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Masks are one of West Africa's most enduring and compelling art forms. West Africa ranges from Nigeria to the Atlantic Ocean and as far north as Senegal and Mali. The use of masks in this area spans hundreds and perhaps thousands of years. Skilled craftsmen make masks, which are usually carved from wood and painted; they may also incorporate cloth, beads, shells, and raffia. West African masks cover the face or the head and are always worn with a costume.

The Igbo (pronounced Ee-boh) of southeast Nigeria are one of the many West African peoples that hold numerous masked performances each year to honor ancestors, insure bountiful crops, teach moral lessons, and entertain audiences at festivals. Maskers, often referred to as mmanwu, also perform special rituals at ceremonies and rites of passage. Prior to the early 1900s, mmanwu played important judicial and policing roles in Igbo society. Masquerades typically occur outside during the dry season when harvest celebrations take place.

Ancestors are revered and commemorated in Igbo culture, and mmanwu personify ancestral spirits during performances. Contrasting elements such as good and evil, male and female, and beauty and ugliness, are also reflected in both masks and masquerades. Masked performers transform themselves into virtuous maidens, esteemed ancestors, animals, jokers, powerful male figures, and other supernatural characters. The real identity of mmanwu is always hidden. Men play the role of masqueraders, and boys must complete initiation ceremonies in order to become part of secret masking societies.

Maskers may appear individually or in large groups. Mmanwu disguise their voices, utter strange noises, sing, recite proverbs, use whistles, or remain silent. Unmasked attendants frequently accompany maskers, adding to their powerful presence. Dance and body movement bring masked characters to life. Music is an essential component of masquerades and involves drums, gongs, rattles, and flutes. Masquerades last for several hours to several days or may even occur over the course of many months. Masking traditions continue to evolve and reflect modern social conditions. The Igbo create new types of masks, occasionally incorporating contemporary materials such as plastic and aluminum, and some masquerades have been adapted for urban and stadium settings.

The Art of Transformation features masks made by Ugbozo Ozooha-Aga of Obiama, Nigeria that were collected by the anthropologist William R. Bascom in 1945. The Igbo masks on view "are part of a unique collection of more than one hundred masks produced by a single African wood-carver, and probably the only available 'one-man show' of traditional African art." The carvings in this exhibition embody an incredible range of styles. As Bascom himself described, "Large and small, simple and complex, roughly carved or carefully finished, abstract or realistic, these masks represent terrifying spirits, humorous figures,
and beautiful women."

[top inset image]
Maiden Mask c. 1930-45
Made by Ugbozo Ozooha-Aga; Igbo; Obiama, Nigeria, West Africa
wood, pigment
Collection of the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology
L2009.0201.061

[bottom inset image]
Mask c. 1930-45
Made by Ugbozo Ozooha-Aga; Igbo; Obiama, Nigeria, West Africa
wood, pigment
Collection of the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology
L2009.0201.022

Photography is not permitted.
©2009 by San Francisco Airport Commission. All rights reserved.

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The Art of Transformation: Igbo Masks by Ugbozo Ozooha-Aga from the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology

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Masks are one of West Africa's most enduring and compelling art forms. West Africa ranges from Nigeria to the Atlantic Ocean and as far north as Senegal and Mali. The use of masks in this area spans hundreds and perhaps thousands of years.

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African art - African art - Igbo: On both sides of the Niger, but mainly to the east, live the Igbo. Traditionally they have lived in small and often isolated settlements scattered through the forest. Only on the northern and western edges of the area, under influence from Igala and Benin, are hereditary rulers found.

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Ibo maiden spirit mask | University of Cambridge Museums

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Idea One: A transformation takes place when a mask is worn

Kpele Kpele Mask, 19th century
Baule
Wood, reconstructed raffia collar
The William Hood Dunwoody Fund

In some African cultures, a spirit inhabits a mask upon its creation. When a man (or, on rare occasions, a woman) puts on a mask and costume they give up their own being. The identity of the spirit takes over. Sometimes this spirit can be of another person, such as an ancestor. Other times the spirit is an animal or natural force.

