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Unleash your creativity with the world’s best virtual manipulatives!

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Free, Online Crossword Puzzle Maker - Crossword Labs

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Make crossword puzzles, print them out as PDFs, share them, and solve them online with Crossword Labs. It’s free, fast and easy. No registration required!

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Games

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Dictionary.com | Meanings & Definitions of English Words

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The world's leading online dictionary: English definitions, synonyms, word origins, example sentences, word games, and more. A trusted authority for 25+ years!

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Upgrade your downtime with full access to The Crossword, The Mini, Spelling Bee and more.

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Tá leabhar saothair ag gabháil le cuid de na húrscéalta do na hardranganna. Féadfaidh tú cliceáil ar an nasc Áiseanna Breise Ranga chun teacht orthu.

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Fáilte go dtí Foclóir Nua Béarla-Gaeilge Fhoras na Gaeilge. Tuilleadh eolais...

Concise English-Irish Dictionary ar fáil anois!

Tá Concise English-Irish Dictionary, ár bhfoclóir clóite úrnua ar fáil anois. Le haghaidh tuilleadh eolais, cliceáil anseo.

Faigh an aip saor in aisce!

Tá aip an Fhoclóra Nua Béarla-Gaeilge ar fáil saor in aisce ar ghléasanna Apple agus Android araon. Cliceáil ar na híomhánna thíos chun í a fháil. Breis eolais...

An bhfuil ár gcainéal YouTube feicthe agat?

Tá réimse leathan físeán ar YouTube againn a chabhraíonn le húsáideoirí an tairbhe is mó a bhaint as an bhfoclóir. Is féidir féachaint ar fhíseáin treorach maidir leis na comhaid fuaime agus na comhaid ghramadaí, i measc áiseanna eile, anseo.

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An Foclóir Nua Béarla-Gaeilge, Foras na Gaeilge

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Fáilte go dtí Foclóir Nua Béarla-Gaeilge Fhoras na Gaeilge. Tuilleadh eolais... Tá Concise English-Irish Dictionary, ár bhfoclóir clóite úrnua ar fáil anois. Le haghaidh tuilleadh eolais, cliceáil anseo. Tá aip an Fhoclóra Nua Béarla-Gaeilge ar fáil saor in aisce ar ghléasanna Apple agus Android araon. Cliceáil ar na híomhánna thíos chun í a fháil.

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Match Fractions Decimals and Percentages

Match the equivalent fractions, decimals and percentages. Alternatively, you can choose to convert between just fractions and decimals, or between fractions and percentages or decimals and percentages. Diagrams to show equivalence can be turned on or off.
For more resources involving fractions and decimals click here.

Scan to open this game on a mobile device. Right-click to copy and paste it onto a homework sheet.

Game Objectives

New Maths Curriculum:
Year 5: Read, write, order and compare numbers with up to three decimal places Year 5: Solve problems which require knowing percentage and decimal equivalents of 1/2, 1/4, 1/5, 2/5, 4/5 and those with a denominator of a multiple of 10 or 25. Year 6: Recall and use equivalences between simple fractions, decimals and percentages, including in different contexts.
Primary Framework:
Year 4: Recognise the equivalence between decimal and fraction forms of one half, quarters, tenths and hundredths (Block E) Year 5: Express a smaller whole number as a fraction of a larger one (e.g. recognise that 5 out of 8 is 5/8); find equivalent fractions (e.g. 7/10 = 14/20, or 19/10 = 19/10); relate fractions to their decimal representations Year 6: Express one quantity as a percentage of another find equivalent percentages, decimals and fractions (Block E)

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Match Fractions Decimals and Percentages - Mathsframe

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Match Fractions Decimals and Percentages

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Use the interactivity to investigate tessellations. You can also find the interactivity on our GeoGebra page.

To get started, click "show" to see the instructions, or watch our introductory video.

Choose a polygon from the toolbar at the top of the interactivity.

Click on any two points on the "canvas" to create your first polygon.

Select the arrow tool and move either of the two points to rotate and/or resize your polygon.

You can add more shapes by selecting a polygon tool and clicking any two points.

If you want your shapes to join together, click on existing points - the new shape is always drawn in an anti-clockwise direction from the first point you choose.

To delete a polygon or point, select the dustbin tool and click on the object to be deleted.

If you want to draw a polygon with more than 8 sides click on the octagon to access the rest of the available polygons.

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Use the interactivity to investigate tessellations. You can also find the interactivity on our GeoGebra page.

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Set up the division problem with the long division symbol or the long division bracket.

Put 487, the dividend, on the inside of the bracket. The dividend is the number you're dividing.
Put 32, the divisor, on the outside of the bracket. The divisor is the number you're dividing by.

Put the 0 on top of the division bracket.
This is the beginning of the quotient answer.

Next, multiply 0 by the divisor 32 and insert the result 0 below the first number of the dividend inside the bracket.

0 * 32 = 0

Bring down the next number of the dividend and insert it after the 4 so you have 48.

Divide 48 by the divisor, 32. The answer is 1. You can ignore the remainder for now.

48 ÷ 32 = 1

Note that you could skip all of the previous steps with zeros and jump straight to this step. You just need to realize how many digits in the dividend you need to skip over to get your first non-zero value in the quotient answer. In this case you could divide 32 into 48 straight away.

