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How Did The Armistice End The First World War?

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In the autumn of 1918, Germany and its allies were exhausted. Their armies were defeated and their hungry citizens were beginning to rebel. As early as 29 September German General and Stategist Erich Ludendorff decided that a cessation of hostilities must be sought.

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Austria-Hungary disintegrated as ethnic groups demanded independence, leading to revolutions in Vienna and Budapest. On October 31, Austria-Hungary signed an armistice with the Allies.

The Ottoman Empire also signed an armistice with the Allies on October 30, 1918, marking the collapse of the Ottoman Empire’s involvement in the war.

Bulgaria had already signed an armistice in September 1918, marking the withdrawal of its forces from the war

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The Military Collapse of the Central Powers / 1.0 / handbook - 1914-1918-Online (WW1) Encyclopedia

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October 1918 witnessed the collapse of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies, both greatly affected by war-weariness and starvation. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy lost any remaining loyalty from its multi-national populace when President Woodrow Wilson issued Point Ten of his Fourteen Points, concerning the subject peoples of the Empire. Emperor Charles’ Manifesto of 16 October represented the final push for independence of the soon-to-be new states created by the collapse of the Dual Monarchy. Battlefield defeat of the German army in 1918 also led to major changes to its government. Thus the two Central European Great Powers suffered defeat.

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Though the Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1919, its foundations were laid in the final months of 1918. The armistice in November 1918 effectively set the terms for the peace negotiations. The Allied powers, led by France, Britain, and the United States, began planning the post-war settlement that would punish Germany and redraw the map of Europe. The harsh terms of the treaty would lead to significant political instability in Europe, contributing to the rise of fascism and eventually World War II

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Almost half a century after the proclamation of the German Empire, French President Clémenceau savoured his revenge on 28 June 1919, when the defeated German delegates signed the peace treaty in the Hall of Mirrors, in the same place where Germany had previously proclaimed its empire. The First World War was over. A Louis XV bureau had been placed in the centre of the hall beneath the emblematic painting of Louis XIV titled The King governs by himself. The session lasted 50 minutes. The solemn occasion, which was not celebrated with decorum or music, was attended by 27 delegations representing 32 powers. The four representatives of the principle allied powers were at the table: Clémenceau for France, Wilson for the USA, Lloyd George for Great Britain, and Orlando for Italy. The German delegation was composed of Müller, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and a jurist, one Doctor Bell.

Negotiations had proved difficult. The treaty had been drafted during a peace conference held in Paris starting on 18 January; but Germany had been shut out of the deal-making, while the Allies debated the matter alone, unable to agree amongst themselves: France wanted to definitively remove the German threat and cripple the country, Great Britain wanted to preserve its status, the USA dreamed of a peaceful world with the establishment of the League of Nations, and Italy wanted to take over the territories it had been promised in 1915. The treaty was eventually presented to Germany on 7 May. It was very harsh. The counter-proposals submitted on the 29th were all rejected. Germany refused to sign. On 17 June the Allies gave Germany five days to decide or have the war resume. Germany accepted the "diktat".

It cannot be denied that the conditions were somewhat draconian. Germany accepted responsibility for the war and lost 68,000 km² of territory, including Alsace and Lorraine, which had been annexed in 1870, and 8 million inhabitants. Part of western Prussia was given to Poland, which gained access to the sea through the famous "Polish Corridor", and Germany agreed to pay the crushing sum of 20 billion gold marks in reparations claimed by France. In addition, it lost most of its ore and agricultural production. Its colonies were confiscated, and its military strength was crippled. Humiliated, Germany seethed for revenge. A new war, which everyone had hoped to avoid, was already blowing up on the horizon almost as soon as the German delegation receded over it.

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After four years of devastating fighting, the First World War came to an end in 1919 in Versailles. The treaty, which represented "peace" for some and a "diktat" for others, also sowed the seeds of the Second World War, which would break out twenty years later.