The person who performs with a mask, called a masker, will undergo a physical change. The costume worn with a mask is just as important as the mask itself. A masker dresses in private and covers every inch of their body to conceal their identity. Costumes can be quite complex, made with hoops, padding, poles, and layers of fabric and raffia. Unfortunately, while many museums collect masks, very few costumes survive.

The masked spirit appears to the community in a music and dance performance known as a masquerade. Sometimes the spirit's movements are unpredictable. Although audience members know that a human being is behind the mask, they accept that the spirit of the mask is present. They may respond to the spirit with fear or joy, depending on the purpose of the spirit's visit.

This mask represents kpele kpele, a character from a popular masquerade among the Baule people of Ivory Coast.

This mask represents a Chokwe ancestor.

This Sande Society mask represents a water spirit, sowei.
This Kuba mask from the Democratic Republic of Congo represents a horned forest spirit.

Idea Two: Men and women play different roles in masquerades

Horned Forest Spirit Mask,
20th century
Kuba
Wood, cloth, copper, pigment, plant fibers
GIFT OF DAVID AND SARA LIEBERMAN

Although masks can represent either male or female figures, all maskers all male. In most African communities, although women are not allowed to wear masks, they still participate in masquerades as audience members. They often perform songs and dance to accompany the masker. Women also assist in creating the masker's costume, sometimes even providing their own clothing for the female figures.

The Sande Society of the Mende in Sierra Leone is one exception to the "men only" rule. The Sande Society is a society of women responsible for teaching young girls the skills and knowledge to become a woman. The spirit, sowei, appears to the young girls several times in the initiation period to provide guidance. The mask, worn by a woman represents an ideal woman. The mask's delicate facial features, elaborate hairstyle, and rings on the neck represent feminine beauty.

This mask from the Sande Society was worn by a mature woman as part of an initiation ceremony for young girls.

This mask has carefully filed teeth, a sign of beauty among the Yombe people. It represents an ideal woman and was probably worn in ritual dances associated with fertility.

This mask represents another view of ideal feminine beauty. It was once used in dances to provide an example of how a Guro woman should behave.

This Mwana Pwo (young woman) mask represents the female ancestor of the Chokwe people. It is always worn by a man who is disguised as a woman with a bodysuit, false breasts, and a skirt.

Idea Three: Masks come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and styles.

This Luba dance mask is worn over the head like a helmet.

Masks can be grouped into three main forms: face masks, helmet masks, and headresses. The face mask is the most common form and usually curves over the masker's face, stopping right before the ears. Other face masks, often described as plank masks, are completely flat. A helmet mask covers the entire head and sits on the shoulders of the masker. The third form of masks, the headdress, rests on top of the masker's head. To help keep the masker's identity disguised, a costume made of raffia or grass is attached to a headdress to cover his or her face.

Some masks take the shape of humans. These masks often have stylized features to represent ideal beauty and strength. Other masks take the form of powerful animals that are important to the community, such as an elephant, antelope, or hawk. Sometimes masks combine attributes from different animals or even combine human and animal features. When these features are brought together on a mask, the powers of each also are combined.

Masks come in a variety of sizes. Sometimes they are very small, just large enough to cover the masker's face. Other times, they are extremely large or tall. For example, the Bwa mask below is over six feet tall! The masker must be strong to maintain his balance while wearing such a mask.

This Hemba mask has half-human, half-chimpanzee features and was used at funerals to symbolize death. This mask used by the Pende people depicts the female antelope Mbambi.
Bwa plank masks are performed at funerals, initiation ceremonies, and agricultural festivals.

Idea Four: Masquerades mark important events in the community.

This Bamum mask symbolizes an ancestor and is worn at funerals and memorial celebrations. The masker places it on top of his head and wears a mesh veil to cover his face.