Bring down the next number from the dividend and insert it after the 16 so you have 167.

Since 7 is less than 32 your long division is done. You have your answer: The quotient is 15 and the remainder is 7.

So, 487 ÷ 32 = 15 with a remainder of 7

For longer dividends, you would continue repeating the division and multiplication steps until you bring down every digit from the divdend and solve the problem.

Last updated: October 19, 2023

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Long Division Calculator with Remainders

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Long division with remainders showing the work step-by-step. Calculate quotient and remainder and see the work when dividing divisor into dividend in long division. References for how to do long division.

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Get the bones for MathPup without letting Blocky, the monster, get MathPup in this fun fraction to percent game. Just convert the given fraction to percent and guide MathPup to the block containing that percent to get a bone. No time limit but be alert as even though the monster moves slowly the monster is always on the move.

On each level you need to start out by finding the block containing the percent equal to the given fraction. After that you'll need to get MathPup to that block and double click/tap that block. Move MathPup by clicking on one of the hightlighted blocks that is adjacent to MathPup. Each level starts with 3 lives represented by heart icons. You'll lose a life by clicking on the wrong answer. It is game over if you run out of lives or the monster gets MathPup. Click the Video button on the main menu to see a video on how to play this game.

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MathPup Hop Fraction to Percent Beginner

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Get the bones for MathPup without letting Blocky, the monster, get MathPup in this fun fraction to percent game. Just convert the given fraction to percent and guide MathPup to the block containing that percent to get a bone. No time limit but be alert as even though the monster moves slowly the monster is always on the move.

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It's important to check you've been given the right change when you go shopping - this game makes it fun! Spot the right amount as it pops up behind different doors, then click on it before it disappears again.

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The Money Change Game | Online Money Games | MoneySense

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Introduce your child to the Change Game. Make money learning fun and teach them to check their change with this free and fun interactive activity.

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Solve 2 Step Money Problems

Scan to open this game on a mobile device. Right-click to copy and paste it onto a homework sheet.

Game Objectives

New Maths Curriculum: Year 3: Solve problems, including missing number problems, using number facts, place value, and more complex addition and subtraction Year 4: Solve addition and subtraction two-step problems in contexts, deciding which operations and methods to use and why. Year 5: Solve addition and subtraction multi-step problems in contexts, deciding which operations and methods to use and why KS2 Primary Framework: Year 3: Solve one-step and two-step problems involving numbers, money or measures, including time, choosing and carrying out appropriate calculations Year 4: Solve one-step and two-step problems involving numbers, money or measures, including time; choose and carry out appropriate calculations, using calculator methods where appropriate Year 5: Solve one-step and two-step problems involving whole numbers and decimals and all four operations, choosing and using appropriate calculation strategies, including calculator use

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Scan to open this game on a mobile device. Right-click to copy and paste it onto a homework sheet. New Maths Curriculum: Year 3: Solve problems, including missing number problems, using number facts, place value, and more complex addition and subtraction Year 4: Solve addition and subtraction two-step problems in contexts, deciding which operations and methods to use and why.

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Tá leabhar saothair ag gabháil le cuid de na húrscéalta do na hardranganna. Féadfaidh tú cliceáil ar an nasc Áiseanna Breise Ranga chun teacht orthu.

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Free fun maths games can help children's understanding of fractions and decimals. They cover a range of skills from identifying basic fractions of shapes and numbers of objects to ordering fractions and converting fractions to decimals or percentages. There are also games involving finding equivalences and cancelling down.

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Free maths games involving fractions and decimals for 7-11 year old children.

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In 2000 a Swiss foundation launched a campaign to determine the New Seven Wonders of the World. Given that the original Seven Wonders list was compiled in the 2nd century BCE-and that only one entrant is still standing (the Pyramids of Giza)-it seemed time for an update. And people around the world apparently agreed, as more than 100 million votes were cast on the Internet or by text messaging. The final results, which were announced in 2007, were met with cheers as well as some jeers-a number of prominent contenders, such as Athens's Acropolis, failed to make the cut. Do you agree with the new list?

Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu, Peru© Digital Vision/Getty Images

This Incan site near Cuzco, Peru, was "discovered" in 1911 by Hiram Bingham, who believed it was Vilcabamba, a secret Incan stronghold used during the 16th-century rebellion against Spanish rule. Although that claim was later disproved, the purpose of Machu Picchu has confounded scholars. Bingham believed it was home to the " Virgins of the Sun," women who lived in convents under a vow of chastity. Others think that it was likely a pilgrimage site, while some believe it was a royal retreat. (One thing it apparently should not be is the site of a beer commercial. In 2000 a crane being used for such an ad fell and cracked a monument.) What is known is that Machu Picchu is one of the few major pre-Columbian ruins found nearly intact. Despite its relative isolation high in the Andes Mountains, it features agricultural terraces, plazas, residential areas, and temples.

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This Encyclopedia Britannica History list explores the New Seven Wonders of the World.

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List of possible 8th wonders of the world

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List of possible 8th wonders of the world

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The 200 manmade and natural wonders to be covered by the Wonders of the World podcast

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Sugar, Sugar is a simulation game created by Bart Bonte. Solve puzzles by sifting the sugar into coffee cups! Your job is to draw bridges and well-placed lines to capture each grain. Every level will have a new, sweet challenge, and the obstacles get harder as the game progresses. Concentrate to reach every granular objective!

How to play:

Use your left mouse button or finger to draw a line, and fill up the cups. This line will act as a wall or barrier to keep the sugar from falling outside the desired area.

About the creator:

Sugar, Sugar was created by Bart Bonte. Play their other games on Poki: Blue, Green and Factory Balls Forever.

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Sugar, Sugar is a simulation game created by Bart Bonte. Solve puzzles by sifting the sugar into coffee cups! Your job is to draw bridges and well-placed lines to capture each grain. Every level will have a new, sweet challenge, and the obstacles get harder as the game progresses.

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Use your geography knowledge to figure out the mystery country in as few guesses as possible!

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MathNook Rounding Games | Practice and reinforce your number rounding skills with our math games.

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A listing of all of MathNook's cool free rounding math games that play on all devices.

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The ancient Greeks loved competitions and they loved to brag. To be fair, they had a great deal to brag about. The ancient Greeks gave us many gifts - the Olympics, democracy, the theatre, comedy, tragedy, the wheelbarrow, the alphabet, advances in medicine and science, architectural wonders like the ancient Greek columns, incredible myths, tales of legends, heroes, and fables, to name a few. Theirs was a culture envied and copied by other ancient civilizations. Come meet the ancient Greeks. Learn how the brave ancient Greek hero Theseus escaped the maze! Meet the god Apollo's Oracle, where things are not always as they seem. Argue with Socrates, the great teacher. Read Aesop's fables, a collection of very short stories that are still popular today. Play interactive games about ancient Greece.

But first, a little background: Over two thousand five hundred (2,500+) years ago, ancient Greece was made up of many hundreds of Greek city-states, grouped together at the southern end of a very large peninsula that jutted out from Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. Smaller peninsulas stuck out from the main Greek peninsula, forming a great deal of natural coastline and many natural harbors. It's no wonder the Greeks were great sailors and fishermen!

A huge mountain range ran down the middle of the Greek peninsula. The people believed that the ancient Greek mystical world was ruled by a small group of powerful gods called the 12 Olympians who lived at the top of the highest mountain, Mount Olympus. Although you could try to climb to the top, you'd never make it because the top of Mount Olympus was hidden in fog and snow and magic. When things had to be decided in the mythical world, the council of 12 gods met on Mount Olympus to discuss things, which was a very Greek thing to do - talk it over first, and then either sign a legally binding document with agreed upon terms, go to war, or get even! That was the Greek way of doing things.

The Greeks told wonderful myths about their gods. Poseidon, lord of the sea, could raise his hand and a new island would appear! Apollo brought up the sun every day, and his twin sister Artemis brought up the moon. Most of the gods avoided Ares. Nobody liked him much, not even his father, the mighty Zeus, but Ares was the god of war, so you had to keep him on your side if you could. Speaking of the mighty Zeus, king of all the gods, Zeus probably caused more trouble than any of them, even more than Aphrodite, the goddess of love. The Greeks did not limit their myths to stories about the 12 powerful Olympians. They told stories about all the gods and goddesses and the magical, mythical creatures in which they believed.

Many of their mythical beings looked like people, but some looked like monsters, because, well .. they were! Fortunately, the ancient Greeks found a way to beat monsters, nearly always with trickery and cleverness, two skills that were greatly admired by the ancient Greeks.

Ancient Greece was not a country. It was not an empire. It was a collection of over 1500 independent city-states (little itty bitty to great big sprawling villages and towns.) At one point, there were over 2,500 ancient Greek city-states on one peninsula, but some of them were taken over by another ancient Greek city-state, and some combined for safety. There was no central government, no central army, and no king or queen of ancient Greece that ruled all the city-states. Rather, each city-state had its own form of government with the power to rule only that city-state, and each city-state had its own way of doing things. Some city-states, like ancient Corinth, were ruled by kings, but each king only ruled that particular city-state. Some, like the warrior city-state of Sparta, were ruled by councils. Ancient Athens, the jewel of the ancient Greek city-states, experimented with an early form of democracy.

As varied as they were in the way they governed themselves, when it came to culture and beliefs, the ancient Greek people had a great deal in common. The ancient Greeks spoke the same language. They worshiped the same gods. They told the same myths. They believed in beauty and honor. The ancient Greeks were very loyal to their city-state. But because of their common culture, they also recognized themselves as Greeks.

The ancient Greek city-states did, on occasion, team up against a common foe. They also went to war with each other, unless the ancient Olympic Games were in progress . The Greeks invented the Olympics, and took the event quite seriously. Nearly all the ancient Greek city-states sent teams to participate. If two or more Greek city-states happen to be at war with each other when the game date arrived, war was halted for the duration of the games. The Greek Olympics were not the only games in ancient Greece - the Greeks loved competition of all sorts - but the Olympics were the most important. Every city-state wanted to brag that their athletics (their statues, their theatre, their fabrics) were the best!

Welcome to Ancient Greece!