Many masquerades mark transitions within the cycle of life. When boys and girls mature from youth to adulthood, masquerades celebrate this life change and teach children how to be adults. Masquerades also play a large role in funeral ceremonies. To help the deceased enter the afterlife, masked spirits appear to honor ancestors, provide protection, and offer guidance.

Masquerade performances honor spirits who bring prosperity to a community. Women are powerful in their communities because they are able to give birth. To help promote fertility, masked spirits perform special ceremonies. Masquerades also are performed at harvest time to honor farming spirits and promote a successful harvest.

Masked spirits can provide protection and help maintain social order. A community may perform a masquerade to ask spirits for protection in war, and against disease and natural disasters. Elders wear masks to call upon ancestors spirits when they need assistance in judging a crime.

Masquerades are also performed at many occasions for simple celebration. These include ancestor celebrations, royal events, religious ceremonies, weddings, and festivals.

This mask is worn by a man in the Pende community at iniation ceremonies for boys entering adulthood.

The Yombe mask is worn in ritual dances associated with fertility.

The kpele kpele mask is worn at elders' funerals and as village entertainment.

Idea Five: Most African masks are made of wood.

The intricate details on this Lwena dance mask were carved with a small knife.

An artist trained in woodcarving makes the mask. During an apprenticeship, the artist learns about the particular styles of masks that are important to his community. A mask carver is always male and usually holds an important status among his people.

A mask is often made from a single piece of wood. The artist uses an axe-like tool called an adze to create the features on the mask. Fine details are carved on the mask using a knife. To darken or add color to the wood, an artist may soak the mask in mud, burn it, rub it with oil, or paint it with natural pigments or manufactured wood stains. In addition to wood, masks can be made with other materials including beads, bells, feathers, metal, fur, raffia, and shells.

An artist will often make the mask in private. After the artist completes the mask, an elder will perform a ceremony to allow a spirit to inhabit the mask and give it power. Likewise, when a mask is no longer in use the elder performs a ceremony to remove its power.

This wood mask from the Bushoong people is decorated with cowrie shells, beads, pigments, plant fibers, and fabric.

The facial features on this Dan mask are abstract and geometrical. The artist darkened the wood's natural color.

This elephant mask from the Kuosi society is an example of a mask not made from wood. The cloth hood and panels are decorated with beads and raffia.

Related Activities

Experience the Real Thing

Visit The Minneapolis Institute of Art to view the African art collection. Activities to do at the museum include: Identify animals depicted in African masks. Why do you think these animals were honored in their community? What characteristics do they possess? Identify the three mask forms in the galleries: face mask, helmet mask, and headdress. How would it feel to wear these different masks? Compare and contrast the original masks to the website images. How do the sizes, colors, and textures compare? Any surprises?

Masks Here and There

Masks are used in different cultures around the world. How are African masks like the masks you might use? How are the ways you use masks different from the way they are used in traditional Africa? Write down the differences and the similarities.

Animal Hybrids

Many masks depict animal hybrids, combining features of several animals on one mask. Think of three animals found in your environment that you consider powerful. What features make them unique? Design a mask that contains features from each animal.

Compare and Contrast

The Minneapolis Institute of Art owns a large African mask collection. View more masks using the search tool on the museum's collections website Select two masks and compare and contrast their similarities and differences.

Bibliography

Perani, Judith and Fred T. Smith. The Visual Arts of Africa: Gender, Power, and Life Cycle Rituals (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998)

Stelzig, Christine. Can you Spot the Leopard? African Masks (New York: Prestel, 1997)

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In some African cultures, a spirit inhabits a mask upon its creation. When a man (or, on rare occasions, a woman) puts on a mask and costume they give up their own being. The identity of the spirit takes over. Sometimes this spirit can be of another person, such as an ancestor.

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Timothy S. Y. Lam Museum of Anthropology

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Masks of the World - Timothy S. Y. Lam Museum of Anthropology

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Masks have been worn in a variety of contexts across cultures and throughout human history. Explore masks from the Museum’s collection.