Ancient Greek Gods & Goddesses

Ancient Greek Mythical Monsters

Ancient Greek Myths - retold by Lin Donn Here are some of them:
Zeus, Hera, and Little Io The Competition, Athena and Poseidon Theseus, the Minotaur, and the Maze Dionysus and Ariadne Hades, Zeus, and the King of Corinth Icarus and Daedalus, Wings Baby Hercules &
The 12 Labors of Hercules Demeter and Persephone, Reason for the Seasons Apollo's Oracle at Delphi Apollo and Cassandra
The Magic Rocks - a myth about Ares, the god of war
Perseus, Andromeda, and the sea god, Poseidon Orpheus and Eurydice Eros & Psyche Aphrodite and the Trojan War
Prometheus and the Gift of Fire

Pandora's Box
Zeus and the Great Flood Zeus, Helios & Phaethon Three Tales of Echo - Hera, Narcissus, and Pan King Midas and the Golden Touch King Midas and the Donkey Ears Story of the Just Plain Rotten King Tantalus
Artemis and the Deer Hunter
Hermes & Apollo (cartoon PowerPoint, how Apollo got his lyre)Hades and the River Styx Greek Monster Myths Perseus and Medusa The Cyclops Cave & The Sirens The Truth About Myths
Ancient Greek Gods by name and powers

And More:

Worship, Temples, Sacred Sites

Acropolis & Parthenon

Greek Legends
Greek Fables
Gifts from the Greeks:

Free Interactive Games for Ancient Greece

Free PowerPoints about Ancient Greece

Mr. Donn's Interactive Free Quizzes with answers - TEST YOURSELF

For Teachers

Free Lesson Plans and Units for Teachers

Free Classroom Activities and Projects

Investigate Real Life Artifacts

Other Ancients

Explore other ancient cultures

Online interactive free games

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Ancient Greece for Kids - City-States, Gods, Goddesses, Myths, Daily Life, Inventions, Geography, Achievements, and more - Ancient Greece for Kids

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The ancient Greeks loved competitions and they loved to brag. To be fair, they had a great deal to brag about. The ancient Greeks gave us many gifts - the Olympics, democracy, the theatre, comedy, tragedy, the wheelbarrow, the alphabet, advances in medicine and science, architectural wonders like the ancient Greek columns, incredible myths, tales of legends, heroes, and fables, to name a few.

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Reading Eggs | Where Children Learn to Read Online

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Interactive Resources

Click one of the class levels below to explore the units.

Junior Infants

Log in Trial

Senior Infants

Log in Trial

First Class

Log in Trial

Second Class

Log in Trial

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Let's Discover! - History - Geography - Science

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Let's Discover! - History - Geography - Science

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An interactive polyhedra viewer and manipulator

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Mr. Grinch Lyrics performed by Thurl Ravenscroft

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Explore, play and learn with Santa's elves all December long

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Someone Like Me Competition – Art Competition

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SomeoneLikeMe is an Art Competition which promotes disability awareness among primary school pupils.

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You might know the name Van Gogh, but do you know who he really was?

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Fun Van Gogh inspired art activities for children of all ages!

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Milano Cortina 2026 Winter Olympics - Latest News, Schedules & Result

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Welcome to the Milano Cortina 2026 Winter Olympic Games website. Follow the world’s top athletes as they go for gold in Italy (Feb 6 - 22, 2026).

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An Bunachar Náisiúnta Téarmaíochta don Ghaeilge · The National Terminology Database for Irish

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Free fun numeracy games suitable for use by Key Stage 2 children either in school or the home. This collection is based on measuring activities such as clock games, measuring capacity and lengths. The time games are progressive in difficulty.

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Free fun numeracy games suitable for use by Key Stage 2 children either in school or the home. This collection is based on measuring activities such as clock games, measuring capacity and lengths. The time games are progressive in difficulty.

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Enter the Code to Join & Vote on a Presentation - Mentimeter

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Enter the code from the Mentimeter presentation to join in and start voting. Make your voice heard!

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The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland took place during the late 12th century, when Anglo-Normans gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land from the Irish, over which the kings of England then claimed sovereignty, all allegedly sanctioned by the papal bull Laudabiliter. At the time, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King claiming lordship over most of the other kings. The Norman invasion was a watershed in Ireland's history, marking the beginning of more than 800 years of direct English and, later, British, conquest and colonialism in Ireland.

In May 1169, Anglo-Norman mercenaries landed in Ireland at the request of Diarmait mac Murchada (Dermot MacMurragh), the deposed King of Leinster, who sought their help in regaining his kingship. They achieved this within weeks and raided neighbouring kingdoms. This military intervention was sanctioned by King Henry II of England. In return, Diarmait had sworn loyalty to Henry and promised land to the Normans.

The 1175 Treaty of Windsor acknowledged Henry as overlord of the conquered territory and Ruaidrí as overlord of the remainder of Ireland, with Ruaidrí also swearing fealty to Henry. The Treaty soon collapsed: Norman lords continued to invade Irish kingdoms and the Irish continued to attack the Normans. In 1177, Henry adopted a new policy. He declared his son John to be the "Lord of Ireland" (i.e. claiming the whole island) and authorised the Norman lords to conquer more land. The territory they held became the Lordship of Ireland, part of the Angevin Empire. The Normans' success has been attributed to military superiority and castle-building, the lack of a unified opposition from the Irish and the support of the church for Henry's intervention.

Background

In the 12th century, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several over-kingdoms, which each comprised several lesser kingdoms. At the top was the High King, who received tribute from the other kings but did not rule Ireland as a unitary state, though it had a common culture and legal system. The five port towns of Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick were inhabited by the Norse-Irish and had their own rulers.

Early Norman designs and contacts

It is thought that the Dublin-Leinster army in the 1014 Battle of Clontarf may have included troops from the Duchy of Normandy.

After the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, the Normans became aware of the role Ireland played in providing refuge and assistance to their enemies. They also contemplated the conquest of Ireland. It is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that if William the Conqueror had lived for two more years (until 1089) "he would have conquered Ireland by his prudence and without any weapons". William's son, William II, is stated as having said "For the conquest of this land, I will gather all the ships of my kingdom, and will make of them a bridge to cross over".

There were contacts between the Irish and Normans well before 1169. The Norman lord of Pembroke, Arnulf de Montgomery (d. 1118-22), was the son-in-law of Murtough O'Brien (d. 1119), king of Munster and High King of Ireland. De Montgomery and his family had rebelled against Henry I in 1100 and sought Irish aid. De Montgomery married O'Brien's daughter and obtained the assistance of his fleet, but was still forced to flee to Ireland in 1102. Orderic Vitalis' account says De Montgomery used his troops to aid O'Brien in Ireland and hoping to succeed his father-in-law as king, but had to flee after his hosts turned against him. William of Malmesbury states it was only after the Normans imposed a trade embargo on Ireland that the situation died down and the O'Brien-de Montgomery alliance ended.

Norman-Leinster alliance

From at least 1144, the king of Leinster, Dermot MacMurrough, had been on good terms with the future Henry II. After becoming king of England in December 1154, Henry II had allied with Somerled, Lord of Argyll, and Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn, king of the Cenél nEógain, to put pressure on the new king of Scotland, Malcolm IV. The fruits of this alliance saw Malcolm cede parts of Scotland to England in 1157 and make peace with Somerled in 1160. In Ireland, Mac Lochlainn invaded the Kingdom of Breifne, forced the submission Rory O'Connor, king of Connacht, and in 1161 gave MacMurrough eastern Meath.

For six months in 1165, the fleet of Dublin, which was under the control of Dermot MacMurrough, was used to aid Henry II's forces in an abortive campaign in north Wales.

Role of the church

At the Synod of Kells, the church of Canterbury had its claims to primacy over the Irish church dismissed by Pope Eugene III, who felt the Irish church could handle its own affairs. This did not go down well with the Anglo-Norman clergy. In 1155 John of Salisbury, Secretary to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and good friends with the recently elected Anglo-Norman Pope Adrian IV, made an "extraordinary intervention" at the Roman Curia. He called for Norman involvement in Ireland to reform its "barbaric and impious" people. This resulted in the papal bull Laudabiliter, or an equivalent, which purported to grant Henry II papal authority to intervene in Ireland, such as by conquest. Salisbury had been inspired in his views on the Irish by the "Life of Malachy", written by Malachy's friend, Bernard of Clairvaux. This hagiography, written within a year of Malachy's death in 1148, depicted the Irish, in fact highly Christianised, in exaggerated terms as barbaric, semi-pagan and in need of reform. Historian F. X. Martin writes that Ireland was "barbaric" in Bernard's eyes because it "had retained its own culture and had remained outside the Latin secular world". This depiction of Ireland and the Irish became established as the mainstream view throughout Europe.

Landings of 1169

Several Marcher Lords agreed to help: Richard FitzGilbert de Clare (also known as Strongbow), Robert FitzStephen, Maurice FitzGerald, and Maurice de Prendergast. Diarmait promised Strongbow his daughter Aífe in marriage and the kingship of Leinster upon Diarmait's death. He promised Robert and Maurice the town of Wexford and two neighbouring cantreds. Under Irish law, Diarmait had no right to do this. Having secured their help, he returned to his home territory of Uí Ceinnselaig (Hy Kinsella) in 1167 with one knight, Richard FitzGodebert, and a small number of soldiers. He smoothly resumed power as chief and awaited the arrival of his allies. King Ruaidrí and Tigernán confronted him with a small force and there was a skirmish at Killistown. Diarmait gave hostages to Ruaidrí and a hundred ounces of gold to Tigernán, and FitzGodebert left Ireland.

Arrival of Strongbow in 1170

By 1170, Strongbow appears to have been funded financially for his invasion by a Jewish merchant by the name of Josce of Gloucester: "Josce, Jew of Gloucester, owes 100 shillings for an amerciament for the moneys which he lent to those who against the king's prohibition went over to Ireland." In May of that year, Raymond FitzGerald landed at Bannow Bay with at least 10 knights and 70 archers. This was the advance guard for Strongbow's army and was to be the springboard for an assault on Waterford. Raymond's force occupied an old promontory fort at Baginbun and plundered the surrounding countryside. They were then besieged by a much larger force of Irish and Norse-Irish. The outnumbered Anglo-Normans drove a large herd of cattle into the opposing army. In the ensuing havoc, the Normans routed the besiegers, killing up to 500 and capturing 70. These captives were then executed: the Normans broke their limbs before beheading them and throwing their bodies off the cliff.

On 23 August, Strongbow landed at Passage with at least 200 knights and 1,000 soldiers. They met with Raymond's force and assaulted Waterford. The walls were eventually breached and there followed fierce fighting in the streets, in which 700 defenders were killed. Diarmait and the other Norman commanders then arrived in Waterford, where Strongbow married Diarmait's daughter, Aífe.