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Masks have been used around the world for centuries for all kinds of religious and cultural celebrations. Some masks honor those who have died, some represent animals or spirits and some simply disguise a person's identity. Now, as we are all tasked with wearing masks for protection during the coronavirus pandemic, Newsweek is taking a look at the types of masks that were used long before they became a part of the world's daily wardrobe.

1. Hunting Festivals, Alaska

The Yup'ik and Inupiaq peoples wear masks during special ceremonies, the most important being the midwinter hunting festivals. Carved by-or under the supervision of-a shaman, these masks sometimes represent a shaman's spiritual helpers and can also be hung in homes to ward off harmful spirits.

2. Mardi Gras, New Orleans

The legalization of masks in New Orleans dates back to 1827. Though only legal on Mardi Gras wearing masks is a big part of traditional Cajun and Creole events and minimizes class differences.

3.Día de los Muertos, Mexico

The Day of the Dead commemorates family members who have passed away. During this end-of-October celebration, people will often paint their faces or wear masks of clay or papier-mâché that resemble skulls, as well as create altars, or ofrendas, to celebrate the departed.

4. Bailes, Guatemala

Since the colonial era, masks have been worn in various fully-scripted performances, known as bailes or danzas. These tell stories both historical and mythical. They are performed at indigenous festivals and Catholic feast and often depict animals, saints, conquistadors or Mayan warriors.

5. FESTIMA, Dédougou, Burkina Faso

The biennial Festival International des Masques et des Arts (FESTIMA) celebrates and exhibits traditional masks from various West African countries. Worn by dancers, these masks are made of leaves, straw and wood and symbolize the worship of ancestors and spirits and also honor traditional mask-wearing at rituals like weddings and funerals.

6. Carnevale, Venice

Dating back hundreds of years, Venetians would disguise themselves during the Carnevale di Venezia, an annual festival that draws thousands of tourists. During the French conquest and Austrian occupation, the wearing of masks was forbidden, though the tradition resurfaced in 1979.

7. Kandyan Dances, Sri Lanka

A variety of traditional dances ward off demons, provide entertainment and heal the sick. Most incorporate masks made during a lengthy process using wood from the local Kaduru tree. Each mask is linked to a particular piece of folklore or character.

8. Balinese Masks, Bali

With roots in animism-the belief that plants, inanimate objects and other natural phenomena have souls-these masks are seen as a way for spirits to visit the physical world. They are reserved for use only during sacred ceremonies, but tourists can purchase masks crafted specifically for decorative uses.

9. Noh Theater, Japan

The all-male Noh Theater, developed in the 14th century, is the oldest major theater art still regularly performed. The lead character, or shite, will wear a mask made of Japanese cypress that tells the audience what kind of character to expect.

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A Look at Cultural Masks Around the World

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Masks have been used around the world for centuries for all kinds of religious and cultural celebrations. Some masks honor those who have died, some represent animals or spirits and some simply disguise a person's identity.

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Gallery of 25 Masks From the Ancient World

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Gallery of 25 Masks From the Ancient World

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Gallery of 25 Masks From the Ancient World

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The love of masks is one of the striking similarities across global cultures. In this gallery of images, we showcase 25 masks from world history. Very often made with precious materials such as gold…

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Masks in preliterate societies.

Cultural masks are known to have been worn long before human beings developed written language. Many types of masquerade used by preliterate societies have disappeared from history, frequently along with the societies themselves. In many cases, only archaeological fragments, drawings, or photographs remain to tell us what the masks looked like and give a sense of how the societies used them. The disappearance of many ancient masking traditions was assured by the European campaigns of conquest and exploitation in many parts of the New World during the Age of Discovery. Tribal peoples were ruthlessly culled by disease, brutal slavery, and sometimes genocidal campaigns.