The Normans and Diarmait held a council of war at Waterford and agreed to take Dublin. High King Ruaidrí encamped a large army near Dublin to intercept them. As well as troops from Connacht, it included troops from Breffny (led by King Tigernán), Meath (led by King Máel Sechlainn), and Oriel (led by King Murchad Ua Cerbaill). The Normans and Diarmait bypassed them by travelling over the Wicklow Mountains, forcing Ruaidrí's army to abandon their plans.

When they reached Dublin, Diarmait began negotiations with its king, Ascall mac Ragnaill (Ascall MacRannall). On 21 September, while talks were ongoing, a force of Normans-led by Miles de Cogan and Raymond FitzGerald-stormed the town and took it. Ascall and his followers fled in their ships but vowed to re-take the town. Strongbow and Diarmait then launched "a devastating campaign" through Meath and into Breffny, burning Clonard, Kells, and several other monastic towns. In response to these violations of the Ferns agreement, Ruaidrí executed three hostages, including Diarmait's son.

Diarmait returned to Ferns and died there suddenly in May 1171. Strongbow then claimed Leinster, as Diarmait had promised Strongbow he would inherit the kingdom upon his death, as his son-in-law through Aífe. However, Strongbow would not have been deemed Diarmait's heir under either Irish or English law, with Diarmait having two wives, as well as sons and other daughters. It is suggested that Strongbow's succession was justified in English law by having Aífe's mother deemed to be his only legitimate wife, leaving Aífe as his only legitimate heir. Furthermore, Strongbow's succession was not justified in Irish law, as succession to kingship was elective, and could only be passed on through the male line. Diarmait's son Domnall Cáemánach (Donal Cavanagh) backed Strongbow, perhaps because he felt it gave his family their best chance of holding on to power. Strongbow gave Domnall jurisdiction over his Irish subjects in most of Leinster.

Irish counteroffensive of 1171

Shortly after Diarmait's death, the Anglo-Normans came under attack, both from within Leinster and from outside. Diarmait was succeeded as ruler of Uí Ceinnselaig (his home territory) by his brother Murchad, who opposed Strongbow along with other Leinster rulers. The Irish of Desmond launched a devastating attack on Norman-held Waterford. At about the same time, a Norse-Gaelic army, in a fleet of at least 60 ships, landed outside Dublin. Led by Ascall, they tried to re-take the town, but were repulsed by de Cogan's forces. Ascall was captured and publicly executed.

With Dublin and Carrick under siege, Strongbow and his council agreed to negotiate. Strongbow proposed that if the Anglo-Normans were allowed to keep what they had conquered, they would acknowledge Ruaidrí as their overlord. Ruaidrí responded that he would only allow the Normans to keep Dublin, Wexford, and Waterford. This was unacceptable to Strongbow. A Norman sortie slipped out of Dublin and made a surprise attack on Ruaidrí's camp at Castleknock. The Normans killed hundreds of soldiers, many of whom were resting or bathing, and seized supplies. Following this defeat, the Irish army withdrew. In the meantime, FitzStephen had surrendered to the Norse-Irish at Carrick. When they learned that Strongbow was on his way, they burnt Wexford and withdrew to a nearby island with FitzStephen as a hostage.

Arrival of Henry II in 1171

King Henry apparently feared that Strongbow would set up an independent kingdom in Ireland, which could control the Irish Sea and interfere in English affairs. In early 1171, Henry ordered that his subjects return to his realm or all their possessions would be seized. Strongbow reminded Henry that he had gone to Ireland with Henry's permission, to restore Diarmait to the kingship, and that whatever he had gained in Ireland was "by the grace and favour of Henry, and was at his disposal". In July, before the siege of Dublin, Henry granted Strongbow most of the land he had gained and honored him with the post of "royal constable in Ireland".

By September 1171, Henry had decided to lead a military expedition to Ireland, and summoned Strongbow to meet him at Pembroke while the army was assembling. The Song of Dermot and the Earl recounts that the meeting was friendly, while Gerald of Wales pictures the king's anger gradually subsiding until a friendly agreement was reached. Strongbow's actions may have been only a catalyst for Henry's intervention. Historian Peter Crooks writes that, "No less than his predecessors, Henry II was happy to add Ireland to his empire." An English historian of the time, William of Newburgh, wrote that Henry wanted to have "the glory of such a famous conquest" and its proceeds for himself.

On 17 October 1171, King Henry landed at Waterford with a large army of at least 500 mounted knights and 4,000 men-at-arms and archers. Several siege towers were also shipped over, should he need to assault the Norman-held towns, or others such as Cork and Limerick. This was the first time a reigning King of England had set foot on Irish soil, and marked the beginning of England's claim to sovereignty in Ireland. Henry led his army to Lismore, the site of an important monastery, and chose the site for a castle. He then moved on to Cashel, which he had in mind as the venue for a church council. Henry then led his army to Dublin.

The Norman lords affirmed their loyalty to Henry and handed over the territory they had conquered to him. He let Strongbow hold Leinster in fief and declared Dublin, Wexford and Waterford to be crown land. Fifteen Irish kings and chiefs submitted to Henry, likely in the hope that he would curb unprovoked Norman expansion into their territories. Those who did not submit included Ruaidrí (the High King and king of Connacht) and the kings of Meath and the Northern Uí Néill. Against this, the Annals of Tigernach stated that the kings' submissions to Henry II were in two stages; firstly in Waterford by the king of Desmond, and then in Dublin by the kings of Leinster, Meath, Breffny, Oriel and Ulster.

The Irish church hierarchy also submitted to Henry, believing his intervention would bring greater political stability. Henry "used the church as a vehicle of conquest". He organised the synod of Cashel, at which Irish church leaders acknowledged him as their "temporal overlord". This may have been due to their realisation that the Gregorian Reforms were not compatible with Gaelic society. Pope Adrian's successor, Pope Alexander III, sent letters to the Irish bishops, telling them to accept Henry as their overlord in accordance with the oaths sworn by its kings, or face ecclesiastical censure. He ratified the Laudabiliter and purported to give Henry dominion over Ireland, to ensure religious reform and ensure the Irish paid their tax to Rome. The synod sought to bring Irish church practices into line with those of England, and new monastic communities and military orders (such as the Templars) were introduced into Ireland.

Henry granted Meath to Hugh de Lacy; as that kingdom had not been conquered this meant that Henry would let de Lacy hold it if he could conquer it. In early 1172, Henry allowed de Lacy to take royal troops into Meath, where they plundered and burned the monastic towns of Fore and Killeigh. Henry also made Dublin available for the freemen of Bristol to colonise. Many of the Norse-Irish inhabitants were forced to re-settle outside the walls, at what became Oxmantown.

Henry left Ireland on 17 April 1172, setting sail from Wexford. Some English writers - such as William of Canterbury and Ralph Niger - condemned Henry's military intervention, describing it as an unlawful "hostile invasion" and "conquest". A poem in the Welsh Black Book of Carmarthen describes Henry "crossing the salt sea to invade the peaceful homesteads of Ireland", causing "war and confusion". Gerald de Barri felt obliged to refute what he called the "vociferous complaints that the kings of England hold Ireland unlawfully".

After Henry's departure

Shortly after Henry left Ireland, Hugh de Lacy invaded Meath and was confronted by Tigernán Ua Ruairc. The two leaders met on the Hill of Ward for negotiations. During these negotiations, there was a dispute, and de Lacy's men killed Ua Ruairc. His head was then impaled over the gate of Dublin Castle. Strongbow also invaded and plundered Offaly, but failed to subdue it.

In early 1173, many of the Anglo-Norman leaders left Ireland to fight for King Henry in the Revolt of 1173-74. When Raymond FitzGerald returned later that year, he led a successful plundering raid into the kingdom of the Déisi, by both land and sea - even though, as their king had submitted to Henry, the kingdom should have been exempt from attack. The Norman raid on the monastic town of Lismore was interrupted by a Norse-Irish fleet from Cork. After a naval engagement, the Normans withdrew to Waterford. FitzGerald then returned to Wales, due to the death of his father.

Norman power in Ireland seemed to be disintegrating, and in the words of Gerald de Barri, "the entire population of Ireland took the opportunity of this disorder to rise with one consent against the English". Shortly after the Norman defeat at Thurles, the Norse-Irish of Waterford rose up and killed the Norman garrison of 200 soldiers. Ruaidrí gathered an army that included contingents from Connacht, Meath, Breffny, Oriel, Ulster, and the Northern Uí Néill, along with their kings. It marched into Meath, destroying the castles at Trim and Duleek, before advancing on Dublin. Raymond FitzGerald landed at Wexford with at least 30 knights, 100 mounted soldiers and 300 archers. When this army arrived at Dublin and reinforced the garrison there, Ruaidrí's army withdrew.

In 1175, the Anglo-Normans rebuilt their castles in Meath and raided or "laid waste" the province from Athlone in the west to Drogheda in the east. They also hanged the Irish king of Meath, Magnus Ua Máel Sechlainn (Manus O'Melaghlin).

Treaty of Windsor and Council of Oxford

On 6 October 1175, Henry II of England and High King Ruaidrí agreed to the Treaty of Windsor. The treaty divided Ireland into two spheres of influence: Henry was acknowledged as overlord of the Norman-held territory, and Ruaidrí was acknowledged as overlord of the rest of Ireland. Ruaidrí also swore fealty to Henry and agreed to pay him a yearly tribute in cow hides, which Ruaidrí could levy from throughout his kingdom. A Connacht-based annalist reported the treaty in triumphal terms: "Cadla Ua Dubthaig [archbishop of Tuam] came out of England from [Henry] the son of the Empress, having with him the peace of Ireland, and the kingship thereof, both Foreigner and Gael, to Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair".

However, the Windsor Treaty soon fell apart. Henry was "unable or unwilling" to rein in the Anglo-Norman lords, and Ruaidrí was unable to control all of the Irish kings. Contemporary English historian William of Newburgh wrote that "the military commanders left there by him [Henry] for the government of this subjugated province, desirous either of booty or fame, by degrees extended the boundaries allotted to them". In April 1176, a large Anglo-Norman army from Dublin marched north into what is now County Armagh. This was part of Oriel, a kingdom meant to be free from encroachment under the treaty. However, the Irish of Oriel forced the Anglo-Normans to retreat and killed up to 500 of their soldiers. That summer, the forces of Oriel and the Northern Uí Néill, under Cenél nEógain (Kinel Owen), invaded Meath, led by King Mael Sechlainn Mac Lochlainn. They destroyed the castle at Slane and forced the Anglo-Normans to abandon Galtrim, Kells, and Derrypatrick.