The Selk'nam, for example, inhabited Patagonia and the Tierra del Fuego region. European settlers invaded their territory in the 19th century and began extensive sheep ranching on Selk'nam hunting grounds. With much of their traditional game gone, the Selk'nam, who lacked any concept of private property, turned to hunting the sheep, which seemed like substitute game to them. Ranchers retaliated by hiring mercenaries to exterminate local tribes. Despite the efforts of missionaries, the Selk'nam quickly disappeared under the onslaught. By 1974, not a single full-blooded Selk'nam was left on the Earth. Their unique culture died with them. (For more on the Selk'nam's lost masking traditions, see Anne Chapman, Hain: Initiation Ceremony of the Selknam of Tierra del Fuego (Ushuaia, Argentina: Zagier & Urruty, 2008)).

Colonialism was not the only source of decline for early masking traditions. In many cases, the ebb and flow of civilizations has resulted in the extinction of societies that existed as independent political entities. Their cultural traditions have disappeared with them. It is likely, for example, that the peoples of East-Central Asia had developed diverse masking traditions before becoming engulfed in the great Mongol Empire under the leadership of Genghis Khan in the 12th century.

The great Abbasid Arab expansion in the eighth through thirteenth centuries, and Ottoman Turk Empire of the fourteenth until 1924, tended to spread Islam across the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa. Late medieval Islamic warriors sometimes wore protective masks that included elaborate decoration. However, Islamic doctrine has generally been interpreted to prohibit figural art representing human beings or animals. The result is that folk masking traditions have largely been stamped out, especially those in which the mask represents gods or spirits. The main exception has been the niqab or burqa worn by Arab women to cover their faces, which is sometimes modestly decorative, as some batula attest. However, properly speaking, the niqab and burqa are not masks but veils; as their purpose is the systematic subordination of women rather than use in cultural rituals.

More recently, the Cultural Revolution in China (1966-76) attempted to eliminate the cultural traditions of Chinese peoples in the service of national unity under a strictly pragmatic Communist ideology. Classic artifacts such as masks used in Nuo cultural drama were destroyed as "counterrevolutionary," and performances were met with draconian punishments. The Soviet Union also demonized Slavic cultural masking traditions on the same basis from the era of Stalin until its dissolution in 1990.

Even when the cultural identity of the society survives intact, intercultural contact has sometimes had a deleterious effect on masking traditions. The Polynesian warriors of Hawaii, for example, were known to wear protective and decorative war masks made of gourds and plant fibers, but these were abandoned after widespread conversion of the islanders to Christianity. Christianity discouraged many cultural traditions, and the adoption of firearms and steel weapons rendered the old protections ineffective in any case.

Fortunately, some tribal masking traditions have survived contact with more technologically advanced invaders. The Hopi, Zuñi, Diné (Navajo) and Apache nations of the American southwest, for example, have all preserved their traditions in the face of overwhelming pressures to conform to the customs of colonizers. Unfortunately, the Museum is unable to educate the public about some of these traditions, as tribal leaders have forbidden images of masked dancers, who are considered sacred when they don the uniform and mask. Tribal masquerading traditions continue in Africa, Central Asia, and the Melanesian islands of the South Pacific as well, relatively little discouraged by colonization or religion indoctrination.

Masks in the ancient world.

The ancient Greeks and Romans used masks primarily for dramatic performances and entertainment. The early Greek and Roman masks exaggerated the features of the actors so that large audiences could see them clearly, and frequently the mouth had a cone-like shape, like a megaphone, to project the actor's voice to the upper reaches of the amphitheater. It is thought that some masks even had brass lining in the mouth to further channel and project the voice.

Many Greek and Roman tragedies have miraculously survived the ages, so that they can be read today in substantially the form that ancient actors would have seen them. They notably lack stage directions and costume notes, but we know from first-hand third-party descriptions, engravings, cameos, sculptures, bas-reliefs, and other depictions that actors frequently wore masks. It is likely that the earliest masks were crudely made of tree bark, but as mask-making skills increased, they were made of shaped leather with a cloth backing. They would have fitted tightly over the face, except the megaphonic mouth portion, and probably attached with leather straps. The inability of the actors to communicate with facial expression had to be compensated by bodily gestures and tone of vocal inflection.

It is also known that, some time during the Roman Empire, scripted tragedies and comedies of the Greek kind began to be supplemented by improvisational pieces, which rapidly became popular with aristocrats because of their ability to deliver topical commentary on the issues of the day, and to make reference to recent political events. Naturally, this also made the actors the target of potential censorship and repression. The masks may have hid their faces, but their identities were well known.

Ancient Asia also seems to have developed masking traditions, initially for religious and ceremonial purposes, but evolving into entertainment. In ancient Japan, Shinto monks created elaborate masked dance rituals known as kagura, a form of ritualized prayer with elements of dance and music. With the influence of Buddhism, monks in the early medieval era adapted kagura into new forms of dance dramas, gigaku and bugaku, which unfortunately did not wholly survive intact the trials of time. They did, however, form the basis of modern Noh theatre. In China, early masked rituals were used to drive away evil and disease and pray for blessings from the gods. These, too, morphed into masked theater, known as Nuo, that influenced Japanese theater styles, as the close similarity of the names suggests.

Masks in the Medieval and Renaissance Eras.

In medieval Europe and Asia, masquerade continued to play an important role as entertainment and in promoting cultural solidarity. Chinese and Japanese medieval dramatic masked plays, frequently accompanied by music, developed from their early origins in religious rituals invoking the blessings of the gods into the modern Nuo (China) and Noh (Japan) drama, which has not greatly changed in hundreds of years.

In Europe, although some ancient masking traditions continued, they were transformed by the spread of Christianity. Catholic veneers frequently covered over ancient, pre-Christian pagan masked rituals, with the timing of the rituals adjusted to coincide with major Christian holidays or, when the fit was poor, a holiday in honor of a saint was conveniently made to coincide with the ancient rite. Carnival was one such tradition, and it is well known that Carnival masks of various kinds were worn during the medieval ages. Masks might represent old women, doctors, young lovers, nobles, beggars, foreigners, or characters from the theater entertainment known as Commedia dell'Arte.

Commedia was the successor to Roman theater, masked like its predecessor but having little else in common. Like Roman masks, the Renaissance masks were made of leather lined with cloth, although due to the superiority of later craftsmen, the leather was no doubt thinner and the cloth linen. The Commedia plays were only very loosely scripted, with most of the dialogue invented improvisationally by the actors. It was invented in Italy in the 17th century, but it rapidly became popular throughout Europe, as Italian troupes visited major cities to the north and west, and local imitators and adapters sprouted in France, Germany, and elsewhere to perform the plays in the native language. For some three hundred years, the Commedia reigned as a major form of entertainment in Europe.

Although not every character in the Commedia used a mask, most of the stock male characters did. The masks ensured that the characters-Pulcinella, Il Capitano, Brighella, Arlecchino, Pantaloon, etc.-would be instantly recognizable to the audience, regardless of what actor wore them. Women, in contrast, either went bare-faced or wore a velvet half-mask, as Renaissance women frequently did in real life, to protect their faces from the sun.

Because the Commedia was improvisational, like some later Roman theater, it lent itself to political commentary. In attempting to appeal to the masses, it also tended toward the bawdy. This led European religious authorities to attempt to ban it in many places at many times, but never with lasting success. The Commedia 's ultimate demise came from changing tastes rather than religious zealotry. But the masked characters survive in Venetian Carnival, where they remain popular even today.

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Cultural masks are known to have been worn long before human beings developed written language. Many types of masquerade used by preliterate societies have disappeared from history, frequently along with the societies themselves. In many cases, only archaeological fragments, drawings, or photographs remain to tell us what the masks looked like and give a sense of how the societies used them.