Strongbow died in May 1176, and Henry appointed William FitzAldelm as his new representative in Ireland. He was replaced the following year by Hugh de Lacy.

In February 1177, John de Courcy left Dublin with a force of about 22 knights and 500 soldiers. De Courcy swiftly marched north, into the kingdom of Ulaid, and captured the town of Downpatrick. The Ulaid, led by king Ruaidrí Mac Duinnsléibe (Rory MacDunleavy), tried to re-take the town but were repelled after a fierce battle.

Over the following months, the Anglo-Normans invaded the kingdoms of Desmond, Thomond, and Connacht, while John de Courcy continued his conquest of east Ulster.

Cultural and economic effects

The arrival of the Normans altered the agricultural landscape of Ireland. Elements that appear afterwards include: large-scale hay-making; cultivated pears and cherries; larger white-fleeced breeds of sheep; and the introduction of various animals such as rabbits, perch, pike and carp.

Another economic effect was the widespread usage of coinage, originally introduced by the Vikings. In the late 1180s during John's lordship, the first Norman coins in Ireland were minted. Other mints operated in the major towns, with De Courcy in Ulster even minting coins in his own name.

Whether as a direct consequence of the arrival of the Normans or not, the commoner's independence decreased in both Norman and Gaelic controlled areas. Where once they could serve more than one lord or even transfer from one lord to another, they were now unfree tenants bound to the land.

The Normans also instigated the widespread building of castles by aristocrats, a key component of the feudal system they brought to Ireland, and round towers. From 1169 until the mid-fourteenth century, castles were mostly associated with Norman lordships and formed the basis of new settlements. Not until after 1205, during the reign of king John, was a royal castle built in Ireland.

De Courcy who had conquered Ulaid instigated a large-scale program of ecclesiastic patronage from 1179. This included the building of new abbeys and priories. He formally reburied in Downpatrick the recently "found" bodies of three prominent Irish saints, Patrick, Brigit and Columba, as well as commissioned as a "Life of Patrick".

Whilst some Irish kings had charters recording transactions to monastic foundations prior to the arrival of the Normans, charters for all land transactions would become commonplace.

Whilst elements of English Common Law had been used by some of the colonists, a charter drawn up by John in 1210 introduced the principle of it being applied to Ireland.

Inter-Norman feuding and Irish alliances

The Normans in Ireland in the years after their arrival developed competing rivalries amongst themselves in the desire for land, resulting in the manipulation of the "factious Gaelic political system". This saw them back Gaelic lords competing with those allied to their rivals. Despite a king in this time being notionally seen as symbol of justice and arbiter, Henry II seems to have unofficially adopted a system of promoting inter-Norman rivalry, possibly as a means to rein in the power of his subordinates in Ireland so they posed him no threat whilst he was occupied with continental European affairs. This was exemplified in 1172 by Henry II's granting of the Irish kingdom of Meath to Hugh I de Lacy to counterbalance Strongbow's domain in Leinster. De Lacy however had to seize it for himself, though his grant was not recognised by Tiernan O'Rourke, king of Breifne, and after stalled negotiations which saw an attempt to kill de Lacy, O'Rourke was killed.

During Lord John's revolt against his brother Richard I between 1193 and 1194, the Normans in Ireland were divided in their allegiance. De Courcy, Walter de Lacy, Lord of Meath, along with Cathal Crobderg O'Connor, King of Connacht, who remained loyal to the English king, joined forces against William de Burgh. Despite de Courcy and Hugh II de Lacy of Meath combining to invade Connacht on behalf of O'Connor in 1200, de Courcy and de Lacy would become enemies and after several battles saw de Lacy granted de Courcy's possessions in Ulster. De Courcy rebelled and took refuge in the Irish kingdom of Tyrone. In 1196, de Courcy and Niall MacMahon of Oriel attacked English Uriel. A year later Irishmen assisted de Courcy in wasting the north-west after his brother had been killed by an Irishman in his company.

Terminology

In contemporary or near-contemporary sources, the invaders are overwhelmingly described as English. This was merely because they were vassals of the king of England, and not because they were culturally Anglo-Saxon. Expugnatio Hibernica almost always describes them as English; so too does The Song of Dermot and the Earl, a source which uses the term "English" about eighty times, whilst using " French", " Flemings", and " Normans" in only one particular line. Despite the modern employment of terms such as "Normans", "Anglo-Normans" (itself an eighteenth-century construct), and "Cambro-Normans", contemporary sources virtually never use "Norman" in an Irish context. Irish sources usually describe the men as "foreigners" and "grey foreigners", or else as Saxain ("Saxons" or "English"). In consequence, it is apparent that contemporaries regarded the incomers as English, regardless of their actual mother tongue, ethnicity or geographic origin. In the nineteenth century, however, during a period of intense and sensitive political debate, the term was dropped by historians and replaced with ahistorical terms. In modern historiography on Irish history, historians differ in describing the Anglo-Norman invasion as being carried out by "Normans" or the "English".

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